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FARROW'S MANUAL 

OF 

MILITARY 
TRAINING 

BY 

EDWARD S. FARROW 

LATE ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR OP TACTICS, AT THE UNITED 
3TATES MILITARY ACADEMY, WEST POINT, NEW YORK 



Author of Farrow's Military Encyclopedia, American Small Arms 
Farrow's Dictionary of Military Terms, etc. 



"What is obvious is not always known, 
what is known is not always present." 

— Johnson 



NEW YORK 

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN PUBLISHING CO. 

MUNN & CO. 

1920 



.F3 



VI 



Copyright, 1919 

BY 

Scientif c American Publishing Co. 



All Rights Reserved 



SEP 25 1919 



Printed in the 
United States of America 



QCLA585014 



PREFACE 



IN the preparation of this work I have closely keyed it to the 
latest developments in the art and science of war and have 
treated in detail all matters of military information of value to 
the personnel of our American Army. Military training, general 
and tactical organization of the land forces, schools covering from 
the grenadier to the regiment, ceremonies and courtesies, marches 
and march discipline, camps and sheltering of troops, interior 
guard duty and military police, the service of the interior and 
theater of operations, field maneuvers, basic principles of combat 
tactics, arms and ammunition, ordnance equipment, conduct of 
fire and fire for effect, gunnery and explosives, topographical 
reconnaissance, military information and service of security, army 
signaling and radio-telegraphy, transport and convoys by land 
and water, pack and motor transportation, bridges and crossing 
of rivers, field fortification and demolitions, map reading and 
military sketching, military jurisdiction and the laws of war, land 
warfare and treatment of enemy property, military gymnastics, 
personal hygiene and military surgical treatment, the army ration 
and feeding of armies, the construction and critique of fire prob- 
lems, riots and riot duty, liaison and trench warfare are treated in 
the simplest and most effulgent manner. 

I have endeavored to cover the whole field of military knowl- 
edge and action in the great final war, marking the passage from 
the Fourth to the Fifth (and last) of the World's Great Empires. 
I have recorded recognized rules and methods of instruction, 
and acknowledge with sincere thanks assistance of government 
officials and the use of the libraries of the War Department, War 
College and Army Service Schools. 

Edward S. Farrow. 

New York City, August 1, 1919. 



ft 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Military Training, the Right of Seniority and 

Discipline 9 

II. General and Tactical Organization of the Land 

Forces of the United States 2i 

III. The School of the Grenadier, Squad, Platoon, Com- 

pany, Battalion and Regiment 33 

IV. Ceremonies, Inspections, Honors and Courtesies 108 

V. Marches and March Discipline in Peace and in 

Campaign 146 

VI. Camps, Cantonments, Camp Sanitation and the 

Sheltering of Troops 164 

VII. Interior Guard Duty, Guards and Military Police. . 183 

VIII. The Service of the Interior and the Theater of 

Operations 218 

IX. Field Maneuvers and the Military Operations of 

the Combined Arms 236 

X. Basic Principles of Combat Tactics as Applied to 

Infantry and to Special Units 252 

XL Offensive and Defensive Combat and the Infantry 

Attack of a Position 277 



5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XII. Small Arms, Field Artillery and Ammunition 296 

XIII. Small Arms Firing, Combat Practice and Training 

With the Rifle 320 

XIV. The Care and Preservation of Ordnance Equipment, 

Small Arms, Ammunition and Explosives 371 

XV. The Conduct of Fire, Fire for Effect, Field Artillery 

and Machine Guns 392 

XVI. Gunnery and Explosives, the Accuracy of Fire and 

Causes Affecting it 431 

XVII. Topographical Reconnaissance and Production of 

Maps for Military Needs 457 

XVIII. Military Information, Reconnaissance and the Ser- 
vice of Security 497 

XIX. Army Signaling, Codes, Radio-Telegraphy and Trans- 
mission of Military Information 519 

XX. Transport, Embarkation, Debarkation and Convoys 

by Land and Water 569 

XXI. . Wheel, Pack and Motor Transportation and Trans- 
port Equipment 593 

XXII. Bridges, Pontoons, Methods of Construction and 

the Crossing of Rivers 621 

"XXIII. Field Fortification, General Construction, Mining 

and Demolitions 646 

XXIV. Map Reading, Orientation, Conventional Signs and 

Military Sketching 688 

i 

XXV. Military Jurisdiction, Courts Martial and the Laws 

of War 705 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

^ CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Land Warfare, Conduct of Hostilities and Treat- 
ment of Enemy Property 746 

XXVII. Military Gymnastics and Physical Training in the 

Military Service 803 

XXVIII. Manual of the Bayonet, Combined Movements and 

Bayonet Combat 840 

XXIX. The Army Ration, Its Issue and Substitutive Equiva- 
lent Articles 858 

XXX. Orders, Letters of Instruction and Official Cor- 
respondence 871 

XXXI. Personal Hygiene, First Aid and Military Surgical 

Treatment 885 

XXXII. The Construction, Solution and Critique of a Fire 

Problem With Ball Ammunition 907 

XXXIII. Trench Warfare, Trench Raids and the Service of 

the Trenches 92 1 

XXXIV. Liaison, or Maintenance of Communication Between 

Units, and Signalling 955 



Appendix 1 — Important Definitions of Military Terms Appear- 
ing in the Text 972 

Appendix 2 — Gas Tactics and Its Use in Attack 1009 

Appendix 3 — Railway Artillery 1013 

Appendix 4 — Sound and Flash Ranging 1015 

Index 1019 



CHAPTER I 

MILITARY TRAINING, THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY 
AND DISCIPLINE 

Today we put a girdle of thought around the earth in the 
twinkling of an eye, and in war as in peace, there are changed 
methods of intelligent communication. Chemistry and the me- 
chanical arts have given us aircraft in varying forms, the search- 
light, the heliograph, the acetylene light, pyrotechnics and many 
other useful devices. Every branch of science is playing its part, 
and the fighting world no longer moves only on the surface of 
land and water. 

Under the conditions of today success in war can be 
achieved only by all branches and arms of the service mutually 
helping and supporting one another in the common effort to at- 
tain the desired end. 

The basic principles of the combat tactics of the different 
arms are set forth in the drill regulations of those arms for units 
as high as brigades. It is the function of higher troop leading 
to so combine and coordinate the combat tactics of all the arms 
as to develop in the combined forces the teamwork essential to 
success. 

While the fundamental principles of war are neither very 
numerous nor complex, their application may be difficult and must 
not be limited by set rules. Departure from prescribed methods 
is at times necessary. A thorough knowledge of the principles of 
war and their application enables the leader to decide when such 
departure should be made and to determine what methods should 
bring success. 

Officers and men of all ranks and grades are given a certain 
independence in the execution of the tasks to which they are as- 
signed and are expected to show initiative in meeting the differ- 
ent situations as they arise. Every individual, from the highest 
commander to the lowest private, must always remember that in- 
action and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe cen- 
sure than an error in the choice of the means. 



10 MILITARY TRAINING 

THE COMMANDING OFFICER 

The action of the commanding officer has a decisive influ- 
ence on the morale of the command. He should be well trained, 
be an example to his men, and really " command " them. 

Instruction. — The lack of knowledge in one who should 
create confidence among the men is a misfortune, for it causes 
timidity. The commanding officer " who knows his business " de- 
mands only useful efforts from his men; he does not use them 
prematurely or expose them to useless loss in battle. 

The 1 example. — Any organization is the reflection of its 
commanding officer. It is the most severe judge of him; it pays 
attention to his lightest word and observes all his actions. It 
only asks to be able to admire him and to follow him blindly. 
The best reward of a commanding officer is the fine behavior 
of his command under fire. 

To command. — The commanding officer leads his organiza- 
tion because he knows how to be the most ardent man in it; but he 
is also its master, because he always knows how to keep cool 
and to use good judgment. Nothing should be hidden from him 
and the command should give him its entire confidence. To com- 
mand does not consist in merely giving orders. To command 
is to give an order and to see that it is executed. It also consists in 
being constantly on the alert; in originating orders if none are 
received, or in taking the initiative; in giving the necessary in- 
structions at the proper time; and in keeping his inferiors con- 
stantly informed of existing conditions. 

The authority of a commanding officer makes itself apparent 
first of all by the discipline of his command — execution of orders, 
bearing, outward signs of respect, cleanliness, good condition of 
arms, and correctness at drill. 

In battle a disciplined command fights well, but undisciplined 
troops escape from their chiefs, throw away their arms, surrender, 
or run away. 

Influence. — A commanding officer should impress himself on 
his command by his superior qualities. There is no single type of 
commander which young officers can take as a model, but each 
one should reflect and try to determine what natural or acquired 
qualities give to the best commanders of his acquaintance their 
influence over their commands. An officer recently promoted 
should not be content with thinking that he has been made a 
commander simply to secure obedience under ordinarily daily 
circumstances. That would only indicate that his rank is re- 
spected. He should not be satisfied until he has patiently gained 
the confidence and the heart of his men; until he is certain that 



THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 11 

they have given themselves absolutely to him, and that they will 
obey him even to the death. 

A young commander should remember that in critical times 
the authority that emanates solely from his own personality will 
always be far more efficacious than that which comes from the 
regulations. 

Moral qualities. — A commander raises himself in the esteem 
of his men above all by the qualities of his character, and 
rightly so, for energy, initiative, will power, perseverance, 
precision, judgment, self-control, sense of duty, and self-denial 
are qualities without which the finest gifts of intelligence remain 
of no value. 

Among the qualities of mind, a general and extended military 
education is not produced in the course of a campaign; but every 
officer can and should possess himself of a thorough knowledge 
of everything that concerns his duties. If he has precise knowl- 
edge, he has confidence in himself, proper decisions will come 
readily to his mind, he will express himself calmly and without 
hesitation, and he will command the attention of the men; on 
the contrary, inappropriate or contradictory orders, given in an 
uncertain or nervous manner, inspire doubt as to their efficiency. 

A commander is loved by his soldiers when he has a sense 
of justice, an absolute uprightness, is concerned with their well- 
being and pays personal attention to it. The soldier submits 
readily to all severities for which there is a reason, and, in 
his heart, he gives to excessive indulgence and weakness the 
consideration which they deserve. Justice does not consist in 
treating all men exactly alike, but in exacting from each the 
full exercise of his faculties and powers, and in rewarding 
meritorious actions in accordance with the efforts which they 
have cost. 

The habitual attitude of the officer is also of importance; 
lack of dignity in bearing and language, vulgarity, and famil- 
iarity are never proper for an officer; everyone can be correct, 
simple, and dignified without holding his inferiors at a distance, 
and without preventing good humor and gayety, which, like hope 
and absolute faith in victory, are so readily and so happily im- 
parted to others. 

During bad days, when the men are discouraged, the officers 
and non-commissioned officers form the foundation on which the 
spirit of the company is rebuilt; they remember that "no matter 
what comes, one must never despair"; that there is no good 
reason why the enemy is not as badly decimated and depressed 
as our own troops; that in war, Dame Fortune has astonishing 
rewards for those who do not give up; and that complete victory 



12 MILITARY TRAINING 

belongs to him who is able to hold out a quarter of an hour longer 
than the other. 

The spirit of precision. — In addition to those moral qualities 
necessary at all times, it is important that the officer go deeply 
into the new requirements of war, which, at the present time, de- 
pend so largely on scientific qualities. 

Today every attack, every stubborn resistance, risks failure 
if the force engaged has not prepared its ground, its materiel, 
and its personnel with a minuteness superior to that of the enemy. 
In this preparation, where every detail is important, the least 
neglect must be paid for in the end. 

The non-commissioned officers and the chief of platoon of 
infantry should realize that no matter how brave they are per- 
sonally, their task will not be accomplished if they do not con- 
stantly apply themselves to the details which no other officer can 
attend to for them. Order, method, mechanical precision, and 
horror of the terms "almost" and "unfinished" have become es- 
sential qualities, the absence of which will surely expose a com- 
mander to the most serious disappointments. 

Orders received and the initiative. — Command is exercised in 
accordance with the following principle: The superior deter- 
mines the object to be attained, indicates his intentions, and 
defines the tasks to be executed by the subordinate elements; 
he leaves to the latter the choice of means for their execution. 
Officers and non-commissioned officers should make good use of 
that initiative in choosing the best means leading to the desired 
end. 

Initiative does not consist, as is sometimes thought, in the 
right to modify an order that has been received, when it is thought 
that the result obtained will be better; such action is disobedience. 

However, a non-commissioned officer should act on his own 
initiative: 

First. To complete and develop an order when intentionally 
or otherwise the commander who has given it to him is silent on 
certain measures of detail which it is intended to be left to his 
judgment. 

Second. When, for any reason, an order is not received and 
a decision is necessary. In this case he must give an order and 
report his action. He may be mistaken as to the urgency of the 
case, but the commander will always consider that " the only 
faults which merit reproach are those of inaction and fear of re- 
sponsibility." 

Finally, in very exceptional cases, for example, when the 
situation is entirely changed between the time when an order 
was issued and the time it was received, initiative may lead one 
to act in an entirely or partly different way from that ordered; 



THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE U 

it is necessary then to be absolutely certain that " in disobeying 
the text of the order the intention of the commander is carried 
out," and a report of the action taken must be made without 
delay. 

In all other cases discipline demands that orders be obeyed 
promptly to the smallest details which the commander has thought 
necessary to mention. Initiative is only exercised in regard to 
those details which have not been mentioned, and action on these 
should be in accordance with what is known of the commander's 
intentions and manner of thought. 

Orders given. — The principal quality of an order is clearness. 
In war, misunderstanding is a more dangerous enemy than lack 
of discipline; more frequently than otherwise it destroys the strict 
execution of orders. 

A subaltern officer often has the advantage of being able to 
explain and comment on the orders which he gives his men; their 
intelligence is thus brought into play, and they are more willing 
to carry out orders of which they understand the necessity. 

But it is also necessary that the command understands that 
this is only done for the best interests of the service. It should 
be none the less ready to execute strictly, without hesitation or 
question, an order given without explanation. That is the very 
basis of discipline, and one can not revert to it too often, even if 
only as an exercise. 

Frequently the orders of a non-commissioned officer are not 
properly obeyed because he gives orders to a lot of men collec- 
tively when only a few are required to do the work; each man 
then looks to his neighbor to carry out the order. The one 
giving the order should always divide the work up and assign 
it by name to the men who are to execute it. It seldom happens 
that a man who has personally received a clear and positive 
order will disobey it, but he will often try to evade an ambigu- 
ous order. Before formulating an order one must be sure that 
it can be carried out and is not capable of evasion; it must say 
exactly what is desired and no more; the system of demanding 
more than is desired in order to be sure to have enough must 
be avoided. Whatever is ordered must be obtained; the difficulty 
is to properly estimate what is reasonable and profitable. 

When a precise and correct order has been given, an immedi- 
ate and severe penalty should follow its non-execution. 

It is not admissable for an officer or a non-commissioned 
officer to fail to pay attention to a flagrant fault that he sees com- 
mitted, under the pretext that the guilty person is not under 
his direct orders. This frequently happens, either through in- 
dolence or through fear of wounding the sensibilities of the com- 
mander of the man at fault. A non-commissioned officer is the 



14 MILITARY TRAINING 

superior of all persons in the military service who are of inferior 
rank. He should realize his authority and not make himself an 
accomplice of a man who misconducts himself in his presence. He 
should intervene tactfully and firmly and insist that the orders and 
regulations be carried out at all times and in all places. All slack- 
ness in camp and in the trenches arises from the failure to observe 
this principle. 

In the company the non-commissioned officers should be the 
mainstays of their squads or sections, and they should never 
refuse advice to a man who asks it, or a solution of a difficulty 
which he brings before them. An excellent means of having 
little to repress in the interior management of the company is 
to lay down the principle that a man is never at fault when he 
is covered by the previous approval of a non-commissioned officer, 
but that he is always to blame when he has not referred to him 
if he has any doubt as to what he should do. On the other 
hand, a non-commissioned officer will be considered as unfit to 
command if he avoids accepting his responsibility of giving a 
direct reply. 

Therefore, officers ana non-commissioned officers should 
never forget that they hold a part of the principle of authority, 
and that it has been confided to them with the understanding that 
they will not allow it to suffer under any circumstances. 

Relations of officers among themselves. — Officers of the same 
company mess together; meal hours are hours of relaxation dur- 
ing which it is proper that they become sociable, but whatever 
the familiarity that exists then, the deference due to experience, 
age, and rank must never be forgotten. 

The respect shown by the lieutenant to his captain, his atten- 
tion and punctuality in observing all his instructions, will be 
quickly observed by the command and will teach it obedience and 
military experience by the best method — example. 

THE DIFFERENT GRADES IN THE COMPANY 

The company is the organization which appeals most to the 
soldier. It is the largest unit in which all the grades and men 
can be personally acquainted. It is the smallest one that can be 
charged with elementary tactical operation. 

It has its own number, and its customs; it differs from its 
neighboring company. Also the captain is the real commander 
of his men; he is the confidant of their troubles as well as the 
compulsory intermediary of their requests. Nothing that concerns 
them is done without his advice. He has, in a way, a universal 
role. He is responsible for every one in the company, and conse- 
quently has entire charge of all his subordinates. 



THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 15 

The chief of platoon. — The chief of platoon is purely a mili- 
tary chief; he is the head of the strongest unit that can be 
controlled by the voice and kept in view when deployed. The 
platoon is the elementary group in battle; it engages, fires, and 
fights as a unit; it always acts as if its power was concentrated 
under a single head — that of the chief of platoon. The role of the 
latter is therefore most important. 

Having under his orders only 50 men whom he never leaves, 
the chief of platoon is the only officer who can know in detail the 
character and aptitude of each one, and he is best qualified 
to judge of their daily morale and of the tactical situation, which 
he should always keep in mind (security, liaisons, observation,, 
damage done to the enemy, etc.). On account of his other 
duties, he should require that the non-commissioned officers give 
him full support so that he may maintain his moral and tactical role. 

The sergeant commanding a half platoon. — The sergeant is, 
in practice, the first non-commissioned officer who has considerable 
authority, and, besides, he commands a sufficiently small number 
of men so that he can remember or note all the details concern- 
ing them — clothing, equipment, armament, supplies, etc. This is 
his role. His many duties can be expressed in the following 
words: To do whatever is necessary in order that the personnel 
and materiel of his half platoon shall always be present and in 
good condition. In a well-disciplined half platoon the officers need 
only make several daily inspections and do not have to do the 
work of the sergeant. 

In battle the sergeant commanding a section has an import- 
ant role, that of file closer. His superiors must speak to him often; 
tell him that fear is contagious; that the safety of the country 
requires that any weakness or the beginning of any confusion 
must be immediately suppressed; that to hesitate to kill a coward 
is perhaps to preserve 20 enemies or to cause the death of 20 
comrades. 

In advance the sergeant does not put himself in the firing 
line, but sees that all the others are there. 

In order that he may perform his duties in the most energetic 
manner it is necessary to give him much greater authority in the 
field than in peace time. 

The corporal. — The corporal lives intimately with his men; 
he is their mess chief and justice of the peace. 

The best corporal is the one who always has hot soup and 
food for his squad under all circumstances. The sergeant should 
not delegate to him any part of the permanent responsibilities 
which he should assume himself. The proper employment of a 
corporal consists in confiding to him the execution of successive 
and well-outlined tasks. From the grade of corporal those men 
2 



16 MILITARY TRAINING 

who have shown the best qualifications for command are chosen as 
sergeants. 

SENIORITY— RIGHT OF COMMAND 

It is important that the relative seniority of the sergeants, 
corporals, and first-class privates be always definitely fixed, so 
that, if the case arises, there will never be any hesitation on the 
part of the one who should automatically take command and 
become responsible. The lists of seniority by rank should be made 
up, and the newly arrived informed. 

The rule is that when two or more military persons assemble 
for service there is always one who is in command, the highest 
in rank, or if of equal grade the one of longest service; the lieuten- 
ant will thus establish the order of rank among the men of his 
platoon-. J 

( But in battle, when the lower non-commissioned officers have 

disappeared, it is necejf&ry ' to take from the ranks the bravest 
private, and one vho is not necessarily the senior. He leads the 
vothers; h<t is the commander. 

ft It is necessary to impress this on the command; if the rules 

of seniority are correct in ordinary life, during battle they cease 
to exist among soldiers. 

In the same grade, officers with permanent rank take com- 
mand over those with temporary rank. 

Between officers of the active army and officers of the 
new complement, of the same grade, seniority is established as 
follows: 

Both count as active service, as regards their right to com- 
mand, the time they have actually served with the colors in their 
present grade since the date of mobilization; those who have pre- 
viously served in the active army with their present rank are 
credited with the seniority they had in that grade at the time they 
left the army. 

In the same grade and with the same date of seniority, 
officers of the active army take command over officers of the new 
complement. Seniority between sergeants and corporals of the 
active army is fixed in the same manner. 

Exception to the rule of seniority. — The authority which 
orders the formation of a detachment can designate its com- 
mander, provided that no one in the military service is placed under 
the orders of a person of inferior rank. t 

" Command," properly speaking (command of a detachment, 
encampment, etc.), never belongs to officers who are of a corps 
or personnel which has a " hierarchy " of its own, even though such 



THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 17 

officers have assimilated rank (that is, medical officers, officers of 
administration, subintendants, etc.). 

However, these officers have certain powers resulting from 
their special regulations, for example, a surgeon in his infirmary 
or in his dressing station. 

Study, drill, and practical application form the bases of 
training. By study, knowledge of principles and methods is 
acquired; by drill, skill in the mechanism of methods and in the 
performance of habitual duties is gained. It is by practical applica- 
tion that officers and men learn to adapt to actual cases the knowl- 
edge and skill they have acquired. Facility in so doing is of the ut- 
most importance, since on service a great variety of practical prob- 
lems present themselves, each of which must be solved on the basis 
of its own particular requirements. Hence, as soon as proficiency in 
elementary methods is attained, the applicatory system will be 
employed, commencing with simple problems and gradually widen- 
ing the scope so as to introduce the greatest possible variety of 
conditions. To this end all tactical exercises, whether theoretical 
or practical, whether with or without troops, will be based upon 
an assumed situation. In all exercises in the field a concrete case 
will be stated, calling for the actual employment of the organiza- 
tion concerned, and the organization is then employed to meet the 
requirements of this case. The strength and character of the oppo- 
sition to be expected, the nature of the terrain, the obstacles to be 
overcome being known or developed as the solution proceeds, the 
opportunity is afforded not only of applying appropriate general 
principles and tactical methods, but also of putting to practical use 
many minor phases of instruction which had previously been the 
subject of drill-ground training. Thus, the service of security and 
information, signaling, field fortifications, pioneer work, the pas- 
sage of obstacles may all be incidents of the operation involved, 
and, being natural incidents, the purpose of the previous drill and 
instruction becomes apparent, as well as the difficulties liable to 
arise under the varied conditions of service. The more nearly the 
conditions of service are simulated and the greater the variety of 
the incidents introduced, the more instructive will these exercises 
be. Such exercises may be conducted at first as map problems or 
terrain exercises for the training of officers and selected enlisted 
men. 

Study, drill, and practical illustration follow a generally 
progressive order as indicated below; but instructions of the three 
kinds should be in a measure concurrent, to the end that the 
reasons for instruction, the purposes to be attained, and the con- 
ditions under which the duties will have to be performed may be 
continually kept in mind. 

The prime immediate need of our magnificent Army is cor- 



18 MILITARY TRAINING 

rect tactical training of officers and non-commissioned officers in 
handling commands appropriate to their rank. In this training the 
study of strategic combinations on a large scale should be avoided, 
except in so far as such study may bear upon the solution of the 
problems under consideration, and all such study should be inci- 
dent to, and form the basis for, the tactical training of officers and 
their commands. 

In order that study and training may be properly directed 
and that a unified doctrine of tactics may be taught the entire 
service, all tactical instruction of the mobile army is conducted in 
accordance with the principles taught at the Service Schools and 
the Army War College, as set forth in the books employed and as 
illustrated in the approved solutions at those institutions. 

GARRISON TRAINING 

Garrison training is devoted especially to theoretical and 
practical instruction in the various garrison schools, and to drill 
and practical instruction preparatory to field training. 

War Department orders prescribing regulations to govern 
post and garrison schools lay down specifically the course to be 
followed in the more elementary schools for officers and enlisted 
men. Brigade commanders devote special attention to the post- 
graduate scheme of instruction, which runs through the entire 
period of garrison training. The postgraduate course of instruction 
includes such map problems, terrain exercises, tactical or staff 
walks or rides, or other work pertaining to the local terrain as 
brigade commanders may prescribe; this portion of the course may 
he made to amplify the work of the elementary schools for officers 
and enlisted men, as well as the drill and practical instruction 
preparatory to field training. 

t: : . Drill and practical instruction preparatory to field training 

embraces specially: Drill of the company, battery, and troop and 
all of the units thereof, mounted and dismounted; the preliminary 
training for fire action and firing exercises on a represented or 
actual terrain with targets represented to scale or actually desig- 
nated, thus giving opportunity to train the personnel both in the 
mechanisms of fire and in appropriate methods of directing, con- 
trolling and adjusting fire; the rudiments of the service of security 
and information, including the preparation and transmission of 
orders and messages; map making and map reading for officers, 
non-commissioned officers, and selected privates; exercises in leav- 
ing the post with a part or all of the command equipped for pro- 
longed service in the field; bayonet combat; swordmanship, 
mounted and dismounted; visual signaling; gymnastics, athletics, 



THE RIGHT OF SENIORITY AND DISCIPLINE 19 

and swimming, including swimming with arms and equipment 
under proper precautions as to safety; equitation, horse training, 
and packing; tent pitching; guard duty and ceremonies; first aid 
and the hygienic care of the person; care of equipment of all 
descriptions. 

FIELD TRAINING 

Field training, in its technical meaning, comprises the tactical 
or war training of units to fit them for the field against an enemy. 

(1) In order to secure the best results possible, officers must 
be systematic in their instruction and be quite clear in their own 
minds as to the lessons they wish each day to teach. The daily 
detail of instruction should, therefore, be carefully thought out 
beforehand, and consideration given as to how the time is to be 
allotted. Subalterns and non-commissioned officers should be 
informed of the next day's program of work so that the proper 
manuals may be studied and other necessary preparations made in 
advance. 

(2) Practical work in the field should be varied with short 
talks by the company commander or other instructor, the men in 
the meanwhile being allowed to rest on the ground, every effort 
being made to interest them and to keep their minds on the 
instruction in hand. Non-commissioned officers should, as far as 
possible, receive special training in troop leading and command in 
the field. 

(3) Men must be made to understand the object and mean- 
ing of the exercise about to be practiced, and their individual intel- 
ligence and self-reliance fostered, so that in the absence of a leader, 
action will not be paralyzed. 

(4) To lend reality to field training, each exercise should be 
based on a simple tactical idea, which should be thought out before- 
hand and explained to all taking part before commencing the 
exercise. 

(5) In the solution of tactical exercises, interest is greatly 
stimulated if the enemy is at least outlined. 

DISCIPLINE 

In new regiments, discipline will be best taught and more 
easily attained on the part of both the official and enlisted person- 
nel by the inculcation of a patriotic determination on the part of 
every one to make the most of the training given and to give un- 
questioning and cheerful obedience to all orders and instructions 
emanating from above. 



20 MILITARY TRAINING 

The meaning of discipline in its highest and most important 
sense should be explained and taught early in the soldier's career, 
as first impressions are generally lasting ones. This can best be 
done in the form of talks and lectures by the higher officers of 
the regiment, and especially by the colonel who, in the eyes of the 
soldier, is the embodiment of military knowledge and virtue. 

The dogma, that military discipline can only be sustained 
by the aid of severe and unpitying punishment, is far removed 
from the idea here suggested. That unpitying military discipline 
seems to have prompted Peter the Great, when he sacrificed a 
young officer, who triumphantly fought the Swedes without 
orders. Thus also thought Frederic the Great, when he executed 
the unfortunate Zietten, who violated an order by keeping a light 
a little too long in his tent. But such harsh principles are no 
longer inculcated in the best governed armies. Passive discipline 
is the fusion of individual interest in national interest. The first 
military virtue is esprit de corps, with fidelity to the oath taken 
upon assuming the military character. These duties exact obedi- 
ence to the laws, and to the lawful orders of the President of the 
United States, and officers set over us according to law. These 
laws should command obedience from all inferiors, and distinctly 
define the extent of all authority. They ought to bind the Presi- 
dent or commander-in-chief as well as the simple soldier. Rights 
and Duties must be reciprocal, and be alike established by law. 

Discipline is sometimes used as meaning "system of instruc- 
tion," but its signification is much broader. Its technical military 
sense includes not only the means provided for exercise and in- 
struction, but subjection to all laws framed for the government 
and regulation of the army. The good or bad discipline of an 
army depends primarily upon the laws established for its creation, 
as well as its government and regulation. 



CHAPTER II 

GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION OF 
THE LAND FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES 

The land forces of the United States consist of the regular 
army, the organized land militia when called into the service of 
the United States, and such volunteer forces as Congress may 
authorize. 

In peace the Army of the United States consists, ordinarily, 
of the regular army; but whenever the United States is invaded or 
in danger of invasion from any foreign nation, or of rebellion 
against the authority of the Government of the United States, or 
the President is unable with the regular forces at his command to 
execute the laws of the Union, he may call into the military service 
of the United States all or any part of the militia organized as a 
land force. 

In war, or when war is imminent, the Army of the United 
States, after the whole or part of the organized land militia has 
been called into service, may be further augmented by the employ- 
ment of volunteers. When the raising of a volunteer force has 
been authorized by Congress, and after the organized land militia 
of any arm or class has been called into the military service of the 
United States, volunteers of that particular arm or class may be 
raised and accepted into said service regardless of the extent to 
which other arms or classes of militia may have been called into 
service. 

The land forces are grouped under two general heads — the 
Mobile Army and Coast Artillery. The mobile army is primarily 
organized for offensive operations against an enemy, and on this 
account requires the maximum degree of mobility. The basis of 
organization for the mobile army is the division. A division is a 
self-contained unit made up of all necessary arms and services, 
and complete in itself with every requirement for independent 
action incident to its ordinary operations. When several divisions 
are acting together they may be grouped into field armies. To 
the field army there are attached certain organizations of an 
auxiliary character, called field army troops. 

When the number of field army troops attached to a field 
army make it necessary, they are organized into a separate brigade 



22 MILITARY TRAINING 

for purposes of supply and administration, and a commander is 
designated and the necessary staff is assigned to him. Infantry, 
cavalry, or military police may be attached to this separate brigade 
for defensive purposes on the march. The number of troops so 
assigned depends on the condition of the service and the number 
of field army troops in the brigade. Troops for the protection of 
field army troops are preferably furnished from troops assigned 
to the line of communications. 

If the conditions of the particular service require it, divisions 
operating independently may be furnished with the necessary field 
army troops. A brigade operating independently, when so desig- 
nated by competent authority, is known as a separate brigade, and 
when so operating may be supplied with the necessary special and 
field army troops. When several field armies are operating in the 
same theater of war and if conditions so require it, they may be 
organized into armies. 

The coast artillery is charged with the care and use of the 
fixed and movable elements of land and coast fortifications, includ- 
ing submarine mine and torpedo defense. The military prepara- 
tions for the defense of a coast line include: (1) The construction 
of permanent fortifications and the provision of submarine de- 
fenses for defense against naval attack. Such defenses are manned 
and operated by coast artillery troops. (2) The construction of 
semi-permanent fortifications and field works for the protection of 
the permanent fortifications against capture by small raiding par- 
ties landing from ships, or, in the case of an island, in boats from 
the adjacent shore. Troops assigned to this duty are known as 
coast artillery supports. They may be troops of the coast artillery 
or troops of the mobile army. (3) Divisions and field armies con- 
centrated and held at strategic centers of value with reference to 
the coast line. 

By a recent Act of Congress the United States Army is 
divided into three classes — the Regular Army, the National Guard 
and the National Army (drafted). The President of the United 
States is the commander-in-chief, the functions being delegated to 
the Secretary of War, who is assisted by the chief of the genera! 
staff. In case of war, the command of armies in the field is given 
to a general, assisted by one or more lieutenant generals. In 
time of peace, the National Guard units are under the orders of 
the Governors of their respective States, although under the con- 
trol of the Federal War Department in so far as instruction is 
concerned. 

THE ARMY CORPS 

An army corps consists of the general headquarters, the 
troops, and the administrative departments. The headquarters 



GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 23 

includes the general officer commanding the corps, staff, an 
artillery staff, an engineer staff, and the commanders or heads 
of the various administrative departments (supply, sanitary, 
veterinary, pay, post office, provost, and judge advocate). The 
troops include the infantry divisions, the corps artillery (which 
includes trench artillery, light artillery, and heavy artillery), the 
corps cavalry (a regiment), some companies of corps engineers, 
an aero squadron, and a balloon company. 

The administrative departments are those of the following 
organizations and services: The artillery park, including the 
artillery and the infantry ammunition trains; the engineer train, 
including the corps engineer park, the searchlight section, and 
the bridge train; the military telegraph unit; the supply train (in- 
cluding the motor transport company for the supply of fresh meat 
and the herd of live animals); the sanitary train (one group of 
corps litter bearers, two sections of motor ambulances, and four 
ambulances); the pay department; the post office department; the 
military police; the department of military justice; and the veteri- 
nary service and remount depot. 

THE INFANTRY DIVISION 

An infantry division also consists of the headquarters, the 
troops, and the administrative departments. 

The headquarters includes the general officer commanding 
the division, his staff, the general commanding the infantry, the 
artillery commander, the commander of the engineers of the divi- 
sion, and the chiefs of the administrative departments, viz., supply, 
sanitary (one group of divisional litter bearers and two ambu- 
lances), pay and post office, military police, and military justice 
(court-martial of the division). The troops are: Three regiments 
of infantry or two brigades of two regiments each, the divisional 
artillery (including one regiment of light artillery, heavy artillery, 
and trench artillery), the divisional cavalry and some companies 
of divisional engineers. The division has a motor department 
(where bicycles also are repaired); a divisional artillery park, 
including a department for repairing machine guns; a telegraph 
unit; a supply train; a department for the supply of fresh meat 
and a park of beef on the hoof. It also includes the depot of the 
division, which has one infantry company for each battalion in 
the division. These are the fourth companies of these battalions, 
which remain behind with their officers, non-commissioned officers, 
men, and vehicles, but which continue to form part of their organ- 
izations, from which they are regarded as detached. The command 
of the group of companies pertaining to each organization is ordi- 
narily exercised by the senior captain present. 



24 MILITARY 'IR.ILXING 

THE INFANTRY BRIGADE 

The infantry brigade is not an administrative unit. It in- 
cludes a general officer commanding the brigade, a military staff, 
and two regiments of infantry. It does not exist in a division of 
three regiments. 

THE INFANTRY REGIMENT 

The infantry regiment includes the regimental staff, one 
headquarters company, three battalions (normal organization), one 
platoon of 37-mm. (1.5-inch) guns (one gun for each battalion) 
attached for rations only to the first machine-gun company, the 
combat trains, and the field train. 

The regimental staff. — The regimental staff includes the 
colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel or 1 major (assisting the colonel), 
1 captain (adjutant), 1 telephone officer, 1 lieutenant commanding 
the platoon of sappers and grenadiers, 1 color bearer, 1 utility 
officer (who commands the combat trains when they are as- 
sembled), 1 supply officer (who commands the field train of the 
regiment), 1 regimental surgeon (chief of the sanitary service), 1 
chief musician, and 1 information officer (who is detached from 
a company). 

The headquarters company. — The headquarters company in- 
cludes the colonel's clerks and cyclists (one of whom is messenger 
for the regimental surgeon); the assistants of the supply officer, 
including 1 warrant officer; 1 sergeant major, 2 sergeants, 1 ser- 
geant and 5 men (butchers), cyclists, and teamsters; the assistants 
of the quartermaster, including one sergeant major artificer, 1 cor- 
poral clerk, some clerks and teamsters; the assistants of the tele- 
phone officer, including a telephone detachment of 3 sergeants, 
8 corporals, 40 privates (8 stations); a signal detachment of 1 
sergeant, 1 corporal, and 8 signalmen; 1 platoon of sappers and 
grenadiers, viz., 1 non-commissioned officer (commanding the sec- 
tion), trained sappers, including 1 corporal and 12 privates, the 
pioneer detachment, including 2 sergeants, 4 corporals, and 48 
pioneers, the bombing section of 1 sergeant, 3 corporals, and 24 
grenadiers; 1 assistant chief musician, 1 drum major, and 38 musi- 
cians; 1 chief armorer and 3 armorers; 1 veterinarian (for each 
brigade), 1 farrier corporal, 5 farriers and 2 saddlers; 1 litter-bearer 
sergeant; the postmasters (1 postmaster and 1 assistant for each 
battalion); the mounted scouts (2 sergeants, 2 corporals, and 8 
troopers); the non-commissioned officers belonging to the head- 
quarters company; the cooks: laborers; the orderlies of the officers 
of the regimental staff; 1 tailor; 1 shoemaker. 



GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 25 

The sergeant major is a company non-commissioned officer] 
almost the equivalent of the first sergeant in the United States 
Army. 

THE INFANTRY BATTALION 

A battalion consists of a staff, a non-commissioned staff, three i I 
companies, and one machine gun company. The fourth company I 
is usually detached and remains at the depot of the division. 

The staff includes the battalion commander, 1 captain (adju-, J 
tant), and 1 surgeon. 

The non-commissioned staff is rationed with the first com-'l 
pany of the battalion. It includes 1 sergeant (assistant of the bat-J| 
talion commander); I cavalry sergeant (attached); 1 assistant sur- 
geon; 1 artificer sergeant (commanding the combat train of thejii 
battalion); 1 chief bugler (a corporal) ;-l chief litter bearer (a cor- J 
poral) and some litter bearers; 5 signalmen (one of them a cor- I 
poral); 3 cyclists (one of whom is the surgeon's messenger or) 
liaison agent); the drivers of the 3 wagons belonging to the bat-1 
talion (baggage wagon, medical supply wagon, and caisson); and| 
the orderlies of the 3 officers. 

The litter bearers number 16 or 28, depending upon whether!', 
the regiment has or has not a band. 

THE INFANTRY COMPANY 

The company consists of a captain; 3 lieutenants or seconc 
lieutenants; 1 warrant officer (adjutant); 1 first sergeant (sergean 
major); 1 quartermaster sergeant; 8 sergeants; 1 quartermaste 
corporal; 16 corporals; 4 drummers or buglers; 1 soldier of th 
medical corps (in the first company he is a corporal); 1 cyclist; 
tailor; 1 shoemaker; the drivers of the three wagons of the com 
pany; 4 sappers and pioneers; 4 orderlies; 2 signalers; and th< 
soldiers of the company (grenadiers and riflemen), divided into 
platoons. 

MACHINE GUN COMPANY 

Machine gun companies are of two types, either on wheel 
(gun carriages and caissons) or alpine type (all pack mules). 

A company consists of the captain; 2 lieutenants; a sergean 
in charge of a liaison; a non-commissioned officer accountant; 
supply corporal; a range finder; an armorer corporal; a medicz 
corps private; a cook; 3 or 4 firing platoons with their ammuni 
tion; and the company combat train. 



26 MILITARY* TRAINING 

Firing platoon. — Each platoon has a lieutenant or a sergeant 
in command; a non-commissioned assistant to the platoon com- 
mander; 2 corporals, each commanding a machine gun; two gun- 
ners; 2 loaders; 2 assistant loaders; an armorer; and a liaison 
agent. 

Ammunition supply. — Two supply corporals; 4 ammunition 
carriers for each platoon, the carriages or mules for the machine 
guns and ammunition. For a company of 4 platoons there will be 
16 light carriages, 8 for the guns and 8 for the ammunition, or 36 
pack mules. 

Company combat train. — Two corporals, and, theroretically, 
1 caisson or 6 mules for each platoon. But since the adoption of 8 
j automatic rifles per company the combat train of the machine gun 
! company has been reduced to 2 caissons for 3 sections and 3 
: caissons for 4 sections. As soon as every infantry company has 
been supplied with 16 automatic rifles, the machine gun companies 
; will lose another caisson apiece. The caisson holds about 25,000 
i cartridges on rigid strips and a few spare ammunition cases. 

The 37-mm. gun platoon. — This platoon is rationed with 
machine gun company No. 1. It includes 1 lieutenant and 1 liaison 
agent (both mounted on bicycles), and has as many guns as there 
are battalions in the regiment. Each gun has a detachment con- 
sisting of 1 sergeant, 1 corporal, 1 gunner, 1 loader, 2 ammunition 
| carriers, 3 cannoneers (2 with ammunition cart and 1 teamster, 
not mounted). The combat train of one gun or of one platoon of 
two guns is one caisson with 2 mounted drivers; for a platoon of 
three or four guns, 2 caissons and 4 mounted drivers. 

The combat train. — The combat train is commanded by the 
regimental supply officer and includes: 

For the regiment, 2 light tool wagons; 3 wagons of materials 
(telephones, wire, sandbags, and bombs); 6 water wagons; 1 ambu- 
jlance; 1 medical supply wagon (carrying wheel litters and gas 
masks); 2 forges; 2 ration and baggage wagons; 1 kitchen; and 
the led horses. 

For each battalion, 1 medical supply wagon; 1 ration and 
baggage wagon; and 1 four-horse ammunition wagon carrying 
25,000 rounds of small-arms ammunition and 48 haversacks. The 
ammunition wagon of the detached company at the depot of the 
division carries 14,000 rounds of small-arms ammunition and 24 
haversacks. The ammunition transport is doubled when each 
company has 16 automatic rifles. 

For each company, 1 ammunition wagon, 1 ration and bag- 
gage wagon, and 1 rolling kitchen. 

For each machine gun company, some ammunition wagons; 
1 ration and baggage wagon; 1 rolling kitchen; and the ammuni- 
tion wagons belonging to the 37-mm. guns. 



GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 27 

The combat train is generally divided into two echelons: 

The first echelon is commanded by the artificer sergeant 
major, and includes the medical supply wagons, the filled ammuni- 
tion wagons, the wagons of tools and materials, and all the led 
horses. 

The second echelon is commanded by the utility officer, and 
includes the ration and baggage wagons, the water wagons, the 
kitchens, the forge, and the empty ammunition wagons. 

The field train. — The field train is commanded by the supply 
officer and consists of three sections. Two sections of 5 wagons 
each bring up and distribute alternately one day's rations to the 
regiment (each of these sections is commanded by a sergeant). 
One reserve section of 3 wagons is commanded by the sergeant 
major of the field train. The field train also includes 2 forage 
wagons, 2 wagons or 1 three-horse van carrying oats, 3 fresh- 
meat wagons, and 6 led horses. 

MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS OF INFANTRY 
ORGANIZATIONS 

The medical corps detachment of the battalion is ordinarily 
with the battalion medical supply wagon, but when a company is 
detached its quota of the medical corps detachment goes with it. 

The chief litter bearer (corporal) is with the medical supply 
wagon of the battalion. 

Litter bearers are ordinarily with the companies to which 
they belong, but when the battalion goes into action they are 
assembled by the chief litter bearer. 

The drummers and buglers ordinarily act as liaison agents 
of the captain. 

The artificer sergeant (of the battalion) is in charge of the 
ammunition wagons of the battalion so long as they are full. 
When they are emptied and sent to the rear he joins the artificer 
sergeant major (of the regiment) in order to supervise the am- 
munition supply from the ammunition train. 

The mounted orderlies are assembled with their horses, by 
battalion or by regiment, in rear of a designated unit. 

The specialists of the company: In addition to those already 
mentioned, the companies provide the liaisons to the company and 
the battalion commander. Each company sends to the major a 
supply sergeant or supply corporal, and generally also a squad of 
messengers, composed of one corporal and four riflemen. The 
machine gun company sends the sergeant in charge of liaison. 

Pigeon caretakers, when they are necessary, are also detailed 
from the companies. 

Observers and signalers: There are two signalers in each 



28 MILITARY TRAINING 

company. For substitutes they have two observers (riflemen), 
who, like themselves, are trained by the telephone officer. In 
addition, in each company 1 officer, 2 sergeants, the liaison agents, 
and at least 6 substitutes must be able to send and receive the 
Morse code. 

Specialist officers: The company may include in its effective 
strength the grenadier officer of the battalion, the automatic rifle 
officer of the battalion, or the intelligence officer of the regiment. 
The two first-named remain in charge of their platoons. A ser- 
geant is detailed to accompany the battalion commander as intel- 
ligence sergeant. 

Cavalry. — The regular fighting unit of cavalry is the troop, 
which corresponds to the company of infantry, consisting of 3 
officers and 105 men. The squadron, corresponding to the bat- 
talion of infantry, has 4 troops. The regiment of cavalry, con- 
sisting of 3 squadrons, has a war strength of 1,579 officers and 
men (including the medical department), 37 wagons, 1,541 riding 
horses and 187 mules. These figures include a headquarters com- 
pany, a supply company and a machine gun company of 6 guns. In 
column of fours the net length of a cavalry regiment is 2,134 yards 
(or 2,478 yards with its trains). 

Artillery. — This arm is divided into coast artillery and field 
artillery. Coast artillery consists of foot companies whose prin- 
cipal duties are to plant mines in harbors, etc., and to serve 
stationary guns of the coast defense. The companies of coast 
artillery are grouped into districts which cover the entire line of 
sea coasts of the United States, the Philippine Islands, and Hawaii. 
Each unit has many specialists, such as electricians, radio-ser- 
geants, observers, plotters, coxswains, etc. Field artillery prepares 
and supports the attack, and by its curtain of fire, in trench 
warfare, prevents hostile reinforcements from reaching the firing 
line. It is mobile and accompanies the army in all of its move- 
ments, and for that purpose is divided into light, heavy, horse and 
mountain batteries. Most light batteries are armed with the three- 
inch rapid fire gun. The regular fighting unit of field artillery is 
the battery, which corresponds to the company of infantry, and 
is divided into sections commanded by non-commissioned officers. 
The first four sections are each in charge of a gun, forming two 
platoons of 2 guns; the platoon is generally commanded by a 
lieutenant. The field battery usually consists of 5 officers and 190 
men, but may vary according to war conditions. An artillery regi- 
ment, besides its batteries, has a headquarters company and a 
supply company. 

Engineers. — Under the organization which took place in 
1917, the regiment of engineers which is attached to each division 
of infantry numbers 1,666 officers and men. Besides its regimental 



GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 29 

wagons, the regiment has a special train, which forms a part of the 
divisional train, and consists of a headquarters and supply section. 
In case of a war of movement or operations in the open, without 
trenches, the engineer trains of each division comprises also 1 
ponton section and 1 searchlight section. 

Engineer Combat Trains. — Each engineer regimental head- 
quarters has two tool wagons, each drawn by four mules; one is a 
tool wagon of the escort-wagon type, carrying map-reproduction 
equipment and supplies. The other regimental headquarters 
wagon is a spring tool wagon of a special design similar to the 
ambulance. It is provided with lockers, drawers, and compart- 
ments, in which are carried the drafting, photographic, reconnais- 
sance, surveying, and miscellaneous equipment and supplies. 

Each battalion headquarters of an engineer regiment has one 
tool wagon of the escort-wagon type, carrying blacksmith and 
pioneer equipment and supplies, with sufficient space remaining 
for the headquarters baggage. 

Each engineer mounted battalion has two tool wagons, each 
drawn by four mules; one is a tool wagon of the escort-wagon 
type, carrying blacksmith and pioneer equipment and supplies. 
The other is a spring tool wagon, same as provided for regimental 
headquarters, and carrying drafting, photographic, reconnaissance, 
surveying, and miscellaneous equipment and supplies. These 
equipments and supplies are the same as in regimental spring tool 
wagon, except that the surveying outfit of the mounted battalion is 
about one-half that of the engineer regiment. 

For the tool wagon of the escort-wagon type provided for 
regimental and battalion headquarters a special body, longer than 
that of the standard escort wagon and provided with special com- 
partments, is under consideration, this body to be placed on the 
standard escort-wagon running gear, modified only by provision 
of a longer reach. 

Each engineer company, regimental, has two tool wagons, 
and a company of mounted engineers has one tool wagon. Each 
wagon is drawn by four mules and has the running gear of the 
standard escort wagon, except that the reach is 1 foot longer than 
in the standard escort wagon. All company tool wagons are 
identical, having a special body containing drawers, racks, and 
compartments. The loads of all company tool wagons of both 
regimental and mounted companies are also identical, except that 
the photographic outfit of an engineer company, regimental, is not, 
like the other equipment and supplies, divided equally between 
the two wagons, but is all carried on one of the wagons. Both 
wagons have space for the photographic outfit; it may be carried 
on either wagon, but will normally be carried on the odd-numbered 
wagon. 



30 MILITARY TRAINING 

The requirements of overseas operations have brought about 
the formation of various regiments, separate battalions and com- 
panies. Each army or group of army corps has a gas and flame 
service (1 regiment), a mining service (1 regimental headquarters 
and 6 companies), a water supply service (1 regimental head- 
quarters and 6 companies), a general construction service (1 regi- 
mental headquarters and 6 companies), an engineer supply service 
(1 regimental headquarters, 1 battalion (supply) of 3 companies, 1 
battalion (work shop) of 3 companies, 1 service battalion of 4 
companies), a surveying and printing service (1 topographical 
battalion), a road service (1 regimental headquarters, 4 battalions 
(road) of 3 companies each, 6 service battalions of 4 companies 
each, 10 truck companies (31 trucks each), 5 wagon companies of 
61 wagons each) and an army ponton pack (3 ponton divisions, 1 
supply division). In addition to the foregoing there is the service 
of the line of communications, which comprises a general con- 
struction service, an engineer supply service, a forestry service, a 
quarry service, a light railway service and a standard gauge railway 
service. Subsequently other units were created, including 4 fortifica- 
tion battalions, 5 electrical regiments, 5 inland waterway companies 
and 3 map reproduction detachments, together with an engineer 
depot supply service. The service battalions (each composed of 
1,021 officers and men) are made up of unskilled men whose duties 
do not require special engineering knowledge and, hence, these 
units are transferred from one service to another as may be 
necessary. Provision is made for mounted battalions of engineers 
to accompany the cavalry divisions. 

Signal Corps. — Like all staff and auxiliary troops, the signal 
corps is essentially an adjunct to the line of the army and can have 
no separate existence. It has charge of everything pertaining to 
the transmission of orders and information by means of signals, 
including telegraph, wireless and telephone. The field signal bat- 
talion consists of 1 headquarters company, 1 supply company, 1 
wire company, 1 radio company and 1 outpost company. The 
normal composition of the battalion (one for each division) is 262 
officers and men (including the medical department), 16 wagons, 
170 riding horses, 16 draft horses and 53 mules. These figures may 
vary to meet the requirements of trench warfare, etc. Depot 
companies for the Regular Army and the signal reserve corps are 
organized from which men are taken to keep the active units at 
full war strength. In principle, there is one field signal battalion 
and one aero squadron attached to each infantry division, but the 
divisional organization, for overseas service, does not include the 
aero squadron, as the different aircraft units, in a war of position, 
are more efficient if grouped so as to form a separate command. 
Besides the divisional units, there are some, such as the telegraph 



GENERAL AND TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 31 

battalions, which belong to the corps troops or troops at large. 
There are also signal corps reserve field battalions assigned to the 
divisions of the National Army and attached to the field signal 
battalions of these divisions. Likewise signal corps reserve tele- 
graph battalions are assigned as corps troops to different canton- 
ments. Besides the speedy dissemination of military intelligence 
or information, the signal corps has other duties, but the exchange 
of ideas in military affairs is the real reason for its existence. In 
peace it is concerned with the management of military affairs; in 
war with the control of troops and the conduct of campaigns. 

Military Aeronautics. — This division has control of the train- 
ing of aviators and the military use of aircraft. The aero squadron 
is the unit of organization and has 12 aeroplanes. It is divided into 
1 headquarters section, 1 supply section, 1 engineering section and 
12 aero-sections, with a total of 173 officers and men (including the 
medical department) and 50 motors or trailers. Each aeroplane is 
provided with a machine gun. In addition to the influence exerted 
by aircraft on grand operations the airplane is most useful in find- 
ing concealed positions, in locating hidden howitzers or mortars, 
in rear guard and pursuit actions, and in reconnaissance and the 
collection and transmission of information in the theater of mili- 
tary operations. 

Medical Corps. — This service consists of the medical depart- 
ments attached to the different units, and the sanitary formations 
which include the ambulance companies, the field hospitals and 
other units. There are usually 4 ambulance companies and 4 field 
hospital companies attached to each infantry division, with a total 
effective of 949 officers and men. An ambulance company generally 
has 12 ambulances, either animal drawn or motor driven, and a 
personnel of about 150 men. Besides these there are army am- 
bulance sections, intended for the transportation of the sick and 
wounded and to man hospital railroad trains or boats, and base 
hospitals located in rear of the zone of operations to which the 
sick and the wounded are transferred from the field hospitals. 

Quartermaster Corps and Trains. — The problem of supplies 
is most intricate and the organization of trains very elaborate, their 
operation requiring a large personnel. The trains are of two 
kinds — the special train of each unit and the divisional or general 
train. The special train is composed of regimental wagons and 
is divided into two parts; (a) the combat train, composed of 
ammunition or supply wagons which the unit may need during a 
battle, and (b) the field train, for rations and baggage. The 
supply company of a regiment is in charge of the greatest part of 
these trains. The divisional train is a branch of the quartermaster 
service, is commanded by a colonel and consists of 2 companies of 
military police and headquarters, 1 ammunition train (6 com- 



32 MILITARY TRAINING 

parries), 1 supply train (3 sections), 1 engineer train and 1 sanitary 
train (4 ambulance companies and 4 field hospital companies.) 
When the train is motorized the above mentioned companies are 
designated as motor companies and the train complete, for a single 
division, on the road, covers a little over four miles. With a view 
to overseas service the quartermaster corps is called upon to form 
numerous additional units, such as motorcycle companies, motor 
truck companies, bakery companies, ice plant companies, supply 
companies, mechanical repair shops, machine shop truck com- 
panies, motor supply trains, pack train companies, field remount 
depots, auxiliary remount depots, animal embarkation department, 
embarkation guard and 5 companies, 5 truck and horse companies, 
graves' designation companies, stevedore regiments and labor com- 
panies. Veterinary corps, consisting approximately of 1 officer and 
16 enlisted men for each 400 animals in service, are organized in 
the National Army for the period of any existing emergency. 

LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 

Steps to be taken preliminary to the establishment of a line 
of communication are: (1) The location of storehouses, yards, 
shops, and their immediate construction, with special facilities for 
explosives. (2) The location of hospital facilities and preparation 
for their use. (3) The location of camps and their preparation, 
including roads, water supply, drainage, etc., for organizations, 
casuals, and prisoners. (4) Taking over and preparing for opera- 
tion the railway and terminal facilities. (5) The establishment of 
an employment bureau and a military police and secret service 
bureau. (6) The taking over of the water supply, telephone, and 
electric lighting systems, wireless stations, and other public utili- 
ties. (7) The establishment of a bureau of information. (8) Inven- 
tory of supplies locally available. (9) Plan for military govern- 
ment, and control of all government bureaus. (10) Plans for 
unloading troops, animals, supplies, etc., and for their disposal until 
the move to the front. (11) Taking the census. (12) If the base 
is a seaport, application for a navy officer as captain of the port. 
(13) Determination of amount of civil traffic that will be necessary 
<>n railways. 

The approximate tonnage that will have to be supplied to 
troops by the line of communications is 50 pounds per man per day 

There are four units that account for most of the items of 
supply, viz., a man, an animal, a vehicle, and a field gun. In a 
well-balanced army these items can be reduced to the single unit 
of the number of pounds per man per day. This amount of 50 
pounds per man per day is what is to be provided for under normal 
conditions. 



CHAPTER III 

THE SCHOOLS OF THE GRENADIER, SQUAD, 
COMPANY, BATTALION AND REGIMENT 

Commanding officers are accountable for the proper train- 
ing of their respective organizations and the excellence of an 
organization is judged by its field efficiency. Thoroughness and 
uniformity in the training of the units of an organization are in- 
dispensable to the efficiency of the whole, and it is by such means 
alone that the requisite teamwork may be developed. Simple 
movements and elastic formations are essential to correct training 
for battle. The principles of combat as here set down in con- 
nection with the various schools indicate the functions of the 
various commanders and the division of responsibility between 
them. The amplification necessary to a proper understanding 
of their application is shown in Chapter XI. The following im- 
portant distinctions must be observed: 

(a) Drills executed at attention and the ceremonies are 
disciplinary exercises designed to teach precise and soldierly move- 
ment, and to inculcate that prompt and subconscious obedience 
which is essential to proper military control. To this end, smart- 
ness and precision should be exacted in the execution of every de- 
tail. Such drills should be frequent but short. 

(b) The purpose of extended order drill is to teach the 
mechanism of deployment, of the firings, and, in general, of the 
employment of troops in combat. Such drills are in the nature of 
disciplinary exercises and should be frequent, thorough, and exact 
in order to habituate men to the firm control of their leaders. 
Extended order drill is executed at ease. The company is the 
largest unit which executes extended order drill. 

(c) Field exercises are for instruction in the duties incident 
to campaign. Assumed situations are employed. Each exercise 
should conclude with a discussion, on the ground, of the exercise 
and principles involved. 

(d) The combat exercise, a form of field exercise of the com- 
pany, battalion, and larger units, consists of the application of 
tactical principles to assumed situations, employing in the exe- 



34 MILITARY TRAINING 

cution of the appropriate formations and movements of close and 
extended order. 

Combat exercises must simulate, as far as possible, the battle 
conditions assumed. In order to familiarize both officers and 
men with such conditions, companies and battalions are fre- 
quently consolidated to provide war-strength organizations. Of- 
ficers and non-commissioned officers not required to complete the 
full quota of the units participating are assigned as observers or 
umpires. 

The firing line can rarely be controlled by the voice alone; 
thorough training to insure the proper use of prescribed signals 
is necessary. 

In field exercises the enemy is said to be imaginary when 
his position and force are merely assumed; outlined when hi9 
position and force are indicated by a few men; represented when a 
body of troops acts as such. 

GENERAL RULES FOR DRILLS AND FORMATIONS 

When the preparatory command consists of more than one 
part, its elements are arranged as follows: 

(1) For movements to be executed successively by the sub* 
divisions or elements of an organization: (a) Description of the 
movement; (b) how executed, or on what element executed. 

(2) For movements to be executed simultaneously by the 
subdivisions of an organization: (a) The designation of the sub- 
divisions; (b) the movement to be executed. 

Movements that may be executed toward either flank are ex- 
plained as toward but one flank, it being necessary to substitute 
the word " left " for " right," and the reverse, to have the explana- 
tion of the corresponding movement toward the other flank. The 
commands are given for the execution of the movements toward 
either flank. The substitute word of the command is placed within 
parentheses. 

Any movement may be executed either from the halt or 
when marching, unless otherwise prescribed. If at a halt, the 
command for movements involving marching need not be prefaced 
by forward, as 1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. 

Any movement not specifically excepted may be executed in 
double time. If at a halt, or if marching in quick time, the com- 
mand double time precedes the command of execution. 

In successive movements executed in double time the leading 
or base unit marches in quick time when not otherwise prescribed; 
the other units march in double time to their places in the forma- 
tion ordered and then conform to the gait of the leading or base 



SCHOOLS- 35 

unit. If marching in double time, the command double time is 
'omitted. The leading or base unit marches in quick time; the other 
units continue at double time to their places in the formation 
ordered and then conform to the gait of the leading or base unit. 

To hasten the execution of a movement begun in quick time, 
the command: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH, is given. The leading or 
base unit continues to march in quick time, or remains at halt if 
already halted; the other units complete the execution of the 
movement in double time and then conform to the gait of the 
leading or base unit. 

To stay the execution of a movement when marching, for 
the correction of errors, the command: 1. In place, 2. HALT, is 
given. All halt and stand fast, without changing the positions of 
the pieces. To resume the movement the command: 1. Resume, 2. 
MARCH, is given. 

To revoke a preparatory command, or, being at a halt, to 
begin anew a movement improperly begun, the command, AS YOU 
WERE, is given, at which the movement ceases and the former 
position is resumed. 

Unless otherwise announced,, the guide of a company or sub- 
' division of a company in line is right; of a battalion in line or 
line of subdivisions or of a deployed line, center; of a rank in col- 
umn of squads, toward the side of the guide of the company. 

In successive formations into line, the guide is toward the 
point of rest; in platoons or larger subdivisions it is so announced. 
The announcement of the guide, when given in connection with a 
movement, follows the command of execution for that movement. 
Exception: 1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. 
MARCH. 

The turn on the fixed pivot by subdivisions is used in all 
formations from line into column and the reverse. The turn on 
the moving pivot is used by subdivisions of a column in executing 
changes of direction. 

Partial changes of direction may be executed: By inter- 
polating in the preparatory command the word half, as Column 
half right (left), or Right (left) half turn. A change of direction 
of 45° is executed. By the command: INCLINE TO THE RIGHT 
(LEFT). The guide, or guiding element, moves in the indicated 
direction and the remainder of the command conforms. This 
i movement effects slight changes of direction. 

The designations line of platoons, line of companies, line of 
battalions, etc., refer to the formations in which the platoons, com- 
panies, battalions, etc., each in column of squads, are in line. 

Full distance in column of subdivisions is such that in form- 
ing line to the right or left the subdivisions will have their proper 
intervals. In column of subdivisions the guide of the leading sub- 



36 MILITARY TRAINING 

division is charged with the step and direction; the guides in rear 
preserve the trace, step, and distance. 

In close order,, all details, detachments, and other bodies of 
troops are habitually formed in double rank. To insure uniformity 
of interval between files when falling in, and in alignments, each 
man places the palm of the left hand upon the hip, fingers pointing 
downward. In the first case the hand is dropped by the side when 
the next man on the left has his interval; in the second case, a* 
the command front. 

The posts of officers, non-commissioned officers, special 
units (such as band or machine gun company), etc., in the various 
formations of the company, battalion, or regiment, are shown in 
plates. In all changes from one formation to another involving & • 
change of post on the part of any of these,, posts are promptly 
taken by the most convenient route as soon as practicable after 
the command of execution for the movement; officers and non- 
commissioned officers who have prescribed duties in connection 
with the movement ordered, take their new posts when such 
duties are completed. As instructors, officers and non-commis- 
sioned officers go wherever their presence is necessary. As fik. 
closers it is their duty to rectify mistakes and insure steadiness 
and promptness in the ranks. 

Except at ceremonies, the special units have no fixed places. 
They take places as directed; in the absence of directions, they 
conform as nearly as practicable to the plates, and in subsequent 
movements maintain their relative positions with respect to the 
flank or end of the command on which they were originally 
posted. 

General, field, and staff officers are habitually mounted. The 
staff of an officer forms in single rank 3 paces in rear of him 
the right of the rank extending 1 pace to the right of a point 
directly in rear of him. Members of the staff are arranged in 
order from right to left as follows: General staff officers, adju- 
tant, aide, other staff officers, arranged in each classification in 
order of rank, the senior on the right. The flag of the general 
officer and the orderlies are 3 paces in rear of the staff, the flag 
on the right. When necessary to reduce the front of the staff and 
orderlies, each line executes twos right or fours right, and fol- 
lows the commander. When not otherwise prescribed, staff offi- 
cers draw and return saber with their chief. 

In making the about, an officer, mounted, habitually turns to 
the left. When the commander faces to give commands, the staff., 
flag and, orderlies do not change position. 

When making or receiving official reports, or on meeting out 
of doors, all officers salute. Military courtesy requires the junior 
to salute first, but when the salute is introductory to a report 



SCHOOLS 37 

made at a military ceremony or formation, to the representative 
of a common superior (as, for example, to the adjutant, officer of 
the day, etc.), the officer making the report, whatever his rank, 
salutes first; the officer to whom the report is made acknowledges 
by saluting that he has received and understood the report. 

For ceremonies, all mounted enlisted men of a regiment or 
smaller unit, except those belonging to the machine gun organi- 
zations, are consolidated into a detachment; the senior present 
commands if no officer is in charge. The detachment is formed 
as a platoon or squad of cavalry in line or column of fours; non- 
commissioned staff officers are on the right or in the leading 
ranks. For ceremonies, such of the non-commissioned staff offi- 
cers as are dismounted are formed 5 paces in rear of the color, in 
order of rank from right to left. In column of squads they march 
as file closers. 

Other than for ceremonies, non-commissioned staff officers 
and orderlies accompany their immediate chiefs unless otherwise 
directed. If mounted, the non-commissioned staff officers are 
ordinarily posted on the right or at the head of the orderlies. 

In all formations and movements a non-commissioned officer 
commanding a platoon or company carries his piece as the men do, 
if he is so armed, and takes the same post as an officer in like 
situation. When the command is formed in line for ceremonies,, 
a non-commissioned officer commanding a company takes post on 
the right of the right guide after the company has been aligned. 

ORDERS, COMMANDS, AND SIGNALS 

Commands only are employed in drill at attention. Other- 
wise either a command, signal, or order is employed, as best suits 
the occasion, or one may be used in conjunction with another. 

Signals should be freely used in instruction, in order that 
officers and men may readily know them. In making arm signals 
the saber, rifle, or headdress may be held in the hand. 

Officers and men fix their attention at the first word of com- 
mand, the first note of the bugle or whistle,, or the first motion oi 
the signal. A signal includes both the preparatory command and 
the command of execution; the movement commences as soon 
as the signal is understood, unless otherwise prescribed. 

Except in movements executed at attention, commanders or 
leaders of subdivisions repeat orders, commands, or signals when- 
ever such repetition is deemed necessary to insure prompt and cor- 
rect execution. Officers, battalion non-commissioned staff officers,, 
platoon leaders, guides, and musicians are equipped with whistles. 
The major and his staff use a whistle of distinctive tone; the cap- 



38 MILITARY TRAINING 

tain and company musicians a second and distinctive whistle; the » 
platoon leaders and guides a third distinctive whistle. 

Prescribed signals are limited to such as are essential as a 
substitute for the voice under conditions which render the voice 
inadequate. Before or during an engagement special signals may- 
be agreed upon to facilitate the solution of such special difficulties 
as the particular situation is likely to develop, but it must be ^ 
remembered that simplicity and certainty are indispensable quali- 
ties of a signal. 

ORDERS 

Commands are deployed and enter the combat by the orders 

of the commander to the subordinate commanders. The initial 
combat orders of the division are almost invariably written; those 
of the brigade are generally so. The written order is preferable 
and is used whenever time permits. If time permits, subsequent 
orders are likewise written, either as field orders or messages. 

The initial combat orders of regiments and smaller units are 
given verbally. For this purpose the subordinates for whom the ' 
orders are intended are assembled, if practicable, at a place from 
which the situation and plan can be explained. Subsequent orders 
are verbal or in the form of verbal or written messages. Verbal 
messages should not be used unless they are short and unmis- 
takable. 

The initial combat order of any commander or subordinate - 
is based upon his definite plan for executing the task confronting 
him. Whenever possible the formation of the plan is preceded by 
a personal reconnaissance of the terrain and a careful consideration 
of all information of the enemy. 

The combat order gives such information of the enemy 
and of neighboring or supporting friendly troops as will enable 
subordinates to understand the situation. The general plan of - 
action is stated in brief terms, but enough of the commander's 
intentions is divulged to guide the subsequent actions of the 
subordinates. 

Clear and concise instructions are given as to the action to 
be taken in the combat by each part of the command. In this 
way the commander assigns tasks, fronts, objectives, sectors or 
areas, etc., in accordance with his plan. If the terms employed 
convey definite ideas and leave no loopholes, the conduct of subor- 
dinates will generally be correspondingly satisfactory. Such mis- 
cellaneous matter relating to special troops, trains, ammunition, 
and future movements of the commander is added as concerns the 
combat itself. Combat orders should prescribe communication, 
reconnaissance, flank protection, etc., when some special disposi- 



SCHOOLS 39 

tion is desired or when an omission on the part of a subordinate 
may reasonably be feared. 

When issuing orders, a commander should indicate clearly 
what is to be done by each subordinate, but not how it is to be 
done. He should not encroach upon the functions of a subordinate 
by prescribing details of execution unless he has good reason to 
doubt the ability or judgment of the subordinate, and can not 
substitute another. Although general in its terms, an order must 
be definite and must be the expression of a fixed decision. Ambig- 
uity or vagueness indicates either vacillation or the inability to 
formulate orders. 

Usually the orders of a commander are intended for, and are 
given to, the commanders of the next lower units,, but in an 
emergency a commander should not hesitate to give orders directly 
to any subordinate. In such case he should promptly inform the 
intermediate commander concerned. 

COMMANDS 

Commands are preparatory and of execution. The pre- 
paratory command, such as forward, indicates the movement that 
is to be executed. The command of execution, such as MARCH, 
HALT, or ARMS, causes the execution. Preparatory commands 
are distinguished by black letters, lower case, those of execution 
by CAPITALS. 

The preparatory command should be given at such an in- 
terval of time before the command of execution as to admit of 
being properly understood; the command of execution should be 
given at the instant the movement is to commence. The tone of 
command is animated, distinct, and of a loudness proportioned to 
the number of men for whom it is intended. Each preparatory 
command is enunciated distinctly, with a rising inflection at the 
end, and in such manner that the command of execution may be 
more energetic. The command of execution is firm in tone and 
brief. 

Majors and commanders of units larger than a battalion re- 
peat such commands of their superiors as are to be executed by 
their units, facing their units for that purpose. The battalion is 
the largest unit that executes a movement at the command of exe- 
cution of its commander. Indifference in giving commands must 
be avoided, as it leads to laxity in execution. Commands should 
be given with spirit at all times. 

BUGLE SIGNALS 

Bugle signals may be used in field exercises and practice 
firing; their use on the battle field is prohibited. 



40 MILITARY TRAINING 

WHISTLE SIGNALS 

Attention to Orders. — A short blast of the whistle. This 
signal is used on the march or in combat when necessary to fix 
the attention of troops, or of their commanders or leaders, pre- 
paratory to giving commands, orders, or signals. When the firing 
line is firing, each squad leader suspends firing and fixes his atten- 
tion at a short blast of his platoon leader's whistle. The platoon 
leader's subsequent commands or signals are repeated and enforced 
by the squad leader. If a squad leader's attention is attracted by a 
whistle other than that of his platoon leader, or if there are no 
orders or commands to convey to his squad he resumes firing at 
once. Suspend firing: A long blast of the whistle. All other 
whistle signals are prohibited. 

ARM SIGNALS 

The following arm and hand signals are prescribed. Leaders 
or members of their staffs who receive these signals " repeat back " 
at once to prevent misunderstanding. 

Company. — Extend both arms horizontally, palms toward 
the company addressed, thumbs locked, fingers extended and 
joined. (Used between battalion commanders and company com- 
manders.) 

Platoon. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
leader; describe small circles with the hand. 

Group. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
leader; describe large circles with the entire arm. 

Squad. — Extend the arm horizontally toward the platoon 
leader; swing the hand up and down from the wrist. 

Forward, March; Right Oblique, March; Left Oblique, March. 
— Extend the arm vertically to its full extent and lower it to the 
front (right front, left front) until horizontal; at the same time 
move in the indicated direction. 

Quick Time, March. — Raise the right elbow to a position 
above and to the right of the right shoulder; extend the forearm 
to the left, right hand above the head. 

Halt. — Carry the hand to the shoulder; thrust the hand up- 
ward and hold the arm vertically. 

Double Time, March; Rush. — Carry the hand to the shoulder; 
rapidly thrust the hand upward the full extent of the arm several 
times. 

By the Right Flank, March (in extended order); Squads 
Right, March. — Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry it 
to a vertical position above the head and swing it several times 
between the vertical and horizontal positions. 



SCHOOLS 41 

By the Left Flank, March (in extended order) ; Squads Left, 
March. — Raise the arm laterally until horizontal; carry it down- 
ward to the side and swing it several times between the downward 
ind horizontal positions. 

To the Rear, March (in extended order); Squads Right 
&bout, March (in close order). — Extend the arm vertically above 
.he head; carry it laterally downward to the side and swing it 
several times between the vertical and downward positions. 

Change Direction, or, Column Right (Left), March. — The 
land on the side toward which the change of direction is to be 
nade is carried across the body to the opposite shoulder, forearm 
lorizontal; then swing in a horizontal plane, arm extended, point- 
ng in the new direction. 

As Skirmishers, March. — Raise both arms laterally until hori" 
:ontal. 

As Skirmishers, Guide Center, March. — Raise both arms later- 
illy until horizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until ver- 
ical and return to the horizontal; repeat several times. 

As Skirmishers, Guide Right (Left), March. — Raise both 
irms laterally until horizontal; hold the arm on the side of the 
juide steadily in the horizontal position; swing the other upward 
intil vertical and return it to the horizontal; repeat several times. 
Advance by Thin Lines. — Hand at side, draw it back, then 
nove it to the front. 

Squad Columns, March. — Signal squad, followed by thin lines. 
Platoon Columns, March. — Signal platoon, followed by thin 
ines. 

Assemble, March. — Raise the arm vertically to its full extent 
nd describe large horizontal circles. 

Range, or change elevation. — To announce range, extend the 
rm toward the leaders or men for whom the signal is intended^ 
st closed; by keeping the fist closed battle sight is indicated; open 
he fist once for 500 yards, twice for 1,000 yards, etc., and thrust 
he fist upward once for each additional 100 yards; to add 50 yards 
escribe a short horizontal line with the forefinger. To change 
levation the fire controller indicates the complete new range, 
"he fire observer indicates, as above, the amount of increase or 
ecrease by pointing upward for increase, downward for decrease. 
Swing Cone of Fire to the Right (Left). — Extend arm in full 
;ngth to the front; palm to the right; swing the arm to the right 
left) and point in the direction of the new target; strike in the 
irection of the target with open hand, once for each " sight leaf " 
leasured from old to new target. 

What Range Are You Using? or What Is the Range?— Ex- 
snd the arms toward the person addressed, one hand open, palm to 
he front, resting on the other hand, fist closed. 



42 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Are You Ready? or I Am Ready. — Raise the hand, 
extended and joined, palm toward the person addressed. 




Commence Firing.— Move the arm extended in full length, 
hand palm down, several times through a horizontal arc in front of 
the body. 



SCHOOLS 43 

Fire Slower. — Execute slowly the signal commence firing. 

Fire Faster. — Execute rapidly the signal commence firing. 

Fix Bayonets. — Simulate" the movement of the right hand in 
fix bayonets. 

Suspend Firing. — Raise and hold the forearm steadily in a 
horizontal position in front of the forehead, palm of the hand to 
the front. 

Cease Firing. — Raise the forearm as in suspend firing and 
swing it up and down several times in front of the face. 

The Finger, or The Sight Leaf.— The width of the finger held 
at such a distance from the eye that it subtends 50 mils (1/20 of 
the range) ; used in conjunction with swing cone of fire to right or 
left. 

Line of Half Platoon from Platoon in Column of Squads. — 
Signal platoon followed by two sweeps of the arm in a vertical 
plane perpendicular to the front. 

Line of Groups, Automatics (Right, Left, Center, Flanks.) — 
Signal squad, signal "A" (Morse, code), point toward the right 
(left) for automatics right (left), extend both arms laterally for 
automatics flanks and sweep both arms forward and across the 
body for automatics center. 

As Skirmishers in Two Waves, March. — Signal as skirmish- 
ers. (Deployment at this command or signal will ordinarily be 
made in two waves.) 

As Skirmishers in One Wave, March. — Signal as skirmishers, 
then raise either arm, extended vertically, and immediately repeat 
the signal as skirmishers. 

The signals, platoon, group, and squad are intended pri- 
marily for communication betweena unit commander and one of 
his subdivision commanders. The signal, platoon, group, or squad, 
given by a company commander to one of his platoon leaders, 
indicates that the platoon leader is to cause the signal given to 
be executed by platoon, group, or squad, respectively. 

The Field Artillery arm signals are represented in the 
drawing. 

SCHOOL OF THE SOLDIER 

The instructor explains briefly each movement, first execut- 
ing it himself if practicable. He requires the recruits to take the 
proper positions unassisted and does not touch them for the pur- 
pose of correcting them, except they are unable to correct them- 
selves. He avoids keeping them too long at the same movement, 
although each should be understood before passing to another. He 
exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity. 



44 MILITARY TRAINING 

POSITION OF THE SOLDIER, OR ATTENTION 

Heels on the same line and as near each other as the con- 
formation of the man permits. 

Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of about 45°. 

Knees straight without stiffness. 

Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting 
equally on hips; chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and 
falling equally. 

Arms and hands hanging naturally, thumb along the seam 
of the trousers. 

Head erect and squarely to the front, chin drawn.in so that 
the axis of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. 

Weight of the body resting equally upon the heels and balls 
of the feet. 

THE RESTS 

Being at a halt, the commands are: FALL OUT; REST; 
AT EASE; and, 1, Parade, 2. REST. 

At the command fall out, the men may leave the ranks, but 
are required to remain in the immediate vicinity. They resume 
their former places, at attention, at the command fall in. 

At the command rest each man keeps one foot in place, but 
is not required to preserve silence or immobility. 

At the command at ease each man keeps one foot in place 
and is required to preserve silence but not immobility. 

1. Parade, 2. REST. Carry the right foot 6 inches straight 
to the rear, left knee slightly bent; clasp the hands, without con- 
straint, in front of the center of the body, fingers joined, left hand 
uppermost, left thumb clasped by the thumb and forefinger of the 
right hand; preserve silence and steadiness of position. 

To resume the attention: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 

The men take the position of the soldier. 

EYES RIGHT OR LEFT 

1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT (LEFT), 3. FRONT. 

At the command right, turn the head to the right oblique, 
eyes fixed on the line of eyes of the men in, or supposed to be in, 
the same rank. At the command front, turn the head and eyes to 
the front. 

FACINGS 

To the flank: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE. 

Raise slightly the left heel and right toe; face to the right, 
turning on the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball 
of the left foot; place the left foot by the side of the right. Left 
face is executed on the left heel in the corrsponding manner. 



SCHOOLS 45 

Right (left) half face is executed similarly, facing 45°. 

"To face in marching" and advance, turn on the ball of 
either foot and step off with the other foot in the new line of di- 
rection; to face in marching without gaining ground in the new 
direction, turn on the ball of either foot and mark time. 

To the rear: 1. About, 2. FACE. 

Carry the toe of the right foot about a half foot-length to 
the rear and slightly to the left of the left heel without changing 
the position of the left foot; face to the rear, turning to the right 
on the left heel and right toe; place the right heel by the side of 
the left. 

SALUTE WITH THE HAND 

1. Hand, 2. SALUTE. 

Raise the right hand smartly till the tip of the forefinger 
touches the lower part of the headdress or forehead above the 
right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to the left, 
forearm inclinecLat about 45°, hand and wrist straight; at the same 
time look toward the person saluted. (TWO) Drop the arm 
smartly by the side, 

STEPS AND MARCHINGS 

All steps and marchings executed from a halt, except right 
step, begin with the left foot. 

The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, meas- 
ured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps 
per minute. 

The length of the full step in double time is 36 inches; the 
cadence is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. 

***•«•> The instructor, when necessary, indicates the cadence of 
the step by calling one, two, three, four, or left, right, the instant 
the left and right foot, respectively, should be planted. 

All steps and marchings and movements involving march 
are executed in quick time unless the squad be marching in double 
time or double time be added to the command; in the latter case 
double time is added to the preparatory command. Example: 1. 
Squad right, double time, 2. MARCH (School of the Squad). 

QUICK TIME 

Being at a halt, to march forward in quick time: 1. Forward, 
2. MARCH. 

At the command forward, shift the weight of the body to 
the right leg, left knee straight. 



46 MILITARY TRAINING 

At the command march, move the left foot smartly straight 
forward 30 inches from the right, sole near the ground, and plant 
it without shock; next, in like manner, advance the right foot and 
plant it as above; continue the march. The arms swing naturally. 

Being at a halt, or in march in quick time, to march in double 
time: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 

If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body 
to the right leg. At the command march, raise the forearms, fin- 
gers closed, to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up 
an easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing 
a natural swinging motion to the arms. 

If marching in quick time, at the command march, given as 
either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and 
then step off in double time. 

To resume the quick time: 1. Quick time, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, given as either foot strikes the 
ground, advance and plant the other foot in double time; resume 
the quick time, dropping the hands by the sides. 

TO MARK TIME 

Being in march: 1. Mark time, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, given as either foot strikes the 
ground, advance and plant the other foot; bring up the foot in 
rear and continue the cadence by alternately raising each foot 
about 2 inches and planting it on line with the other. 

Being at a halt, at the command march, raise and plant the 
feet as described above. 

THE HALF STEP 

1. Half step, 2. MARCH. 

Take steps of 15 inches in quick time, 18 inches in double 
time. 

Forward, half step, halt, and mark time may be executed 
one from the other in quick or double time. 

To resume the full step from half step or mark time: 1. 
Forward, 2. MARCH. 

SIDE STEP 

Being at a halt or marking time: 1. Right (left) step, 
2. MARCH. 

Carry and plant the right foot 15 inches to the right; bring 
the left foot beside it and continue the movement* in the cadence of 
quick time. 



SCHOOLS 47 

The side step is used for short distances only and is not exe- 
cuted in double time. 

If at order arms, the side step is executed at trail without 
command. 

BACK STEP 

Being at a halt or mark time: 1. Backward, 2. MARCH. 

Take steps of 15 inches straight to the rear. 

The back step is used for short distances only and is not 
executed in double time. 

If at order arms, the back step is executed at trail without 
command. 

TO HALT 

To arrest the march in quick or double time. 1. Squad, 2. 
HALT. 

At the command halt, given as either foot strikes the ground, 
plant the other foot as in marching; raise and place the first foot 
by the side of the other. If in double time, drop the hands by the 
sides. 

TO MARCH BY THE FLANK 

Being in march: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
ground, advance and plant the left foot, then face to the right in 
marching and step off in the new direction with the right foot. 

TO MARCH TO THE REAR 

Being in march: 1. To the rear, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
ground, advance and plant the left foot; turn to the right about on 
the balls of both feet and immediately step off with the left foot. 

If marching in double time, turn to the right about, taking 
four.steps in place, keeping the cadence, and then step off with the 
left foot. 

CHANGE STEP 

Being in march: 1. Change step, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, given as the right foot strikes the 
ground, advance and plant the left foot; plant the toe of the right 
foot near the heel of the left and step off with the left foot. 
4 



48 MILITARY TRAINING 

The change on the right foot is similarly executed, the com-, 
mand march being given as the left foot strikes the ground. 

MANUAL OF ARMS 

As soon as practicable the recruit is taught the use, nomen- 
clature and care of his rifle; when fair progress has been made in 
the instruction without arms, he is taught the manual of arms; 
instruction without arms and that with arms alternate. 

The following rules govern the carrying of the piece: 

First. The piece is not carried with cartridges in either the 
chamber or the magazine except when specifically ordered. When 
so loaded, or supposed to be loaded, it is habitually carried locked; 
that is, with the safety lock turned to the "safe." At all other times 
it is carried unlocked, with the trigger pulled. 

Second. Whenever troops are formed under arms, pieces 
are immediately inspected at the commands: 1. Inspection, 2. 
ARMS; 3. Order (Right shoulder, port), 4. ARMS. 

A similar inspection is made immediately before dismissal. 

If cartridges are found in the chamber or magazine they 
are removed and placed in the belt. 

Third. The cut-off is kept turned "off" except when car- 
tridges are actually used. 

Fourth. The bayonet is not fixed except in bayonet exer- 
cise, on guard, or for combat. 

Fifth. Fall in is executed with the piece at the order arms. 
Fall out, rest, and at ease are executed as without arms.* On re- 
suming attention the position of order arms is taken. 

Sixth. If at the order, unless otherwise prescribed, the piece 
is brought to the right shoulder at the command march, the three 
motions corresponding with the first three steps. Movements may 
be executed at the trail by prefacing the preparatory command 
with the words at trail; as, 1. At trail, forward, 2. MARCH; the 
trail is taken at the command march. 

When the facings, alignments, open and close ranks, taking 
interval or distance, and assemblings are executed from the order, 
raise the piece to the trail while in motion and resttme the order 
on halting. 

Seventh. The piece is brought to the order on halting. The 
execution of the order begins when the halt is completed. 

Eighth. A disengaged hand in double time is held as when 
without arms. 

The following rules govern the execution of the manual of 
arms: 

First. In all positions of the left hand at the balance (center 



SCHOOLS 49 

of gravity, bayonet unfixed) the thumb clasps the piece; the sling 
is included in the grasp of the hand. 

Second. In all positions of the piece "diagonally across the 
body" the position of the piece, left arm and hand are the same 
as in port arms. 

Third. In resuming the order from any position in the 
■manual, the motion next to the last concludes with the butt of 
the piece about 3 inches from the ground, barrel to the rear, the 
left hand above and near the right, steadying the piece, fingers ex- 
tended and joined, forearm and wrist straight and inclining down- 
ward, all fingers of the right hand grasping the piece. To complete 
the order, lower the piece gently to the ground with the right hand, 
drop the left quickly by the side, and take the position of order 
arms. 

Allowing the piece to drop through the right hand to the 
ground, or other similar abuse of the rifle to produce effect in exe- 
cuting the manual, is prohibited. 

Four. The cadence of the motions is that of quick time; 
the recruits are first required to give their whole attention to the 
details of the motions, the cadence being gradually acquired as 
they become accustomed to handling their pieces. The instructor 
may require them to count aloud in cadence with the motions. 

Fifth. The manual is taught at a halt and the movements 
are, for the purpose of instruction, divided into motions and exe- 
cuted in detail; in this case the command of execution determines 
the prompt execution of the first motion, and the commands, two, 
three, four, that of the other motions. 

To execute the movements in detail, the instructor first cau- 
tions: By the numbers; all movements divided into motions are 
then executed as above explained until he cautions: Without the 
numbers; or commands movements other than those in the manual 
of arms. 

Sixth. Whenever circumstances require, the regular posi- 
tions of the manual of arms and the firings may be ordered without 
regard to the previous position of the piece. 

Under exceptional conditions of weather or fatigue the rifle 
may be carried in any manner directed. 

Position of Order Arms, Standing. The butt rests evenly 
on the ground, barrel to the rear, toe of the butt on a line with 
toe of, and touching, the right shoe, arms and hands hanging nat- 
urally, right hand holding the piece between the thumb and fingers. 

Being at order arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 

With the right hand carry the piece in front of the center of 
the body, barrel to the rear and vertical, grasp it with the left hand 
at the balance, forearm horizontal and resting against the body. 
(TWO) Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. 



50 MILITARY TRAINING 

Being at order arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. With the right 
hand quickly raise and throw the piece diagonally across the body, 
grasp it smartly with both hands; the right hand, palm down, at 
the small of the stock; the left hand, palm up, at the balance; 
barrel up, sloping to the left and crossing opposite the junction of 
the neck with the left shoulder; right forearm horizontal; left fore- 
arm resting against the body; the piece in a vertical plane parallel 
to the front. 

Being at present arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 

Carry the piece diagonally across the body and take the 
position of port arms. 

Being at. port arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 

Carry the piece to a vertical position in front of the center 
of the body and take the position of present arms. 

Being at present or port arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 

Let go with the right hand; lower and carry the piece to the 
right with, the left hand; regrasp it with right hand just above-' 
the lower band; let go with the left hand, and take the next to j 
the last position in coming to the order. (TWO) Complete the u 
order. 

Being at order arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. 

With the right hand raise and throw the piece diagonally J 
across the body; carry the right hand quickly to the butt, embrac- I 
ing it, the heel between the first two fingers. (TWO) Without j 
changing the grasp of the right hand, place the piece on the right 
shoulder, barrel up and inclined at an angle of about 45° from the f 
horizontal, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder, right elbow 
near the side, the piece in a vertical plane perpendicular to the 
front, carry the left hand, thumb and fingers extended and joined, 
to the small of the stock, tip of the forefinger touching the cock- ] 
ing piece, wrist straight and elbow down. (THREE) Drop the | 
left hand by the side. 

Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 

Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally 
across the body, the right hand retaining the grasp of the butt, j 
(TWO), (THREE) Execute order arms as described from port j 
arms. 

Being at port arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2.- ARMS. 

Change the right hand to the butt. (TWO), (THREE), As 
in right shoulder arms from order arms. 

Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 

Press the butt down quickly and throw the piece diagonally 
across the body, the right hand retaining its grasp of the butt. 
(TWO) Change the right hand to the small of the stock. 

Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. 

Execute port arms. (THREE) Execute present arms. 



SCHOOLS 51 

Being at present arms: 1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS. Execute 
port arm*. (TWO), (THREE), (FOUR) Execute right shoulder 
arms as from port arms. 

Being at port arms: 1. Left shoulder, 2. ARMS. 

Carry the piece with the right hand and place it on the 
left shoulder, barrel up, trigger guard in the hollow of the shoulder; 
at the same time grasp the butt with the left hand, heel between 
first and second fingers, thumb and fingers closed on the stock. 
(TWO) Drop the right hand by the side. 

Being at left shoulder arms: 1. Port, 2. ARMS. 

Grasp the piece with the right hand at the small of the stock. 
(TWO) Carry the piece to the right with the right hand, regrasp 
it with the left, and take the position of port arms. 

Left shoulder arms may be ordered directly from the order, 
right shoulder or present, or the reverse. At the command arms 
execute port arms and continue in cadence to the position ordered. 

Being at order arms: 1. Parade, 2. REST. 

Carry the right foot 6 inches straight to the rear, left knee 
slightly bent; carry the muzzle in front of the center of the body, 
barrel to the left; grasp the piece with the left hand just below 
the stacking swivel, and with the right hand below and against the 
left. 

Being at parade rest: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 

Resume the order, the left hand quitting the piece opposite 
>he right hip. 

Being at order arms: 1. Trail, 2. ARMS. 

Raise the piece, right arm slightly bent, and incline the muz- 
zle forward so that the barrel makes an angle of about 30° with 
the vertical. 

When it can be done without danger or inconvenience to 
others, the piece may be grasped at the balance and the muzzle 
Jowered until the piece is horizontal; a similar position in the left 
hand may be used. 

Being at trail arms: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. 

Lower the piece with the right hand and resume the order. 

RIFLE SALUTE 

Being at right shoulder arms: 1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. 
Carry the left hand smartly to the small of the stock, fore- 
arm horizontal, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended 
ind joined, forefinger touching end of cocking piece; look toward 
he person sainted. (TWO) Drop left hand by the side; turn head 
ind eyes to the front. 

Being at order or trail arms: 1. Rifle, 2. SALUTE. 



52 MILITARY TRAINING 

Carry the left hand smartly to the right side, palm of the 
hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger 
against piece near the muzzle; look toward the person saluted. 
(TWO) Drop the left hand by the side; turn the head and eyes 
to the front. 

THE BAYONET 

Being at order arms: 1. Fix, 2. BAYONET. 

If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the belt: Execute pa- 
rade rest; grasp the bayonet with the right hand, back of hand 
toward the body; draw the bayonet from the scabbard and fix it 
on the barrel, glancing at the muzzle; resume the order. 

If the bayonet is carried on the haversack: Draw the bayonet 
with the left hand and fix it in the most convenient manner. 

Being at order arms: 1. Unfix, 2. BAYONET. 

If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the beltr Execute pa- 
rade rest; grasp the handle of the bayonet firmly with the right 
hand, pressing the spring with the forefinger of the right hand; 
raise the bayonet until the handle is about 12 inches above the 
muzzle of the piece; drop the point to the left, back of the hand 
toward the body, and, glancing at the scabbard, return the bayonet, 
the blade passing between' the left arm and the body; regrasp the 
piece with the right hand and resume the order. 

If the bayonet scabbard is carried on the haversack: Take 
the bayonet from the rifle with the left hand and return it to the 
scabbard in the most convenient manner. 

If marching or lying down, the bayonet is fixed and unfixed 
in the most expeditious and convenient manner and the piece re- 
turned to the original position. 

Fix and unfix bayonet are executed with promptness and 
regularity but not in cadence. 

CHARGE BAYONET. Whether executed at halt or in 
motion, the bayonet is held toward the opponent as in the position 
of guard in Bayonet Exercise. 

THE INSPECTION 

Being at order arms: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS. 

At the second command take the position of port arms. 
(TWO) Seize the bolt handle with the thumb and forefinger of 
the right hand, turn the handle up, draw the bolt back, and glance 
at the chamber. Having found the chamber empty, or having 
emptied it, raise the head and eyes to the front. 

Being at inspection arms: 1. Order (Right shoulder, port), 
2. ARMS. 



SCHOOLS 53 

At the preparatory command push the bolt forward, turn the 
handle down, pull the trigger, and resume port arms. At the com- 
mand arms, complete the movement ordered. 

SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD 

Soldiers are grouped into squads for purposes of instruction, 
discipline, control and order. The squad proper consists of a cor- 
poral and seven privates. The movements in the School of the 
Squad are designed to make the squad a fixed unit and to facilitate 
the control and movement of the company. If the number of men 
grouped is more than 3 and less than 12, they are formed as a 
squad of 4 files, the excess above 8 being posted as file closers. If 
the number grouped is greater than 11, 2 or more squads are formed 
and the group is termed a platoon. For the instruction of recruits, 
these rules may be modified. 

The corporal is the squad leader, and when absent is re- 
placed by a designated private. If no private is designated, the 
senior in length of service acts as leader. The corporal, when in 
ranks, is posted as the left man in the front rank of the squad. 
When the corporal leaves the ranks to lead his squad, his rear 
rank man steps into the front rank, and the file remains blank until 
the corporal returns to his place in ranks, when his rear rank man 
steps back into the rear rank. 

In battle, officers and sergeants endeavor to preserve the 
integrity of squads; they designate new leaders to replace those 
disabled, organize new squads when necessary, and see that every 
man is placed in a squad. Men are taught the necessity of re- 
maining with the squad to which they belong and, in case it be 
broken up or they become separated therefrom, to attach them- 
selves to the nearest squad and platoon leaders, whether these be 
of their own or of another organization. 

The squad executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and march- 
ings, and the manual of arms as explained in the School of the 
Soldier. 






TO FORM THE SQUAD 



To form the squad the instructor places himself 3 paces in 
front of where the center is to be and commands: FALL IN. 

The men assemble at attention, pieces at the order, and are 
arranged by the corporal in double rank, as nearly as practicable 
in order of height from right to left, each man dropping his left 
hand as soon as the man on his left has his interval. The rear 
rank forms with distance of 40 inches. 



S4 MILITARY TRAINING 

The instructor then commands: COUNT OFF. 

At this command all except the right file execute eyes right, 
and beginning on the right, the men in each rank count one, two, 
three, four; each man turns his head and eyes to the front as he 
counts. 

TO DISMISS THE SQUAD 

Being at halt: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. 
DISMISSED. 

ALIGNMENTS 

To align the squad, the base file or files having been estab- 
lished: L Right (left), 2. DRESS, 3. FRONT. 

At the command dress all men place the left hand upon the 
hip (whether dressing to the right or left); each man, except the 
base file, when on or near the new line executes eyes right, and, 
taking steps of 2 or 3 inches, places himself so that his right arm 
rests lightly against the arm of the man on his right, and so tha t 
4iis eyes and shoulders are in line with those of the men on his 
right; the rear rank men cover in file. 

The instructor verifies the alignment of both ranks from the 
right flank and orders up or back such men as may be in rear, 
or in advance, of the line; only the men designated move. 

At the command front, given when the ranks are aligned, 
•each man turns his head and eyes to the front and drops his left 
hand by his side. 

In the first drills the basis of the alignment is established on, 
or parallel to, the front of the squad; afterwards, in oblique direc- 
tions. 

Whenever the position of the base file or files necessitates a 
'considerable movement by the squad, such movement is executed 
by marching to the front or oblique, to the flank or backward, as 
the case may be, without other command, and at the trail. 

To preserve the alignment when marching: GUIDE RIGHT 
(LEFT). 

The men preserve their intervals from the side of the guide, 
yielding to pressure from that side and resisting pressure from 
the opposite direction; they recover intervals, if lost, by gradually 
opening out or closing in; they recover alignment by slightly 
lengthening or shortening the step; the rear-rank men cover their 
file leaders at 40 inches. 

In double rank, the front-rank man on the right, or desig- 
nated flank, conducts the march; when marching faced to the flank, 
the leading man of the front rank is the guide. 



SCHOOLS 55- 

TO TAKE INTERVALS AND DISTANCES 

Being in line at a halt: 1. Take interval, 2. To the right (left), 
3. MARCH, 4. Squad, 5. HALT. 

At the second command the rear-rank men march backward, 
4 steps and halt; at the command march all face to the right and 
the leading man of each rank steps off; the other men step off in 
succession, each following the preceding man at 4 paces, rear-rank 
men marching abreast of their file leaders. 

At the command halt, given when all have .their intervals, all; 
halt and face to the front. 

Being at intervals, to assemble the squad: 1. Assemble, to- 
the right (left), 2. MARCH. 

The front-rank man on the right stands fast, the rear-rank 
man on the right closes to 40 inches. The other men face to the 
right, close by the shortest line, and face to the front. 

Being in line at a halt and having counted off: 1. Take disr 
♦ance, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 

At the command march No. 1 of the front rank moves 
straight to the front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front rank and Nos. l v 
2, 3, and 4 of the rear rank, in the order named, move straight 
to the front, each stepping off so as to follow the preceding man 
at 4 paces. The command halt is given when all have their dis- 
tances. 

,« In case more than one squad is in line, each squad executes 

the movement. The guide of each rank of numbers is right. 

Being at distances, to assemble the squad: 1. Assemble, 2. 
MARCH. 

No. 1 of the front rank stands fast; the other numbers move 
forward to their proper places in line. 



TO STACK ARMS AND TAKE ARMS 



Being in line at a halt: STACK ARMS. 

Each even number of the front rank grasps his piece with 
he left hand at the upper band and rests the butt between his feet, 
Wrel to the front, muzzle inclined slightly to the front and oppo- 
site the center of the interval on his right, the thumb and fore- 
finger raising the stacking swivel; each even number of the rear 
ank then passes his piece, barrel to the rear, to his file leader, who 
rasps it between the bands with his right hand and throws the 
utt about 2 feet in advance of that of his own piece and opposite 
he right of the interval, the right hand slipping to the upper band,, 
be thumb and forefinger raising the stacking swivel, which he en- 



56 MILITARY TRAINING 

gages with that of his own piece; each odd number of the front 
rank raises his piece with the right hand, carries it well forward, 
barrel to the front; the left hand, guiding the stacking swivel, en- 
gages the lower hook of the swivel of his own piece with the 
free hook of that of the even number of the rear rank; he then 
turns the barrel outward into the angle formed by the other two 
pieces and lowers the butt to the ground, to the right of and 
against the toe of his right shoe. 

The stacks made, the loose pieces are laid on them by the 
even numbers of the front rank. When each man has finished 
handling pieces, he takes the position of the soldier. 

Being in line behind the stacks: TAKE ARMS. 

The loose pieces are returned by the even numbers of the 
front rank; each even number of the front rank grasps his own 
piece with the left hand, the piece of his rear-rank man with his 
right hand, grasping both between the hands; each odd number 
of the front rank grasps his piece in the same way with the right 
hand, disengages it by raising the butt from the ground and then, 
turning the piece to the right, detaches it from the stack; each ever 
number of the front rank disengages and detaches his piece by 
turning it to the left, and then passes the piece of his rear-rank 
man to him, and all resume the order. 

Should any squad have Nos. 2 and 3 blank files, No. 1 rear 
rank takes the place of No. 2 rear rank in making and breaking 
the stack; the stacks made or broken, he resumes his post. Pieces 
not used in making the stack are termed loose pieces. 



THE OBLIQUE MARCH 

For the instruction of recruits, the squad being in column or 
correctly aligned, the instructor causes the squad to face half 
right or half left, points out to the men their relative positions, and 
explains that these are to be maintained in the oblique march. 

1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH. Each man steps off in 
a direction 45° to the right of his original front. He preserves 
his relative position, keeping his shoulders parallel to those of the 
guide (the man on the right front of the line or column), and so 
regulates his steps that the ranks remain parallel to their original 
front. At the command halt the men halt faced to the front. 

To resume the original direction: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 

The men half face to the left in marching and then move 
straight to the front. 

If at half step or mark time while obliquing, the oblique 
march is resumed by the commands: 1. Oblique, 2. MARCH. 



SCHOOLS 57 

TO TURN ON MOVING PIVOT 

Being in line, to turn and march: 1. Right (left) turn, 
2. MARCH. 

The movement is executed by each rank successively and on 
the same ground. At the second command, the pivot man of the 
front rank faces to the right in marching and takes the half step; 
the other men of the rank oblique to the right until opposite their 
places in line, then execute a second right oblique and take the 
half step on arriving abreast of the pivot man. All glance toward 
the marching flank while at half step and take the full step without 
command as the last man arrives on the line. 

Right (left) half turn is executed in a similar manner. The 
pivot man makes a half change of direction to the right and the 
other men make quarter changes in obliquing. 

TO TURN ON FIXED PIVOT 

Being in line, to turn and march: 1. Squad right (left), 2. 
MARCH. 

At the second command, the right flank man in the front 
rank faces to the right in marching and marks time; the other 
front rank men oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of the 
pivot, and mark time. In the rear rank the third man from the 
right, followed in column by the second and first, moves straight 
to the front until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to 
the right in marching and mark time; the other number of the 
rear rank moves straight to the front four paces and places himself 
abreast of the man on his right. Men on the new line glance 
toward the marching flank while marking time and, as the last 
man arrives on the line, both ranks execute forward, march, with- 
out command. 

Being in line, to turn and halt: 1. Squad right (left), 2. 
MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 

The third command is given immediately after the second. 
The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until 
the fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 

Being in line, to turn about and march: 1. Squad right (left) 
about, 2. MARCH. 

At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad 
right, initiating the second squad right when the man on the 
marching flank has arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank 
the third man from the right, followed by the second and first in 



58 MILITARY TRAINING 

column, moves straight to the front until on the prolongation of 
the line to be occupied by the rear rank; changes direction to the 
right; moves in the new direction until in rear of his front-rank 
man, when all face to the right in marching, mark time, and glance 
toward the marching flank. The fourth man marches on the left 
of the third to his new position; as he arrives on the line, both 
ranks execute forward, march, without command. 

Being in line, to turn about and halt: 1. Squad right (left) 
about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 

The third command is given immediately after the second. 
The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until the 
fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 

Being in line, to turn about and march: 1. Squad right (left) 
about, 2. MARCH. 

At the second command, the front rank twice executes squad 
right, initiating the second squad right when the man on the 
marching flank has arrived abreast of the rank. In the rear rank 
the third man from the right, followed by the second and first in 
column, moves straight to the front until on the prolongation of the 
line to be occupied by the rear rank; changes direction to the 
right; moves in the new direction until in rear of his front-rank 
man, when all face to the right in marching, mark time, and glance 
toward the marching flank. The fourth man marches on the left 
of the third to his new position; as he arrives on the line, both 
ranks execute forward, march, without command. 

Being in line, to turn about and halt: 1. squad right (left) 
about, 2. MARCH, 3. Squad, 4. HALT. 

The third command is given immediately after the second. 
The turn is executed as prescribed in the preceding paragraph ex- 
cept that all men, on arriving on the new line, mark time until 
the fourth command is given, when all halt. The fourth command 
should be given as the last man arrives on the line. 

TO FOLLOW THE CORPORAL 

Being assembled or deployed, to march the squad without 
unnecessary commands, the corporal places himself in front of it 
and commands: FOLLOW ME. 

If in line or skirmish line, No. 2 of the front rank follows in 
the trace of the corporal at about 3 paces; the other men conform 
to the movements of No. 2, guiding on him and maintaining their 
relative positions. If in column, the head of the column follows 
the corporal. 



SCHOOLS 59 

TO DEPLOY AS SKIRMISHERS 

Being in any formation, assembled: 1. As skirmishers, 2. 
MARCH. 

The corporal places himself in front of the squad, if not al- 
ready there. Moving at a run, the men place themselves abreast 
of the corporal at half-pace intervals, Nos. 1 and 2 on his right, 
Nos. 3 and 4 on his left, rear-rank men on the right of their file 
leaders, extra men on the left of No. 4; all then conform to the 
corporal's gait. 

When the squad is acting alone, skirmish line is similarly 
fsrmed on No. 2 of the front rank, who stands fast or continues 
the march, as the case may be; the corporal places himself in front 
of the squad when advancing and in rear when halted. 

When deployed as skirmishers, the men march at ease, pieces 
at the trail unless otherwise ordered. 

The corporal is the guide when in the line; otherwise No. 2 
front rank is the guide. 

The normal interval between skirmishers is one-half pace, 
resulting practically in one man per yard of front. The front of 
a squad thus deployed as skirmishers is about 10 paces. 

TO INCREASE OR DIMINISH INTERVALS. 

If assembled, and it is desired to deploy at greater than the 
normal interval; or if deployed, and it is desired to increase or de- 
crease the interval: 1. As skirmishers, (so many) paces, 2. MARCH. 

Intervals are taken at the indicated number of paces. If 
already deployed, the men move by the flank toward or away from 
the guide. 

THE ASSEMBLY 

Being deployed: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 

The men move toward the corporal and form in their proper 
places. If the corporal continues to advance, the men move in 
double time, form, and follow him. The assembly while marching 
to the rear is not executed. 

KNEELING OR LYING DOWN 

If standing: KNEEL. 

Half face to the right; carry the right toe about 1 foot to 
the left rear of the left heel; kneel on right knee, sitting as nearly 



60 MILITARY TRAINING 

as possible on the right heel; left forearm across left thigh; piece 
remains in position of order arms, right hand grasping it above the 
lower band. 

If standing or kneeling: LIE DOWN. 

Kneel, but with right knee against left heel; carry back the I 
left foot and lie flat on the belly, inclining body about 35° to the | 
right; piece horizontal, barrel up, muzzle off the ground and pointed 
to the front; elbows on the ground; left hand at the balance, right 
hand grasping the small of the stock opposite the neck. This is 
the position of order arms, lying down. " 

If kneeling or lying down: RISE. 

If kneeling, stand up, faced to the front, on the ground 
marked by the left heel. If lying down, raise body on both knees; 
stand up, faced to the front, on the ground marked by the knees. 

If lying down: KNEEL. 

Raise the body on both knees; take the positions of kneel. 

In double rank, the positions of kneeling and lying down 
are ordinarily used only for the better utilization of cover. 

When deployed as skirmishers, a sitting position may be 
taken in lieu of the position kneeling. 

LOADINGS AND FIRINGS 

The commands for loading and firing are the same whether 
standing, kneeling, or lying down. The firings are always executed 
at a halt. When kneeling or lying down in double rank, the rear 
rank does not load, aim, or fire. The instruction in firing is pre- 
ceded by a command for loading. Loadings are executed in line 
and skirmish line only. 

Pieces having been ordered loaded are kept loaded without 
command until the command unload, or inspection arms, fresh 
clips being inserted when the magazine is exhausted. 

The aiming point or target is carefully pointed out. This 
may be done before or after announcing the sight setting. Both 
are indicated before giving the command for firing, but may be 
omitted when the target appears suddenly and is unmistakable; 
in such case battle sight is used if no sight setting is announced. 

The target or aiming point having been designated and the 
sight setting announced, such designation or announcement need 
not be repeated until a change of either or both is necessary. 
Troops are trained to continue their fire upon the aiming point or 
target designated, and at the sight setting announced, until a 
change is ordered. 

If the men are not already in the position of load, that posi- 
tion is taken at the announcement of the sight setting; if the an- 



SCHOOLS 61 

nouncement is omitted, the position is taken at the first command 
for firing. 

When deployed, the use of the sling as an aid to accurate 
firing is discretionary with each man. 



TO LOAD 

Being in line or skirmish line at halt: 1. With dummy (blank 
or ball) cartridges, 2. LOAD. 

At the command load each front-rank man or skirmisher 
faces half right and carries the right foot to the right, about 1 foot, 
to such position as will insure the greatest firmness and steadiness 
of the body; raises, or lowers, the piece and drops it into the left 
hand at the balance, left thumb extended along the stock muzzle at 
the height of the breast, and turns the cut-off up. With the right 
hand he turns and draws the bolt back, takes a loaded clip and in- 
serts the end in the clip slots, places the thumb on the powder 
space of the top cartridge, the fingers extending around the piece 
and tips resting on the magazine floor plate; forces the cartridges 
into the magazine by pressing down with the thumb; without 
removing the clip, thrusts the bolt home, turning down the handle; 
turns the safety lock to the "safe" and carries the hand to the small 
of the stock. Each rear rank man moves to the right front, takes 
a similar position opposite the interval to the right of his front 
rank man, muzzle of the piece extending beyond the front rank, 
and loads. 

A skirmish line may load while moving, the pieces being held 
as nearly as practicable in the position of load. 

If kneeling or sitting, the position of the piece is similar; if 
kneeling, the left forearm rests on the left thigh; if sitting the el- 
bows are supported by the knees. If lying down, the left hand 
steadies and supports the piece at the balance, the toe of the butt 
resting on the ground, the muzzle off the ground. 

For reference, these positions (standing, kneeling, and ly- 
ing down) are designated as that of load. 

For instruction in loading: 1. Simulate, 2. LOAD. 

Executed as above described except that the cut-off remains 
"off" and the handling of cartridges is simulated. The recruits are 
first taught to simulate loading and firing; after a few lessons 
dummy cartridges may be used. Later, blank cartridges may be 
used. 

The rifle may be used as a single loader by turning the maga- 
zine "off." The magazine may be filled in whole or in part while 
"off" or "on" by pressing cartridges singly down and back until 



62 MILITARY TRAINING 

they are in the proper place. The use of the rifle as a single loader 
is, however, to be regarded as exceptional. 

TO UNLOAD 

Take the position of load, turn the safety lock up and move 
bolt alternately back and forward until all the cartridges are 
-ejected. After the last cartridge is ejected the chamber is closed 
by first thrusting the bolt slightly forward to free it from the stud 
holding it in place when the chamber is open, pressing the follower 
down and back to engage it under the bolt and then thrusting the 
bolt home; the trigger is pulled. The cartridges are then picked 
up, cleaned, and returned to the belt and the piece is brought to» 
the order. 



TO FIRE BY VOLLEY 

1. READY, 2. AIM, 3. Squad, 4. FIRE. 

At the command ready turn the safety lock to the "ready"; 
at the command aim raise the piece with both hands and support 
the butt firmly against the hollow of the right shoulder, right 
thumb, clasping the stock, barrel horizontal, left elbow well under 
the piece, right elbow as high as the shoulder; incline the head 
slightly forward and a little to the right, cheek against the stock, 
left eye closed, right eye looking through the notch of the rear 
sight so as to perceive the object aimed at, second joint of fore- 
finger resting lightly against the front of the trigger and taking 
up the slack; top of front sight is carefully raised into, and held in, 
the line of sight. 

Each rear-rank man aims through the interval to the right 
of his file leader and leans slightly forward to advance the muzzle 
of his piece beyond the front rank. 

In aiming kneeling, the left elbow rests on the left knee, 
point of elbow in front of kneecap. In aiming sitting, the elbows 
are supported by the knees. . 

In aiming lying down, raise the piece with both hands; rest 
on both elbows and press the butt firmly against the right shoulder. 

At the command fire press the finger against the trigger; 
fire without deranging the aim and without lowering or turning 
the piece; lower the piece in the position of Load and load. 

To continue the firing: 1. AIM, 2. Squad, 3. FIRE. 

Each command is executed as previously explained. Load 
(from magazine) is executed by drawing back and thrusting home 
the bolt with the right hand, leaving the safety lock at the "ready." 



SCHOOLS 63 

TO FIRE AT WILL 

Each man, independently of the others, comes to the ready, 
aims carefully and deliberately at the aiming point or target, fires, 
loads, and continues the firing until ordered to suspend or cease 
firing. 

To increase (decrease) the rate of fire in progress the in- 
structor shouts: FASTER (SLOWER). 

Men are trained to fire at the rate of about three shots per 
minute at effective ranges and five or six at close ranges, devoting 
the minimum of time to loading and the maximum to deliberate 
aiming. To illustrate the necessity for deliberation, and to habit- 
uate men to combat conditions, small and comparatively indistinct 
targets are designated. 

TO FIRE BY CLIP 

Executed in the same manner as fire at will, except that 
each man, after having exhausted the cartridges then in the piece 
suspends firing. 

TO SUSPEND FIRING 

The instructor blows a long blast of the whistle and repeats 
same, if necessary, or commands: SUSPEND FIRING. 

Firing stops; pieces are held, loaded and locked, in a posi- 
tion of readiness for instant resumption of firing, rear sights un- 
changed. The men continue to observe the target or aiming point, 
or the place at which the target disappeared, or at which it is ex- 
pected to reappear. This whistle signal may be used as a prelimi- 
nary to cease firing. 

TO CEASE FIRING 

Firing stops; pieces not already there are brought to the po- 
sition of load; those not loaded, are loaded; sights are laid, pieces 
are locked and brought to the order. 

Cease firing is used for long pauses, to prepare for changes 
of position, or to steady the men. 

Commands for suspending or ceasing fire may be given at 
any time after the preparatory command for firing whether the 
firing has actually commenced or not. 

THE USE OF COVER 

The recruit should be given careful instruction in the indi- 
vidual use of cover. It should be impressed upon him that, in tak- 



64 MILITARY TRAINING 

ing advantage of natural cover, he must be able to fire easily and 
effectively upon the enemy; if advancing on an enemy, he must 
do so steadily and as rapidly as possible; he must conceal himself 
as much as possible while firing and while advancing. While set- 
ting his sight, he should be under cover or lying prone. 

To teach him to fire easily and effectively, at the same time 
concealing himself from the view of the enemy, he is practiced in 
simulated firing in the prone, sitting, kneeling, and crouching posi- 
tions, from behind hillocks, trees, heaps of earth or rocks, from 
depressions, gullies, ditches, doorways, or windows. He is taught 
to fire around the right side of his concealment whenever possible, 
or, when this is not possible, to rise enough to fire over the top 
of his concealment. When these details are understood, he is re- 
quired to select cover with reference to an assumed enemy and to 
place himself behind it in proper position for firing. 

The evil of remaining too long in one place, however good 
the concealment, should be explained. He should be taught to ad- 
vance from cover to cover, selecting cover in advance before leav- 
ing his concealment. It should be impressed upon him that a man 
running rapidly toward an enemy furnishes a poor target. He 
should be trained in springing from a prone position behind 
concealment, running at top speed to cover and throwing him- 
self behind it. He should also be practiced in advancing from 
cover to cover by crawling, or by lying on the left side, rifle 
grasped in the right hand, and pushing himself forward with the 
right leg. 

He should be taught that, when fired on while acting inde- 
pendently, he should drop to the ground, seek cover, and then en- 
deavor to locate his enemy. 

The instruction of the recruit in the use of cover is continued 
in the combat, exercises of the company, but he must then be 
taught that the proper advance of the platoon or company and 
the effectiveness of its fire is of greater importance than the ques- 
tion of cover for individuals. He should also be taught that he 
may not move about or shift his position in the firing line except 
the better to see the target. 

OBSERVATION 

The ability to use his eyes accurately is of great importance 
to the soldier. The recruit should be trained in observing his sur- 
rounding from positions and when on the march. He should be 
practiced in pointing out and naming military features of the 
ground; in distinguishing between living beings; in counting dis- 
tant groups of objects or beings; in recognizing colors and forms. 



SCHOOLS 65 

In the training of men in the mechanism of the firing line, 
they should be practiced in repeating to one another target and 
aiming point designations and in quickly locating and pointing out 
a designated target. They should be taught to distinguish, from 
a prone position, distant objects, particularly troops, both with 
the naked eye and with field glasses. Similarly, they should be 
trained in estimating distances. 

SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY 

The captain is responsible for the theoretical and practical 
instruction of his officers and non-commissioned officers, not only 
in the duties of their respective grades, but in those of the next 
higher grades. 

The company in line is formed in double rank with the men 
arranged, as far as practicable, according to height from right to 
left, the tallest on the right. The original division into squads is 

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CAPTAIN 
THE PROPER WAY TO FORM A COMPANY. 

effected by the command: COUNT OFF. The squads, successively 
from the right, count off as in the School of the Squad, corporals 
placing themselves as Nos. 4 of the front rank. If the left squad 
contains less than six men, it is either increased to that number by 
transfers from other squads or is broken up and its members as- 
signed to other squads and posted in the line of file closers. These 
squad organizations are maintained, by transfers if necessary, until 
the company becomes so reduced in numbers as to necessitate a 
new division into squads. No squad contains less than six men. 

The company is further divided into two, three, or four pla- 
toons, each consisting of not less than two nor of more than four 
squads. In garrison or ceremonies the strength of platoons may 
exceed four squads. At the formation of the company the pla- 



PtGHT 
WOE 



66 MILITARY TRAINING 

toons or squads are numbered consecutively from right to left and 
these designations do not change. For convenience in giving com- 
mands and for reference, the designations, right, center, left, when 
in line, and leading, center, rear, when in column, are applied to 
platoons or squads. These designations apply to the actual right, 
left, center, head or rear in whatever direction the company may 
be facing. The center squad is the middle or right middle squad 
of the company. The designation "So-and-so's" squad or platoon 
may also be used. 

Platoons are assigned to the lieutenants and non-commis- 
sioned officers, in order of rank, as follows: 1, right; 2, left; 3, cen- 
ter (right center); 4, left center. The non-commissioned officers 
next in rank are assigned as guides, one to each platoon. If ser- 
geants still remain, they are assigned to platoons, as additional 
guides. When the platoon is deployed, its guide, or guides, accom- 
pany the platoon leader. During battle, these assignments are not 
changed; vacancies are filled by non-commissioned officers of the 
platoon, or by the nearest available officers or non-commissioned 
officers arriving with reenforcing troops. 

The first sergeant is never assigned as a guide. When not 
commanding a platoon, he is posted as a. file closer opposite the 
third file from the outer flank of the first platoon; and when the 
company is deployed he accompanies the captain. The quarter- 
master sergeant, when present, is assigned according to his rank as 
a sergeant. Enlisted men below the grade of sergeant, armed with 
the rifle, are in ranks unless serving as guides; when not so armed, 
they are posted in the line of file closers. Musicians, when required 
to play, are at the head of the column. When the company is de- 
ployd, they accompany the captain. 

The company executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
marchings, manual of arms, loadings and firings, takes intervals 
and distances and assembles, increases and diminishes intervals, 
resumes attention, obliques, resumes the direct march, preserves 
alignments, kneels, lies down, rises, stacks and takes arms, as ex- 
plained in the Schools of the Soldier and the Squad, substituting 
in the commands company for squad. 

The same rule applies to platoons, detachments, details, etc., 
substituting their designation for squad in the commands. In the 
same manner these execute the movements prescribed for the Com- 
pany, whenever possible, substituting their designation for com- 
pany in the commands. 

A company so depleted as to make division into platoons im- 
practicable is led by the captain as a single platoon, but retains 
the designation of company. The lieutenants and first sergeants 
assist in fire control; the other sergeants place themselves in the 
firing line as skirmishers. 



SCHOOLS 67 

CLOSE ORDER 

The guides of the right and left, or leading and rear, pla- 
toons, are the right and left, or leading and rear, guides, respec- 
ticely, of the company when it is in line or in column of squads. 
Other guides are in the line of file closers. In platoon movements 
the post of the platoon guide is at the head of the platoons, if the 
platoon is in column, and on the guiding flank if in line. When a 
platoon has two guides their original assignment to flanks of the 
platoon does not change. 

The guides of a column of squads place themselves on the 
flank opposite the file closers. To change the guides and file 
closers to the other flank, the captain commands: 1. File closers on 
left (right) flank; 2. MARCH. The file closers dart through the 
column; the captain and guides change. In column of squads, each 
rank preserves the alignment toward the side of the guide. 

Men in the line of file closers do not execute the loadings 
or firings. Guides and enlisted men in the line of file closers 
execute the manual of arms during the drill unless specially ex- 
cused, when they remain at the order. During ceremonies they 
execute all movements. 

In taking intervals and distances, unless otherwise directed, 
the right and left guides, at the first command, place themselves 
in the line of file closers, and, with them, take a distance of 4 
paces from the rear rank. In taking intervals, at the command 
march, the file closers face to the flank and each steps off with the 
file nearest him. In assembling the guides anel file closers resume 
their positions in line. 

In movements executed simultaneously by platoons (as 
platoons right or platoons, column right), platoon leaders repeat 
the preparatory command (platoon right, etc.), applicable to their 
respective platoons. The command of execution is given by the 
captain only. 

TO FORM THE COMPANY 

At the sounding of the assembly the first sergeant takes 
position 6 paces in front of where the center of the company is to 
be, faces it, draws saber, and commands: FALL IN. 

The right guide of the company places himself, facing to the 
front, where the right of the company is to rest, and at such point 
that the center of the company will be 6 paces from and opposite 
the first sergeant; the squads form in their proper places on the 
left of the right guide, superintended by the other sergeants, who 
then take their posts. 



68 MILITARY TRAINING 

The first sergeant commands: REPORT. Remaining in 
position at the order, the squad leaders, in succession from the 

right, salute and report: All present; or, Private (s) absent. 

The first sergeant does not return the salutes of the squad leaders; 
he then commands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS, 
faces about, salutes the captain, reports: Sir, all present or ac- 
counted for, or the names of the unauthorized absentees, and, with- 
out command, takes his post. 

If the company can not be formed by squads, the first ser- 
geant commands. 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Right shoulder, 4. 
ARMS, and calls the roll. Each man, as his name is called an- 
swers here and executes order arms. The sergeant then effects 
the division into squads and reports the company as prescribed 
above. 

The captain places himself 12 paces in front of the center of, 
and facing, the company in time to receive the report of the first 
sergeant*, whose salute he returns and then draws saber. The 
lieutenants take their posts when the first sergeant has reported 
and draw saber with the captain. The company, if not under 
arms, is formed in like manner omitting reference to arms. 

For the instruction of platoon leaders and guides, the com- 
pany, when small, may be formed in single rank. In this forma- 
tion close order movements only are executed. The single rank 
executes all movements as explained for the front rank of a com- 
pany. 

TO DISMISS THE COMPANY 

Being in line at a halt, the captain directs the first sergeant: 
Dismiss the company. The officers fall out; the first sergeant 
places himself faced to the front, 3 paces to the front and 2 paces 
from the nearest flank of the company, salutes, faces toward oppo- 
site flank of the company and commands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 
3. Port, 4. ARMS, 5. DISMISSED. 

ALIGNMENTS 

The alignments are executed as prescribed in the School of 
the Squad, the guide being established instead of the flank file. 
The rear-rank man of the flank file keeps his head and eyes to 
the front and covers his file leader. 

At each alignment the captain places himself in prolongation 
of the line, 2 paces from and facing the flank toward which the 
dress is made, verifies the alignment, and commands: FRONT. 
Platoon leaders take a like position when required to verify align- 
ments. 



SCHOOLS 69 

MOVEMENTS ON THE FIXED PIVOT 

Being in line, to turn the company: 1. Company right (left), 
2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT; or, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 

At the second command the right-flank man in the front 
rank faces to the right in marching and marks time; the other 
front-rank men oblique to the right, place themselves abreast of 
the pivot, and mark time; in the rear rank the third man from the 
right, followed in column by the second and first, moves straight 
to the front until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to 
the right in marching and mark time; the remaining men of the 
rear rank move straight to the front 4 paces, oblique 'to the right, 
place themselves abreast of the third man, cover their file leaders, 
and mark time; the right guide steps back, takes post on the flank, 
and marks time. The fourth command is given when the last man 
is 1 pace in rear of the new line. 

The command halt may be given at any time after the move- 
ment begins; only those halt who are in die new position. Each 
of the others halts upon arriving on the line, aligns himself'to the 
right, and executes front without command. 

Being in line, to form column of platoons, or the reverse: 

1. Platoons right (left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT; or 3. 
Forward, 4. MARCH. 

Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 
Before forming line the captain sees that the guides on the flank 
toward which the movement is to be executed are covering. This 
is effected by previously announcing the guide to that flank. 

Being in line, to form column of squads, or the reverse; or, 
being in line of platoons, to form columns of platoons, or the 
reverse: 1. Squads right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 1. Squads right 
(left), 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT. 

Executed by each squad as described in the School of the 
Squad. If the company or platoons be formed in line toward the 
side of the file closers, they dart through the column and take posts 
in rear of the company at the second command. If the column of 
squads be formed from line, the file closers take posts on the pivot 
flank, abreast of and 4 inches from the nearest rank. 

MOVEMENTS OF THE MOVING PIVOT 

Being in line, to change direction: 1. Right (Left) turn, 

2. MARCH, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 

Executed as described in the School of the Squad, except 
that the men do not glance toward the marching flank and that 
all take the full steps at the fourth command. The right guide 



70 MILITARY TRAINING 

is the pivot of the front rank. Each rear-rank man obliques on 
the same ground as his file leader. 

Being in column of 2 platoons, to change direction: 1. 
Column right (left), 2. MARCH. 

At the first command the leader of the leading platoon com- 
mands: Right turn. At the command march the leading platoon 
turns to the right on moving pivot; its leader commands: 1. For- 
ward, 2. MARCH, on completion of the turn. Rear platoons march 
squarely up to the turning point of the leading platoon and turn 
at command of their leaders. 

Being in column of squads, to change direction: 1. Column 
right (left), 2. MARCH. 

At the second command the front rank of the leading squad 
turns to the right on moving pivot as in the School of the Squad; 
the other ranks, without command, turn successively on the same 
ground and in a similar manner. 

Being in column of squads, to form line ®f platoons or the 
reverse; 1. Platoons, column right (left). 2. MARCH. 

Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 

Being in line, to form column of squads and change direc- 
tion: 1. Squads right (left), column right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 

1. Right (Left) by squads, 2. MARCH. 

In the first case the right squad initiates the column right 
as soon as it has completed the squad right. In the second case, 
at the command march, the right squad marches forward; the re- 
mainder of the company executes squads right, column left, and 
follows the right squad. The right guide, when he has posted him- 
self in front of the right squad, takes four steps, then resumes the 
full step; the right squad conforms. 

Being in line, to form line of platoons: 1. Squads right 
(left), platoons, column right (left), 2. MARCH; or, 1. Platoons, 
right (left) by squads, 2. MARCH. 

Executed by each platoon as described for the company in 
the preceding paragraph. 

FACING OR MARCHING TO THE REAR 

Being in line, line of platoons, or in column of platoons or 
squads, to face or march to the rear: *1. Squads right (left) about, 

2. MARCH; or, 1. Squads right (left) about, 2. MARCH, 3. Com- 
pany, 4. HALT. 

Executed by each squad as described in the School of the 
Squad. If the company or platoons be in column of squads, the file 
closers turn about toward the column and take their posts; if in 
line, each darts through the nearest interval between squads. 



SCHOOLS 71 

To march to the rear for a few paces: 1. About, 2. FACE, 

3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 

If in line, the guides place themselves in the rear rank, now 
the front rank; the file closers, on facing about, maintain their rela- 
tive positions. No other movement is executed until the line is 
faced to the original front. 

ON THE RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE 

Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line on right 
or left; 1. On right (left) into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 

4. HALT, 5. FRONT. 

At the first command the leader of the leading unit com- 
mands: Right turn. The leaders of the other units command: 
Forward, if at a halt. At the second command the leading unit 
turns to the right on moving pivot. The command halt is given 
when the leading unit has advanced the desired distance in the new 
direction; it halts; its leader then commands: Right dress. 

The units in rear continue to march straight to the front; 
each, when opposite the right of its place in line, executes right 
turn at the command of its leader; each is halted on the line at 
the command of its leader, who then commands: Right dress. All 
dress on the first unit in line. 

If executed in double time, the leading squad marches in 
double time until halted. 

FRONT INTO LINE 

Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to the 
front: 1. Right (Left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 

4. HALT, 5. FRONT. 

At the first command the leaders of the units in rear of the 
leading one command: Right oblique. If at a halt, the leader of 
the leading unit commands: Forward. At the second command the 
leading unit moves straight forward; the rear units oblique as in- 
dicated. The command halt is given when the leading unit has 
advanced the desired distance; it halts; its leader then commands: 
Left dress. Each of the rear units, when opposite its place in line, 
resumes the original direction at the command of its leader; each 
is halted on the line at the command of its leader, who then com- 
mands: Left dress. All dress on the first unit in line. 

Being in column of squads to form column of platoons, or 
being in line of platoons, to form the company in line: 1. Platoons, 
right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Company, 4. HALT, 

5. FRONT. 



72 MILITARY TRAINING 

Executed by each platoon as described for the company. In 
forming the company in line, the dress is on the left squad of the 
left platoon. In forming column of platoons, platoon leaders 
verify the alignment before taking their posts; the captain com- 
mands front when the alignments have been verified. 

When front into line is executed in double time the com- 
mands for halting and aligning are omitted and the guide is toward 
the side of the first unit in line. 

AT EASE AND ROUTE STEP 

The column of squads is the habitual column of route, but 
route step and at ease are applicable to any marching formation. 

To march at route step: 1. Route step, 2. MARCH. 

Sabers are carried at will or in the scabbard; the men carry 
their pieces at will, keeping the muzzles elevated; they are not 
required to preserve silence, nor to keep the step. The ranks 
cover and preserve their distance. If halted from route step, the 
men stand at rest. 

To march at ease: 1. At ease, 2. MARCH. 

The company marches as in route step, except that silence 
is preserved; when halted, the men remain at ease. 

Marching at route step or at ease: 1. Company, 2. ATTEN- 
TION. 

At the command attention the pieces are brought to the 
right shoulder and the cadenced step in quick time is resumed. 

TO DIMINISH THE FRONT OF A COLUMN OF SQUADS 

Being in column of squads: 1. Right (Left) by twos, 
2. MARCH. 

At the command march, all files except the two right files 
of the leading squad execute in place halt; the two left files of the 
leading squad obiique to the right when disengaged and follow tl*e 
right files at the shortest practicable distance. The remaining 
squads follow successively in like manner. 

Being in column of squads or twos: 1. Right (Left) by file, 
2. MARCH. 

At the command march, all files execute in place halt, except 
the right file of the leading two or squad. The left file or files of 
the leading two or squad oblique successively to the right when 
disengaged and each follows the file on its right at the shortest 
practicable distance. The remaining twos or squads follow suc- 
cessively in like manner. 

Being in column of files or twos, to form column of squads; 



SCHOOLS 73 

or, being in column files, to form column of two: 1. Squads 
(Twos), right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march, the leading file or files halt. The 
remainder of the squad, or two, obliques to the right and halts 
on line with the leading file or files. The remaining squads of 
twos close up and successively form in rear of the first in like 
manner. 

Marching by twos or files can not be executed without seri- 
ous delay and waste of road space. Every reasonable precaution 
will be taken to obviate the necessity for these formations. 

EXTENDED ORDER 

The command guide right (left or center) indicates the base 
squad for the deployment; if in line it designates the actual right 
(left or center) squad; if in column the command guide right 
(left) designates the leading squad, and the command guide center 
designates the center squad. After the deployment is completed, 
the guide is center without command, unless otherwise ordered. 

At the preparatory command for forming skirmish line, 
from either column of squads or line, each squad leader (ex- 
cept the leader of the base squad, when his squad does not ad- 
vance), cautions his squad, Follow me or By the right (left) 
flank, as the case may be; at the command march, he steps in front 
of his squad and leads it to its place in line. 

Having given the command for forming skirmish line, the 
captain, if necessary, indicates to the corporal of the base squad the 
point on which the squad is to march; the corporal habitually 
looks to the captain for such directions. 

The base squad is deployed as soon as it has sufficient 
interval. The other squads are deployed as they arrive on the 
general line; each corporal halts in his place in line and commands 
or signals, as skirmishes; the squad deploys and halts abreast of 
him. If tactical considerations demand it, the squad is deployed 
before arriving on the line. 

Deployed lines preserve a general alignment toward the 
guide. Within their respective fronts, individuals or units march 
so as best to secure cover or to facilitate the advance, but the 
general and orderly progress of the whole is paramount. On 
halting, a deployed line faces to the front (direction of the enemy) 
in all cases and takes advantage of cover, the men lying down if 
necessary. 

The company in skirmish line advances, halts, moves by the 
flank, or to the rear, obliques, resumes the direct march, passes 
from quick to double time and the reverse by the same commands 



74 MILITARY TRAINING 

and in a similar manner as in close order; if at a halt, the move- 
ment by the flank or to the rear is executed by the same commands 
as when marching. Company right (left, half right, half left) is 
executed as explained for the front rank, skirmish intervals being 
maintained. A platoon or other part of the company is deployed 
and marched in the same manner as the company, substituting in 
the commands, platoon (detachment, etc.) for company. 

DEPLOYMENTS 

Being in line, to form skirmish to the front: 1. As skirmish- 
ers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. 

If marching, the corporal of the base squad moves straight 
to the front; when that squad has advanced the desired distance, 
the captain commands: 1. Company, 2. HALT. If the guide be 
right (left), the other corporals move to the left (right) front, 
and, in succession from the base, place their squads on the line; 
if the guide be center, the other corporals move to the right or 
left front according as they are on the right or left of the center 
squad, and in succession from the center squad place their squads 
on the line. If at a halt, the base squad is deployed without ad- 
vancing; the other squads may be conducted to their proper 
places by the flank; interior squads may be moved when squads 
more distant from the base have gained comfortable marching 
distance. 

Being in column of squads, to form skirmish line to the 
front: 1. As skirmishers, guide right (left or center), 2. MARCH. 

If marching, the corporal of the base squad deploys it and 
moves straight to the front; if at a halt, he deploys his squad 
without advancing. If the guide be right (left), the other cor- 
porals move to the left (right) front, and, in succession from the 
base, place their squads on the line; if the guide be center, the 
corporals in front of the center squad move to the right (if at 
halt, to the right rear), the corporals in rear of the center squad 
move to the left front, and each, in succession from the base, 
places his squad on the line. The column of twos or files is de- 
ployed by the same commands and in like manner. 

The company in line or in column of squads may be de- 
ployed in an oblique direction by the same commands. The cap- 
tain points out the desired direction; the corporal of the base 
squad moves in the direction indicated; the other corporals con- 
form. 

To form skirmish line to the flank or rear the line or the 
column of squads is turned by squads to the flank or rear and then 
deployed as described. 



SCHOOLS 75 

The intervals between men are increased or decreased as 
described in the School of the Squad, adding to the preparatory 
commands, guide right (left or center) if necessary. 

THE ASSEMBLY 

The captain takes his post in front of, or designates the 
element on which the company is to assemble and commands: 
1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 

If in skirmish line the men move promptly toward the desig- 
nated point and the company is re-formed in line. If assembled 
by platoons, these are conducted to the designated point by pla- 
toon leaders, and the company is reformed in line. 

Platoons may be assembled by the command: 1. Platoons, 
assemble, 2. MARCH. 

Executed by each platoon as described for the company. 

One or more platoons may be assembled by the command: 
1. Such platoon (s), assemble, 2. MARCH. 

Executed by the designated platoon or platoons as described 
for the company. 

THE ADVANCE 

The advance of a company into an engagement (whether 
for attack or defense) is conducted in close order, preferably 
column of squads, until the probalility of encountering hostile 
fire makes it advisable to deploy. After deployment, and before 
opening fire, the advance of the company may be continued in 
skirmish line or other suitable formation, depending upon circum- 
stances. The advance may often be facilitated, or better advantage 
taken of cover, or losses reduced by the employment of the platoon 
or squad columns or by the use of a succession of thin lines. The 
selection of the method to be used is made by the captain or major^ 
the choice depending upon conditions arising during the progress 
of the advance. If the deployment is found to be premature, it 
will generally be best to assemble the company and proceed in 
close order. Patrols are used to provide the necessary security 
against surprise. 

Being in skirmish line: 1. Platoon columns, 2. MARCH. 

The platoon leaders move forward through the center of 
their respective platoons; men to the right of the platoon leader 
march to the left and follow him in file, those to the left march 
in like manner to the right; each platoon leader thus conducts the 
march of his platoon in double column or files; platoon guides 



76 MILITARY TRAINING 

follow in rear of their respective platoons to insure prompt and 
orderly execution of the advance. 

Being in skirmish line: 1. Squad columns, 2. MARCH. 

Each squad leader moves to the front; the members of each 
squad oblique toward and follow their squad leader in single file 
at easy marching distances. 

Platoon columns are profitably used where the ground is so 
difficult or cover so limited as to make it desirable to take advan- 
tage of the few favorable routes; no two platoons should march 
within the area of burst of a single shrapnel. Squad columns are 
of value principally in facilitating the advance over rough or brush- 
grown ground; they afford no material advantage in securing 
cover. 

To deploy platoon or squad columns: 1. As skirmishers, 
2. MARCH. 

Skirmishers move to the right or left front and successively 
place themselves in their original positions on the line. 

Being in platoon or squad columns: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 

The platoon or squad leaders signal assemble. The men of 
each platoon or squad, as the case may be, advance and, moving 
to the right and left, take their proper places in line, each unit 
assembling on the leading element of the column and re-forming 
in line. The platoon or squad leaders conduct their units toward 
the element or point indicated by the captain, and to their places 
in line; the company is re-formed in line. 

Being in skirmish line, to advance by a succession of thin 
lines: 1. (Such numbers), forward, 2. MARCH. 

The captain points out in advance the selected position in 
front of the line occupied. The designated number of each 
squad moves to the front; the line thus formed preserves the 
original intervals as nearly as practicable; when this line has ad- 
vanced a suitable distance (generally from 100 to 250 yards, de- 
pending upon the terrain and the character of the hostile fire), a 
second is sent forward by similar commands, and so on at irregu- 
lar distances until the whole line has advanced. Upon arriving at 
the indicated position, the first line is halted. Successive lines, 
upon arriving, halt on line with the first and the men take their 
proper places in the skirmish line. 

Ordinarily each line is made up of one man per squad and 
the men of a squad are sent forward in order from right to left 
as deployed. The first line is led by the platoon leader of the 
right platoon, the second by the guide of the right platoon, and so 
on in order and from right to left. The advance is conducted in 
quick time unless conditions demand a faster gait. The company 
having arrived at the indicated position, a further advance by the 
same means may be advisable. 



SCHOOLS 77 

The advance in a succession of thin lines is used to cross a 
wide stretch swept, or likely to be swept, by artillery fire or 
heavy, long-range rifle fire which cannot profitably be returned. 
Its purpose is the building up of a strong skirmish line preparatory 
to engaging in a fire fight. This method of advancing results in 
serious (though temporary) loss of control over the company. Its 
advantage lies in the fact that it offers a less definite target, hence 
is less likely to draw fire. 



THE FIRE ATTACK 

The principles governing the advance of the firing line in 
attack are considered in the School of the Battalion. When it be- 
comes impracticable for the company to advance as a whole by 
ordinary means, it advances by rushes. 

Being in skirmish line: 1. By platoon (two platoons, squad, 
four men, etc.), from the right (left), 2. RUSH. 

The platoon leader on the indicated flank carefully arranges 
the details for a prompt and vigorous execution of the rush and 
puts it into effect as soon as practicable. If necessary, he desig- 
nates the leader for the indicated fraction. When about to rush, 
he causes the men of the fraction to cease firing and to hold them- 
selves flat, but in readiness to spring forward instantly. (The 
leader of the rush at the signal of the platoon leader, if the latter 
be not the leader of the rush) commands: Follow me, and, running 
at top speed, leads the fraction to the new line, where he halts it 
and causes it to open fire. The leader of the rush selects the new 
line if it has not been previously designated. 

The first fraction having established itself on the new line, 
the next like fraction is sent forward by its platoon leader, without 
further command of the captain, and so on, successively, until the 
entire company is on the line established by the first rush. If 
more than one platoon is to join in one rush, the junior platoon 
leader conforms to the action of the senior. A part of the line 
having advanced, the captain may increase or decrease the size of 
the fractions to complete the movement. 

When the company forms a part of the firing line, the rush 
of the company as a whole is conducted by the captain, as de- 
scribed for a platoon in the preceding paragraph. The captain 
leads the rush; platoon leaders lead their respective platoons; pla- 
toon guides follow the line to insure prompt and orderly execu- 
tion of the advance. 

When the foregoing method of rushing, by running, becomes 
impracticable, any method of advance that brings the attack closer 
to the enemy, such as crawling, should be employed. 



7S MILITARY TRAINING 

THE COMPANY IN SUPPORT 

To enable it to follow or reach the firing line, the support 
adopts suitable formations. It should be kept assembled as long 
as practicable. If after deploying a favorable opportunity arises to 
hold it for some time in close formation, it should be reassembled. 
It is deployed when necessary. 

The movements of the support as a whole and the dispatch 
of reenforcements from it to the firing line are controlled by the 
major. A reenforcement of less than one platoon has little influ- 
ence and will be avoided whenever practicable. The captain of a 
company in support is constantly on the alert for the major's sig- 
nals or commands. 

A reenforcement sent to the firing line joins it deployed as 
skirmishers. The leader of the reenforcement places it in an inter- 
val in the line, if one exists, and commands it thereafter as a unit. 
If no such suitable interval exists, the reenforcement is advanced 
with increased intervals between skirmishers; each man occupies 
the nearest interval in the firing line, and each then obeys the 
orders of the nearest squad leader and platoon leader. A re- 
enforcement joins the firing line as quickly as possible without 
exhausting the men. 

The original platoon division of the companies in the firing 
line should be maintained and should not be broken up by the ming- 
ling of reenforcements. Upon joining the firing line, officers and 
Sergeants accompanying a reenforcement take over the duties of 
others of like grade who have been disabled, or distribute them- 
selves so as best to exercise their normal functions. Conditions 
will vary and no rules can be prescribed. It is essential that all 
assist in mastering the increasing difficulties of control. 

THE COMPANY ACTING ALONE 

In general, the company, when acting alone, is employed 
^according to the principles applicable to the battalion acting alone; 
the captain employs platoons as the major employs companies, 
making due allowance for the difference in strength. The support 
may be smaller in proportion or may be dispensed with. 

The company must be well protected against surprise. 
Combat patrols on the flanks are specially important. Each leader 
of a flank platoon details a man to watch for the signals of the 
patrol or patrols on his flank. 

FIRE 

Ordinarily pieces are loaded and extra ammunition is issued 
before the company deploys for combat. In close order the com- 



SCHOOLS 79 

pany executes the firings at the comand of the captain, who posts 
himself in rear of the center of the company. Usually the firings 
in close order consist of saluting volleys only. 

When the company is deployed, the men execute the firings 
at the command of their platoon leaders; the latter give such com- 
mands as are necessary to carry out the captain's directions, and, 
from time to time, add such further commands as are necessary to 
continue, correct, and control the fire ordered. 

The voice is generally inadequate for giving commands dur- 
ing fire and must be replaced by signal of such character that 
proper fire direction and control is assured. To attract attention, 
signals must usually be preceded by the whistle signal (short 
blast). A fraction of the firing line about to rush should, if prac- 
ticable, avoid using the long blast signal as an aid to cease firing. 
Officers and men behind the firing line can not ordinarily move 
freely along the line, but must depend on mutual watchfulness and 
the proper use of the prescribed signals All should post them- 
selves so as to see their immediate superiors and subordinates. 

The musicians assist the captain by observing the enemy, 
the target, and the fire effect, by transmitting commands or signals, 
and by watching for signals. 

Firing with blank cartridges at an outlined or represented 
enemy at distances less than 100 yards is prohibited. 



RANGES 

For convenience of reference, ranges are classified as fol- 
lows: to 600 yards, close range; 600 to 1,200 yards, effective 
range; 1,200 to 2,000 yards, long range; 2,000 yards and over, dis- 
tant range. 

The distance to the target must be determined as accurately 
as possible and the sights set accordingly. Aside from training 
and morale, this is the most important single factor in securing 
effective fire at the longer ranges. 

Except in a deliberately prepared defensive position, the 
most accurate and only practicable method of determining the 
range will generally be to take the mean of several estimates. 

Five or six officers or men, selected from the most accurate 
estimators in the company, are designated as range estimators and 
are specially trained in estimating distances. 

Whenever necessary and practicable, the captain assembles 
the range estimators, points out the target to them, and adopts 
the mean of their estimates. The range estimators then take their 
customary posts. 
6 



80 MILITARY TRAINING 

CLASSES OF FIRING 

Volley firing has limited application. In defense it may be 
used in the early stages of the action if the enemy presents a large, 
compact target. It may be used by troops executing fire of posi- 
tion. When the ground near the target is such that the strike of 
bullets can be seen from the firing line, ranging volleys may be 
used to correct the sight setting. In combat, volley firing is exe- 
cuted habitually by platoon. 

Fire at will is the class of fire normally employed in attack 
or defense. Clip fire has limited application. It is principally 
used: 1. In the early stages of combat, to steady the men by 
habituating them to brief pauses in firing. 2. To produce a short 
burst of fire. 

THE TARGET 

Ordinarily the major assigns to the company an objective in 
attack or sector in defense; the company's target lies within the 
limits so assigned. In the choice of target, tactical considerations 
are paramount; the nearest hostile troops within the objective or 
sector are thus the usual target. This is ordinarily the hostile 
firing line; troops in rear are ordinarily proper targets for artillery, 
machine guns, or, at times, infantry employing fire of position. 

Change of target should not be made without excellent 
reasons therefor, such as the sudden appearance of hostile troops 
under conditions which make them more to be feared than the 
troops comprising the former target. 

The distribution of fire over the entire target is of special 
importance. The captain allots a part of the target to each platoon, 
or each platoon leader takes as his target that part which corre- 
sponds to his position in the company. Men are so instructed that 
each fires on that part of the target which is directly opposite him. 

All parts of the target are equally important. Care must be 
exercised that the men do not slight its less visible parts. A sec- 
tion of the target not covered by fire represents a number of the 
enemy permitted to fire coolly and effectively. 

If the target can not be seen with the naked eye, platoon 
leaders select an object in front of or behind it, designate this as 
the aiming target, and direct a sight setting which will carry the 
cone of fire into the target. 

When the company is large enough to be divided into pla- 
toons, it is impracticable for the captain to command it directly in 
combat. His efficiency in managing the firing line is measured by 



SCHOOLS 81 

his ability to enforce his will through the platoon leaders. Having 
indicated clearly what he desires them to do, he avoids interfering 
except to correct serious errors or omissions. 

The captain directs the fire of the company or of designated 
platoons. He designates the target, and, when practicable, allots a 
part of the target to each platoon. Before beginning the fire action 
he determines the range, announces the sight setting, and indicates 
the class of fire to be employed and the time to open fire. There- 
after, he observes the fire effect, corrects material errors in sight 
setting, prevents exhaustion of the ammunition supply, and causes 
the distribution of such extra ammunition as may be received from 
the rear. 

FIRE CONTROL 

In combat the platoon is the fire unit. From 20 to 35 rifles 
are as many as one leader can afford to control effectively. 

Each platoon leader puts into execution the commands or 
direction of the captain, having first taken such precautions to in- 
sure correct sight setting and clear description of the target or 
aiming target as the situation permits or requires; thereafter, he 
gives such additional commands or directions as are necessary to 
exact compliance with the captain's will. He corrects the sight 
setting when necessary. He designates an aiming target when the 
target can not be seen with the naked eye. 

In general, platoon leaders observe the target and the effect 
of their fire and are on the alert for the captain's commands or sig- 
nals; they observe and regulate the rate of .fire. The platoon 
guides watch the firing line and check every breach of fire dis- 
cipline. Squad leaders transmit commands and signals when 
necessary, observe the conduct ot their squads and abate excite- 
ment, assist in enforcing fire discipline and participate in the firing. 

The best troops are those that submit longest to fire control. 
Loss of control is an evil which robs success of its greatest results. 
To avoid or delay such loss should be the constant aim of all. 
Fire control implies the ability to stop firing, change the sight set- 
ting and target, and resume a well directed fire. 

FIRE DISCIPLINE 

Fire discipline implies, besides a habit of obedience, a con- 
trol of the rifle by the soldier, the result of training, which will 
enable him in action to make hits instead of misses. It embraces 
taking advantage of the ground; care in setting the sight and de- 
livery of fire; constant attention to the orders of the leaders, and 



82 MILITARY TRAINING 

careful observation of the enemy; an increase of fire when the 
target is favorable, and a cessation of fire when the enemy disap- 
pears; economy of ammunition. In combat, shots which graze 
the enemy's trench or position and thus reduce the effectiveness 
of his fire have the approximate value of hits; such shots only, or 
actual hits, contribute toward fire superiority. Fire discipline 
implies that, in a firing line without leaders, each man retains his 
presence of mind and directs effective fire upon the proper target. 

To create a correct appreciation of the requirements of fire 
discipline, men are taught that the rate of fire should be as rapid 
as is consistent with accurate aiming; that the rate will depend 
upon the visibility, proximity, and size of the target; and that the 
proper rate will ordinarily suggest itself to each trained man, 
usually rendering cautions or commands unnecessary. In at- 
tack the highest rate of fire is employed at the halt preceding the 
assault, and in pursuing fire. 

In an advance by rushes, leaders of troops in firing positions 
are responsible for the delivery of heavy fire to cover the advance 
of each rushing fraction. Troops are trained to change slightly 
the direction of fire so as not to endanger the flanks of advanced 
portions of the firing line. 

In defense, when the target disappears behind cover, platoon 
leaders suspend fire, prepare their platoons to fire upon the point 
where it is expected to reappear, and greet its reappearance in- 
stantly with vigorous fire. 

SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION 

The battalion being purely a tactical unit, the major's dutie9 
are primarily those of an instructor in drill and tactics and of a 
tactical commander. He is responsible for the theoretical and 
practical training of the battalion. He supervises the training of 
the companies of the battalion with a view to insuring the thor- 
oughness and uniformity of their instruction. 

In the instruction of the battalion as a whole, his efforts 
are directed chiefly to the development of tactical efficiency, de- 
voting only such time to the mechanism of drill and to the cere- 
monies as may be necessary in order to insure precision, smartness, 
and proper control. 

The movements explained are on the basis of a battalion of 
four companies; they may be executed by a battalion of two or 
more companies, not exceeding six. 

The companies are generally arranged from right to left 
according to the rank of the captains present at the formation. 
The arrangement of the companies may be varied by the major or 



SCHOOLS 83 

higher commander. After the battalion is formed, no cognizance 
is taken of the relative order of the companies. 

In whatever direction the battalion faces the companies are 
designated numerically from right to left in line, and from head 
to rear in column, first company, second company^ etc. The terms 
right and left apply to actual right and left as the line faces; if the 
about by squads be executed when in line, the right company 
becomes the left company and the right center becomes the left 
center company. The designation center company indicates the 
right center or the actual center company according as the number 
of companies is even or odd. 

The band and other special units, when attached to the 
battalion, take the same post with respect to it as if it were the 
nearest battalion. 

CLOSE ORDER 

Captains repeat such preparatory commands as are to be im- 
mediately executed by their companies, as forward, squads right, 
etc.; the men execute the commands march, halt, etc., if applying 
to their companies when given by the major. In movements exe- 
cuted in route step or at ease the captains repeat the command 
of execution, if necessary. Captains do not repeat the major's 
commands in executing the manual of arms, nor those commands 
which are not essential to the execution of a movement by their 
companies, as column of squads, first company, squads right, etc. 

In giving commands or cautions captains may prefix the 
proper letter resignation of their companies, as A Company, 
HALT; B Company, squads right, etc. 

At the command guide center (right or left), captains com- 
mand: Guide right or left, according to the positions of their 
companies. Guide center designates the left guide of the center 
company. 

When the companies are to be dressed, captains place them- 
selves on that flank toward which the dress is to be made, as 
follows: 

The battalion in line: Beside the guide (or the flank file of 
the front rank, if the guide is not in line) and facing to the front. 

The battalion in column of companies: Two paces from the 
guide, in prolongation of and facing down the line. 

Each captain, after dressing his company, commands: 
FRONT, and takes his post. 

The battalion being in line and unless otherwise prescribed, 
at the captain's command dress, or at the command halt, when it 
ib prescribed that the company shall dress, the guide on the flank 



84 



MILITARY TRAINING 



away from the point of rest, with his piece at right shoulder, 
dresses promptly on the captain and the companies beyond. Dur- 
fng the dress he moves, if necessary, to the right and left only; 
the captain dresses the company on the line thus established. The 
guide takes the position of order arms at the command front. 

The battalion executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
marchings, manual of arms, resumes attention, kneels, lies down, 
rises, stacks and takes arms, as explained in the Schools of the 
Soldier and Squad, substituting in the commands battalion for 
squad. It executes squads right (left), squads right (left) about, 



t 



4.4 

I 

IDE J 



LINE (Cos. in Line) 



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o 
o 

Jfc l 



eioe OF GUIDE 



O £ 
O _j 



J o 
O o 
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LINE Of COMPANIES (Cos. In Col, of SqdS.) 
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KCO. FRONT* 5*, 



CLOSE COLUMN 
Cos.lnilr»e)» 



CLOSE fCos.ln Col. 

LINE if of Sqds.) 
20 




THE BATTALION . 
Bn. C (with Staff etc.) 4 Guide and Direction t The Color £ 
Numerals are Distances or Intervals in Paces 



route step and at ease, and obliques and resumes the direct march, 
as explained in the School of the Company. 

The battalion in column of platoons, squads, twos, or files 
changes direction; in column of squads forms column of twos or 
files and re-forms columns of twos or squads, as explained in the 
School of the Company. 

When the formation admits of the simultaneous execution 
by companies or platoons or movements in the School of the 
Company the major may cause such movement to be executed by fm 
prefixing, when necessary, companies (platoons) to the commands 
prescribed therein: as 1. Companies, right front into line, 2, 



' 



SCHOOLS 85 

MARCH. To complete such simultaneous movements, the com- 
mands halt or march, if prescribed, are given by the major. The 
command front, when prescribed, is given by the captains. 

The battalion as a unit executes the loadings and firings 
only in firing saluting volleys. The commands are as for the com- 
pany, substituting battalion for company. At the first command 
for loading, the captains take post in rear of the center of their 
respective companies. At the conclusion of the firing, the captains 
resume their posts in line. 

On other occasions, when firing in close order is necessary, 
it is executed by company or other subdivision under instructions 
from the major. 

TO FORM THE BATTALION 

For purposes other than ceremonies: The battalion is 
formed in column of squads. The companies having been formed, 
the adjutant posts himself so as. to be facing the column, when 
formed, and 6 paces in front of the place to be occupied by the 
leading guide of the battalion; he draws saber; adjutant's call is 
sounded or the adjutant signals assemble. The companies are 
formed, at attention, in column of squads in their proper order. 
Each captain, after halting his company, salutes the adjutant; the 
adjutant returns the salute and, when the last captain has saluted, 
faces the major and reports: Sir, the battalion is formed. He then 
joins the major. 

For ceremonies or when directed: The battalion is formed 
in line. 

The companies having been formed, the adjutant posts him- 
self so as to be 6 paces to the right of the right company when 
line is formed, and faces in the direction in which the line is to 
extend. He draws saber; adjutant's call is sounded; the band plays 
if present. 

The right company is conducted by its captain so as to 
arrive from the rear, parallel to the line; its right and left guides 
precede it on the line about 20 paces, taking post facing to the 
right at order arms, so that their elbows will be against the breasts 
of the right and left files of their company when it is dressed. The 
guides of the other companies successively prolong the line to the 
left in like manner and the companies approach their respective 
places in line as explained for the right company. The adjutant, 
\from his post, causes the guides to cover. 

2 When about 1 pace in rear of the line, each company is 

halted and dressed to the right against the arms of the guides. 

The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line 



86 MILITARY TRAINING 

when the right company is halted; it ceases playing when the left 
company has halted. 

When the guides of the left company have been posted, 
the adjutant, moving by the shortest route, takes post facing the 
battalion midway between the post of the major and the center 
of the battalion. The major staff, non-commissioned staff and 
orderlies take their posts. 

When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers 
and others have reached their posts, the adjutant commands: 
1. Guides, 2. POSTS, 3. Present, 4. ARMS. At the second com- 
mand guides take their places in the line. The adjutant then turns 
about and reports to the major: Sir, the battalion is formed; the 
major directs the adjutant: Take your post, Sir, draws saber and 
brings the battalion to the order. The adjutant takes his post, 
passing to the right of the major. 



TO DISMISS THE BATTALION 

Staff and non-commisioned staff officers fall out; each cap- 
tain marches his company off and dismisses it. 

TO RECTIFY THE ALIGNMENT 



Being in a line at a halt, to align the battalion: 1. Center 
(right or left), 2. DRESS. 

The captains dress their companies successively toward the 
center (right or left) guide of the battalion, each as soon as the 
captain next toward the indicated guide commands: Front. The 
captains of the center companies (if the dress is center) dress them 
without waiting for each other. 

To give the battalion a new alignment: 1. Guides center 
(right or left) company on the line, 2. Guides on the line, 3. Cen- 
ter (right or left), 4. DRESS, 5. Guides, 6. POSTS. 

At the first command, the designated guides place them- 
selves on the line facing the center (right or left). The major | 
establishes them in the direction he wishes to give the battalion. 

At the second command, the guides of the other companies 
take posts, facing the center (right or left), so as to prolong the 
line. 

At the command dress, each captain dresses his company to 
the flank toward which the guides of his company face. 

At the command posts, given when all companies have com- 
pleted the dress, the guides return to their posts. 



I 



SCHOOLS 87 

TO RECTIFY THE COLUMN 

Being in column of companies, or in close column, at a 
halt, if the guides do not cover or have not their proper distances, 
and it is desired to correct them, the major commands: 1. Right 
(left), 2. DRESS. 

Captains of companies in rear of the first place their right 
guides so as to cover at the proper distance; each captain aligns 
his company to the right and commands: FRONT. 

ON RIGHT (LEFT) INTO LINE 

Being in column of squads or companies: 1. On right (left) 
into line, 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. 

Being in column of squads; At the first command, the captain 
of the leading company commands: Squads right. If at a halt 
each captain in rear commands: Forward. At the second command 
the leading company marches in line to the right; the companies 
in rear continue to march to the front and form successively on 
the left, each, when opposite its place, being marched in line to 
the right. 

The fourth command is given when the first company has 
advanced the desired distance in the new direction; it halts and is 
dressed to the right by its captain; the others complete the move- 
ment, each being halted 1 pace in rear of the line established by the 
first company, and then dressed to the right. 

Being in column of companies: At the first command, the 
captain of the first company commands: Right turn. If at a halt, 
each captain in rear commands: Forward. Each of the captains 
in rear of the leading company gives the command: 1. Right turn, 
in time to add, 2. MARCH, when his company arrives opposite the 
right of its place in line. 

The fourth command is given and the movement completed 
as explained above. 

Whether executed from column of squads or column of com- 
panies, each captain places himself so as to march beside the right 
guide after his company forms line or changes direction to the 
right. 

If executed in double time, the leading company marches 
in double time until halted. 

FRONT INTO LINE 

Being in column of squads or companies: 1. Right (Left) 
front into line, 2. MARCH. 

Being in column of squads: At the first command, the cap- 



88 MILITARY TRAIN IN G 

tain of the leading company commands: Column right; the cap- 
tains of the companies in rear, column half right. At the second 
command the leading company executes column right, and as the 
last squad completes the change of direction, is formed in line 
to the left, halted, and dressed to the left. Each of the companies 
in rear is conducted by the most convenient route to the rear of 
the right of the preceding company, thence to the right, parallel to 
and 1 pace in rear of the new line; when opposite its place, it is,.i 
formed in line to the left, halted, and dressed to the left. 

Being in column of companies: If marching, the captain of 
the leading company gives the necessary commands to halt his 
company at the second command; if at a halt, the leading company 
stands fast. At the first command, the captain of each company 
in rear commands: Squads right or Right by squads, and after the 
second command conducts his company by the most convenient 
route to its place in line. 

Whether executed from column of squads or column of 
companies, each captain halts when opposite or at the point where 
the left of his company is to rest. 

TO FORM COLUMN OF COMPANIES SUCCESSIVELY TO 
THE RIGHT OR LEFT 

Being in column or squads: 1. Columns of companies, first 
company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 

The leading company executes squads right and moves for- 
ward. The other companies move forward in colmun of squads 
and successively march in line to the right on the same ground 
as the leading company and in such manner that the guide covers 
the guide of the preceding company. 



TO FORM COLUMN OF SQUADS SUCCESSIVELY TO THE 
RIGHT OR LEFT 

Being in column of companies: 1. Column of squads, first 
company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 

The leading company executes squads right and moves for- 
ward. The other companies move forward in columns of com- 
panies and successively march in column of squads to the right 
on the same ground as the leading company. 

TO CHANGE DIRECTION 

Being in column of companies or close column: 1. Column 
right (left), 2. MARCH. 



SCHOOLS 89 

The captain of the first company commands: Right turn. 

The leading company turns to the right on the moving pivot, 
the captain adding: 1, Forward, 2. MARCH, upon its completion. 

The other companies march squarely up to the turning 
point; each changes direction by the same commands and means 
as the first and in such manner that the guide covers the guide of 
the preceding company. 

Being in line of companies or close line: I. Battalion right 
(left), 2. MARCH, 3. Battalion, 4. HALT. 

The right company changes direction to the right; the other 
companies are conducted by the shortest line to their places 
abreast of the first. 

The fourth command is given when the right company has 
advanced the desired distance in the new direction; that company 
halts; the others halt successively upon arriving on the line. 

Being in column of squads, the battalion changes direction 
by the same commands and in the manner prescribed for the com- 
pany. 

MASS FORMATIONS 

Being in line, line of companies, column of companies or 
column of squads: 1. Close on first (fourth company, 2. MARCH. 

If at a halt, the indicated company stands fast; if marching, 
it is halted; each of the other companies is conducted toward it and 
is halted in proper order in close column if the indicated company 
be in line, or in close line if the indicated company be in column 
of squads. 

If the battalion is in line, companies form successively in 
rear of the indicated company; if in column of squads, companies 
in rear of the leading company form on the left of it. 

In close column formed from line on the first company, the 
left guides cover; formed on the fourth company, right guides 
cover. If formed on the leading company, the guide remains as 
before the formation. In close line, the guides are halted abreast 
of the guide of the leading company. 

The battalion in column closes on the leading company 
only. 

TO EXTEND THE MASS 

Being in close column or in close line: 1. Extend on first 
(fourth) company, 2. MARCH. 

Being in close line: If at a halt, the indicated company 
stands fast; if marching, it halts; each of the other companies is 



90 MILITARY TRAINING 

conducted away from the indicated company and is halted in its 
proper order in line of companies. 

Being in close column, the extension is made on the fourth 
company only. If marching, the leading company continues to 
march; companies in rear are halted and successively resume the 
march in time to follow at full distance. If at halt, the leading 
company marches; companies in rear successively march in time to 
follow at full distance. Close column is not extended in double 
time. 

Being in close column: 1. Right (Left) front into line, 
2. MARCH. Executed as from column of companies. 

Being in close column: 1. Column of squads, first (fourth) 
company, squads right (left), 2. MARCH. 

The designated company marches in column of squads to 
the right. Each of the other companies executes the same move- 
ment in time to follow the preceding company in column. 

Being in close line: 1. Column of squads, first (fourth) 
company, forward, 2. MARCH. 

The designated company moves forward. The other com- 
panies (halting if in march) successively take up the march and 
follow in column. 

ROUTE STEP AND AT EASE 

The battalion marches in route step and at ease as pre- 
scribed in the School of the Company. When marching in column 
of companies or platoons, the guides maintain the trace and dis- 
tance. 

In route marches the major marches at the head of the col- 
umn; when necessary, the file closers may be directed to march at 
the head and rear of their companies. 

ASSEMBLY 

The battalion being wholly or partially deployed, or the 
companies being separated: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. 

The major places himself opposite to or designates the 
element or point on which the battalion is to assemble. Com- 
panies are assembled and marched to the indicated point. As the 
companies arrive the major or adjutant indicates the formation to 
be taken. 

COMBAT PRINCIPLES 

In extended order, the company is the largest unit to execute 
movements by prescribed commands or means. The major, assem- 



SCHOOLS 91 

bling his captains if practicable, directs the disposition of the bat- 
talion by means of tactical orders. He controls its subsequent 
movements by such orders or commands as are suitable to the 
occasion. 

In every disposition of the battalion for combat the major's 
order should give subordinates sufficient information of the enemy, 
of the position of supporting and neighboring troops, and of the 
object sought to enable them to conform intelligently to the gen- 
eral plan. The order should then designate the companies which 
are to constitute the firing line and those which are to constitute 
the support. In attack it should designate the direction or the 
objective, the order and front of the companies on the firing line, 
and should designate the right or left company as base company. 
In defense, it should describe the front of each company, and, if 
necessary, the sector to be observed by each. 

When the battalion is operating alone, the major provides 
for the reconnaissance and protection of his flanks; if part of a 
larger force, the major makes similar provisions, when necessary, 
without orders from higher authority, unless such authority has 
specifically directed other suitable reconnaissance and protection. 

When the battalion is deployed upon the initiative of the 
major, he indicates whether extra ammunition shall be issued; if 
deployed in pursuance of orders of higher authority, the major 
causes the issue of extra ammunition, unless such authority has 
given directions to the contrary, 

DEPLOYMENT 

A premature deployment involves a long, disorganizing and 
fatiguing advance of the skirmish line, and should be avoided. A 
greater evil is to be caught by heavy fire when in dense column 
or other close order formation; hence advantage should be taken 
of cover in order to retain the battalion in close order formation 
until exposure to heavy hostile fire may reasonably be anticipated. 

The major regulates the depth of the deployment and the 
extent and density of the firing line, subject to such restrictions as 
a senior may have imposed. Companies or designated subdivisions 
and detachments are conducted by their commanders in such man- 
ner as best to accomplish the mission asigned to them under the 
major's orders. Companies designated for the firing line march 
independently to the place of deployment, form skirmish line, and 
take up the advance. They conform in general, to the base com- 
pany. 

The commander of a battalion, whether it is operating alone 
or as part of a larger force, should hold a part of his command out 



VI MILITARY TRAINING 

of the firing line. By the judicious use of this force the major 
can exert an influence not otherwise possible over his firing line 
and can control, within reasonable limits, an action once begun. 
So if his battalion be assigned to the firing line the major causes 
one, two, or three companies to be deployed on the firing line, 
retaining the remaining companies or company as a support for 
that firing line. The division of the battalion into firing line and 
support will depend upon the front to be covered and the nature 
and anticipated severity of the action. 

If the battalion be part of a larger command, the number 
of companies in the firing line is generally determinable from the 
regimental commander's order; the remainder constitutes the sup- 
port. If the battalion is acting alone, the support must be strong 
enough to maintain the original fire power of the firing line, to 
protect the flanks, and to perform the functions of a reserve, what- 
ever be the issue of the action. 

If the battalion is operating alone, the support may, according 
to circumstances, be held in one or two bodies and placed behind 
the center, or one or both flanks of the firing line, or echeloned 
beyond a flank. If the battalion is part of a larger force, the sup- 
port is generally held in one body. 

The distance between the firing line and the supporting 
group or groups varies between wide limits; it should be as short 
as the necessity for protection from heavy losses will permit. 
When cover is available, the support should be as close as 50 to 
100 yards; when such cover is not available, it should not be closer 
than 300 yards. It may be as far as 500 yards in rear if good cover 
is there obtainable and is not obtainable at a lesser distance. 

In exceptional cases, as in a meeting engagement, it may be 
necessary to place an entire battalion or regiment in the firing 
line at the initial deployment, the support being furnished by other 
troops. Such deployment causes the early mingling of the larger 
units, thus rendering leadership and control extremely difficult. 
The necessity for such deployment increases with the inefficiency 
of the commander and of the service of information. 

FIRE 

Fire direction and fire control are functions of company 
and platoon commanders. The major makes the primary appor- 
tionment of the target — in defense, by assigning sectors of fire; 
in attack, by assigning the objective. In the latter case each com- 
pany in the firing line takes as its target that part of the general 
objective which lies in its front. 

The major should indicate the point or time at which the 
fire fight is to open. He may do this in his order for deployment 



SCHOOLS 93 

or he may follow the firing line close enough to do so at the proper 
fime. If it be impracticable for him to do either, the senior officer 
with the firing line, in each battalion, selects the time for opening 
fire. 

ATTACK 



The battalion is the attack unit, whether operating alone 
or as part of a larger unit. 

If his battalion be one of several in the firing line, the major, 
in executing his part of the attack, pushes his battalion forward 
as vigorously as possible within the front, or section, assigned to it. 
The great degree of independence allowed to him as to details 
demands, in turn, the exercise of good judgment on his part. Bet- 
ter leadership, better troops, and more favorable terrain enable 
one battalion to advance more rapidly in attack than another less 
fortunate, and such a battalion insures the further attack of the 
others. The leading battalion should not, however, become iso- 
lated; isolation may lead to its destruction, and must be guarded 
against at all times. 

The deployment having been made, the firing line advances 
without firing. The predominant idea must be to close with the 
enemy as soon as possible without ruinous losses. The limited 
supply of ammunition and the uncertainty of resupply, the neces- 
sity for securing fire superiority in order to advance within the 
shorter ranges, and the impossibility of accomplishing this at inef- 
fective ranges, make it imperative that fire be not opened as long 
as the advance can be continued without demoralizing losses. The 
attack which halts to open fire at extreme range (over 1,200 yards) 
is not likely ever to reach its destination. Every effort should 
be made, by using cover or inconspicuous formations, or by ad- 
vancing the firing line as a whole, to arrive within 800 yards of 
the enemy before opening fire. 

Except when the enemy's artillery is able to effect an un- 
usual concentration of fire, its fire upon deployed infantry causes 
losses which are unimportant when compared with those inflicted 
by his infantry; hence the attacking infantry should proceed to a 
position, from which an effective fire can be directed against the 
hostile infantry with a view to obtaining fire superiority. The 
effectiveness of the enemy's fire must be reduced so as to 
permit further advance. The more effective the fire to which the 
enemy is subjected the less effective will be his fire. 

Occasionally the fire of adjacent battalions, or of infantry 
employing fire of position, or of supporting artillery, will permit 
the further advance of the entire firing line from this point, but 
it will generally be necessary to advance by rushes of fractions 



94 MILITARY TRAINING 

of the line. The fraction making the rush should be as large a} 
the hostile fire and the necessity for maintaining fire superiority 
will permit. Depending upon circumstances, the strength of the 
fraction may vary from a company to a few men. The advance 
is made as rapidly as possible without losing fire superiority. 
The smaller the fraction which rushes, the greater the number 
of rifles which continue to fire upon the enemy. On the other 
hand, the smaller the fraction which rushes, the slower will be 
the progress of the attack. ^ 

Enough rifles must continue in action to insure the suc- 
cess of each rush. Frequently the successive advances of the 
firing line must be effected by rushes of fractions of decreased 
size; that is, advances by rushes may first be made by company, 
later by half company or platoon, and finally by squads or files; 
but no subsequent opportunity to increase the rate of advance, 
such as better cover or a decrease of the hostile fire, should be 
overlooked. Whenever possible, the rush is begun by a flank 
fraction of the firing line. In the absence of express directions 
from the major, each captain of a flank company determines when 
^n advance by rushes shall be attempted. A flank company which 
inaugurates an advance by rushes becomes the base company, if 
not already the base. An advance by rushes having been inaug- 
urated on one flank, the remainder of the firing line conforms; 
fractions rush successively from that flank and halt on the line 
•established by the initial rush. The fractions need not be uniform 
in size; each captain indicates how his company shall rush, having 
due regard to the ground and the state of the fire fight. 

A fraction about to rush is sent forward when the remainder 
of the line is firing vigorously; otherwise the chief advantage of 
this method of advancing is lost. The length of the rush will vary 
from 30 to 80 yards, depending upon the existence of cover, posi- 
tions for firing, and the hostile fire. 

When the entire firing line of the battalion has advanced 
to the new line, fresh opportunities to advance are sought as 
before. 

Two identical situations will never confront the battalion; 
hence at drill it is prohibited to arrange the details of an advance 
before the preceding one has been concluded, or to employ a fixed 
or prearranged method of advancing by rushes. 

The major posts himself so as best to direct the reenforc- 
ing of the firing line from the support. When all or nearly all 
of the support has been absorbed by the firing line, he joins, and 
takes full charge of, the latter. 

The reenforcing of the firing line by driblets of a squad 
or a few men has no appreciable effect. The firing line requires 
either no reenforcement or a strong one. Generally one or two 



SCHOOLS 95 

platoons are sent forward under cover of a heavy fire of the firing 
line. 

To facilitate control and to provide intervals in which re- 
enforcements may be placed, the companies in the firing line should 
be kept closed in on tneir centers as they become depleted by 
casualties during the advance. When this is impracticable, re- 
enforcements must mingle with and thicken the firing line. In 
battle the latter method is the rule rather than the exception, and 
to familiarize the men with such conditions the combat exercises 
of the battalion should include both methods of reenforcing. 
Occasionally, to provide the necessary intervals for reenforcing 
by either of these methods, the firing line should be thinned by 
causing men to drop out and simulate losses during the various 
advances. Under ordinary conditions the depletion of the firing 
line for this purpose is from one-fifth to one-half of its strength. 

The major or senior officer in the firing line determines 
when bayonets are fixed and gives the proper command or signal. 
It is repeated by all parts of the firing line. Each man who was 
in the front rank prior to deployment, as soon as he recognizes 
the command or signal, suspends firing, quickly fixes his bayonet, 
and immediately resumes firing; after which the other men sus- 
pend firing, fix bayonets, and immediately resume firing. The 
support also fixes bayonets. The concerted fixing of the bayonet 
by the firing line at drill does not simulate battle conditions and 
should not be required. It is essential that there be no marked 
pause in the firing. Bayonets are fixed generally before or during 
the last, or second last, advance preceding the charge. 

Subject to orders from higher authority, the major deter- 
mines the point from which the charge is to be made. The firing 
line having arrived at that point and being in readiness, the major 
causes the charge to be sounded. The signal is repeated by the 
musicians of all parts of the line. The company officers lead the 
charge. The skirmishers spring forward shouting, run with bayo- 
nets at charge, and close with the enemy. 

The further conduct of the charging troops will depend upon 
circumstances; they may halt and engage in bayonet combat or 
in pursuing fire; they may advance a short distance to obtain 
a field of fire or to drive the enemy from the vicinity; they may 
assemble or reorganize, etc. If the enemy vacates his position 
every effort should be made to open fire at once on the retreat- 
ing mass, reorganization of the attacking troops being of secon- 
dary importance to the infliction of further losses upon the enemy 
and to the increase of his confusion. In combat exercises the 
major assumes a situation and terminates the assault accordingly. 



96 MILITARY TRAINING 

DEFENSE 

In defense, as in attack, the battalion is the tactical unit 
best suited to independent assignment. Defensive positions are 
usually divided into sections and a battalion assigned to each. 

The major locates such fire, communicating, and cover 
trenches and obstacles as are to be constructed. He assigns com- 
panies to construct them and details the troops to occupy them. 

The major reenforces the firing line in accordance with the 
principles applicable to, and explained in connection with, the 
attack, maintaining no more rifles in the firing line than are 
necessary to prevent the enemy's advance. 

The supply of ammunition being usually ample, fire is 
opened as soon as it is possible to break up the enemy's for- 
mation, stop his advance, or inflict material loss, but this rule 
must be modified to suit the ammunition supply. 

The major causes the firing line and support to fix bayo- 
nets when an assault by the enemy is imminent. Captains direct 
this to be done if they are not in communication with the major 
and the measure is deemed advisable. Fire alone will not stop 
a determined, skillfully conducted attack. The defender must 
have equal tenacity; if he can stay in his trench or position and 
cross bayonets, he will at least have neutralized the hostile first 
line, and the combat will be decided by reserves. 

If ordered or compelled to withdraw under hostile infantry 
fire or in the presence of hostile infantry, the support is posted 
so as to cover the retirement of the firing line. 

When the batallion is operating alone, the support must 
be strong and must be fed sparingly into the firing line, especially 
if a counter-attack is planned. Opportunities for counter-attack 
6hould be sought at all times. 

THE REGIMENT 

Normally, the regiment consists of three battalions. Special 
units, such as band, machine gun company and mounted scouts, 
have special formations for their own use. Movements herein pre- 
scribed are for the battalions; special units conform thereto unless 
otherwise prescribed or directed. 

The colonel is responsible for the theoretical instruction 
and practical training of the regiment as a whole. Under his im- 
mediate supervision the training of the units of the regiment 19 
conducted by their respective commanders. 

The colonel either gives his commands or orders orally, 
by bugle or by signal, or communicates them by .staff officers or 



SCHOOLS 



97 



orderlies. Each major gives the appropriate commands or orders, 
and, in close-order movements, causes his battalion to execute the 
necessary movements at his command of execution. Each major 
ordinarily moves his battalion from one formation to another, in 
column of squads, in the most convenient manner, and, in the 
presence of the enemy, in the most direct manner consistent with 



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LINE (Bns. In Line 


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LINE of MASSES (Bns. In Close Column) 






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Band 




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COLUMN of 


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(Right Center) Battalion, see Flg.2 
Numerals are Distances or Inter* 
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THE REGIMENT. 



icover. Commanders of the special units observe the same princi- 
ples as to commands and movements. They take places in the 
,aew formation as directed by the colonel, maintaining their rela- 
tive positions with respect to the flank or end of the regiment on 
which they are originally posted. 



98 MILITARY TRAINING 

When the regiment is formed, and during ceremonies, the 
lieutenant colonel is posted 2 paces to the left of, and 1 pace 
less advanced than the colonel. In movements subsequent to the 
formation of the regiment and other than ceremonies, the lieu- 
tenant colonel is on the left of the colonel. 

In whatever formation the regiment may be, the battalions 
retain their permanent administrative designations of first;, second 
third battalion. For convenience, they may be designated, when 
in line, as right, center, or left battalion; when in column, as 
leading, center, or rear battalion. These designations apply to 
the actual positions of the battalions in line or column. 

Except at ceremonies, or when rendering honors, or when 
otherwise directed, after the regiment is formed, the battalions 
march and stand at ease during subsequent movements. 

CLOSE ORDER 

Unless otherwise directed,, the battalions are posted from 
right to left, or from head to rear, according to the rank of the 
battalion commanders present, the senior on the right or at the 
head. A battalion whose major is in command of the regiment 
retains its place. 

For ordinary purposes, the regiment is formed in column of 
squads or in column of masses. The .adjutant informs the majors 
what the formation is to be. The battalions and special units 
having been formed, he posts himself and draws saber. Adju-i 
tant's call is sounded, or the adjutant signals assemble. 

If forming in column of squads, the adjutant posts himself 
so as to be facing the column when formed, and 6 paces in front 
of the place to be occupied by the leading guide of the regiment; 
if forming in column of masses, he posts himself so as to be fac 
ing the right guides of the column when formed, and 6 paces in 
front of the place to be occupied by the right guide of the leading 
company. Later, he moves so as best to observe the formation. 

The battalions are halted, at attention, in column of squads., 
or close column, as the case may be, successively from the front 
in their proper order and places. The band takes its place when 
the leading battalion has halted. Other special units take their 
places in turn when the rear battalion has halted. 

The majors and the commanders of the machine gun com- 
pany and mounted scouts (or detachment) each, when his com- 
mand is in place, salutes the adjutant and commands: At ease; the 
adjutant returns the salutes. When all have saluted and the band 
is in place, the adjutant rides to the colonel, reports: Sir, the regi- 
ment is formed, and takes his post. The colonel draws saber. 

The formation in column of squads may be modified to the 



SCHOOLS 99 

extent demanded by circumstances. Prior to the formation the 
adjutant indicates the point where the head of the column is to 
rest and the direction in which it is to face; he then posts him- 
self so as best to observe the formation. At adjutant's call or 
assemble the leading battalion marches to, and halts at, the indi- 
cated point. The other battalions take positions from which they 
may conveniently follow in their proper places. 

For ceremonies, or when directed,, the regiment is formed in 
line or line of masses. The adjutant posts himself so as to be 6 
paces to the right of the right or leading company of the right 
battalion when the regiment is formed and faces in the direction in 
which the line is to extend. Adjutant's call is sounded; the band 
plays. 

The adjutant indicates to the adjutant of the right battalion 
the point of rest and the direction in which the line is to extend, 
and then takes post facing the regiment midway between the 
post of the colonel and the center of the regiment. Each of the 
other battalion adjutants precedes his battalion to the line and 
marks its point of rest. 

The battalions, arriving from the rear, each in line or close 
column as the case may be, are halted on the line successively 
from right to left in their proper order and places. Upon halting, 
each major commands: 1. Right, 2. DRESS. The battalion ad- 
jutant assists in aligning the battalion and then takes his post. 

The band, arriving from the rear, takes its place in line 
when the right battalion has halted; it ceases playing when the left 
battalion has halted. The machine gun company and the mounted 
scouts (or detachments) take their places in line after center 
battalion has halted. The colonel and those who accompany him 
take post. 

When all parts of the line have been dressed, and officers 
and all others have reached their posts, the adjutant commands: 
1. Present, 2. ARMS. He then turns about and reports to the 
colonel: Sir, the regiment is formd; the colonel directs the adju- 
tant: Take your post, Sir, draws saber and brings the regiment to 
the order. The adjutant takes his post, passing to the right of the 
colonel. 

TO DISMISS THE REGIMENT 

Being in any formation: DISMISS YOUR BATTALIONS. 
Each major marches his battalion off and dismisses it. 

MOVEMENTS BY THE REGIMENT 

The regiment executes the halt, rests, facings, steps and 
marchings, manual of arms, resumes attention, kneels, lies down, 



100 MILITARY TRAINING 

rises, stacks and takes arms, as explained in the Schools of the 
Soldier and Squad, substituting in the commands, when necessary, 
battalions for squad. It executes squads right (left), squads 
right (left), about, route step and at ease, obliques and resumes 
the direct march is explained in the school of the Company. 
The regiment in column of files, twos, squads, or platoons, changes 
direction, and in column of squad forms column of twos or files 
.and re-forms column of twos or squads, as explained in the School 
of the Company. In column of companies, it changes direction as 
.explained in the School of the Battalion. 

When the formation admits of the simultaneous execution, 
by battalions, companies,, or platoons, of movements prescribed in 
the School of the Company or Battalion, the colonel may cause 
such movements to be executed by prefixing, where necessary, 
battalions (companies, platoons) to the commands prescribed 
therein. 

The column of squads is the usual column of march; to 
shorten the column, if conditions permit, a double column of 
squads may be used, the companies of each battalion marching 
abreast in two columns. Preliminary to an engagement, the regi- 
ment or its units are placed in the formation best suited to its 
subsequent tactical employment. 

To assume any formation, the colonel indicates to the 
majors the character of the formation desired, the order of the 
battalions, and the point of rest. Each battalion is conducted by 
its major, and is placed in its proper order in the formation,, by 
the most convenient means and route. Having halted in a forma- 
tion, no movements for this purpose of correcting minor discrep- 
ancies in alignments, intervals, or distances are made unless 
specially directed by the colonel or necessitated by conditions of 
cover. 

To correct intervals, distances, and alignments, the colonel 
directs one or more of the majors to rectify their battalions. Each 
major so directed causes his battalion to correct its alignment, 
intervals and distances, and places it in its proper position in the 
formation. 

COMBAT PRINCIPLES 

The regiment is deployed by the colonel's order to the 
commanders of battalions and special units. The order should give 
them information of the situation and of the proposed plan of 
action. In attack, the order should assign to each battalion not 
in reserve its objective or line of advance. In defense, it should 
assign to each its sector. In either case it should designate the 
troops for, and the position of, the reserve and prescribe the em- 



SCHOOLS 101 

ployment of the machine guns and mounted scouts. Both in attack 
and defense the order may fix the front to be covered in the de- 
ployment. Encroachment upon the proper functions of subordi- 
nates and unnecessary details should be studiously avoided. When 
the regiment deploys, the colonel habitually places the band at the 
disposal of the surgeon for employment in caring for the wounded. 

The regiment, when operating alone and attacking, should 
undertake an enveloping attack if it does not result in overexten- 
sion. Assuming a regiment of 1,500 rifles, an extension of more 
than 1,000 yards between its extreme flanks when making an en- 
veloping attack alone is seldom justifiable; when part of a battle 
line, a front of 500 yards can rarely be exceeded. 

In defense the front occupied when acting alone or posted on 
or near the flank of a battle line should seldom exceed 600 yards; 
when posted as an interior regiment, the front may be increased 
to 800 yards. The front may be somewhat longer than in the 
attack, since smaller battalion supports are justifiable. When 
the regiment is operating alone, however, the regimental reserve 
should be as strong in the defense as in the attack unless the flanks 
are secure. 

The colonel should always hold out a reserve — generally 
one battalion; but when the regiment is operating alone, it is 
generally advisable to hold out more at first. 

Whereas the support held out in each battalion of the firing 
line is intended to thicken the diminishing firing line at the proper 
times and sometimes to lengthen it, the reserve held out in a 
regiment operating alone is used for this purpose only as a last 
resort. Its primary functions are: In attack, to protect the flanks, 
to improve fully the advantage following a victory, or to cover 
defeat; in defense, to prolong the firing line, to effect a counter- 
attack, or to cover withdrawal. It is the colonel's chief means 
of influencing an action once begun. It should be conserved to 
await the proper moment for its employment; the combat seldom 
comes to a successful issue without its employment in some form. 

The reserve of a regiment operating as part of a large force 
becomes a local reserve. It replaces depleted supports and in 
attack strengthens and protects the firing line in the charge. 

THE BRIGADE 

The brigade does not engage in prescribed drills. It en- 
gages in route marches and battle or other tactical exercises. 
These are conducted pursuant to commands or orders formulated 
to suit the conditions of the proposed movement or exercise, and, 
in general, in accordance with the principles applicable to the 
regiment. 



102 MILITARY TRAINING 

A brigade of about 4,000 rifles, as part of a general battle 
line, would be deployed on a front of not more than 1,200 yards in 
attack or 1,600 yards in defense. When acting alone the distance 
between extreme flanks in an enveloping attack should not exceed 
2,000 yards at the time the attacking infantry opens fire. When 
acting alone, the front in defense should not exceed 1,600 yards. 
These limits apply to the original deployment of the brigade for 
combat and presuppose an enemy of equal or nearly equal training 
and morale. The limits necessitated by the subsequent progress 
of the combat can not be foreseen. 

Units larger than the brigade are generally composed of all 
arms. Combined tactics are considered in the Field Service Regu- 
lations. 

SCHOOL OF THE GRENADIER 

This school includes exercises in throwing grenades and also 
theoretical instruction concerning the manufacture, dismounting, 
and manipulation of grenades. The " throwing of grenades " is 
the basis of the instruction of the grenadier. Accuracy in throw- 
ing is of the greatest importance, for besides the advantage it 
gives in battle it diminishes the risk of accidents and wasting 
of grenades. The moral effect of a grenade bursting in a trench 
is added to its destructive effect. The grenade should never be 
thrown scraping the ground or with the elbow bent. The fire 
should be plunging. 

The object of squad instruction is to teach any squad of 
grenadiers (particularly the first squad of each platoon) to pre- 
pare for grenade combat and to pass quickly to that mode of 
fighting whenever circumstances permit and to teach the squad 
to effect a surprise attack with grenades. As a rule, the men 
comprising a squad of grenadiers are divided for battle and 
classed as throwers, carriers and assistant grenadiers (formerly 
called riflemen). 

SQUAD TRAINING 

The command is taught to divide itself quickly into as- 
sistant grenadiers, throwers and carriers, and they are instructed 
in the part that each of these should take under the different 
circumstances of combat. 

The men should always work in complete silence, commu- 
nicating as far as possible by gestures and signals. 

It is much more important to have squads of grenadiers of 
average ability but trained to work together, than to have a num- 



SCHOOLS 103 

ber of highly developed individuals. It is a great mistake to 
pay attention only to the individual instruction of the grenadier 
and to believe that the efficiency of the squad will follow naturally. 
Nothing is more difficult than to properly coordinate the action of 
the men in the same group, or of groups in the same combat. 



TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF GRENADIERS 

A trained grenadier can throw a grenade 35 to 45 yards with 
an error of 2 or 3 yards at the outside. His rapidity varies, de- 
pending upon whether he is using the metal fuse, which needs 
only a blow before it is thrown, or the automatic fuse, which has 
a protective covering to be removed. Under the most favorable 
conditions he can throw about 10 grenades per minute. The use 
of the O. F. (offensive fusante) grenade is becoming the rule in 
attacks over open ground. The F. 1 grenade is a trench grenade 
and is dangerous for men not protected by shelters of some kind 
within a radius of 165 yards. The O. F. grenade is frequently 
preferred to it, as it is quite effective and twice as many can be 
carried by the same number of men. 

Rifle grenades can be fired to a distance of from 35 to 220 
yards; but they can not be handled as rapidly as the hand gre- 
nades, and their tactical employment is therefore different. 

ORGANIZATION 

Hand Grenades and the Grenadier's Equipment. — The first 
squad of each platoon includes 1 grenadier corporal and 7 grena- 
diers. It may fight as a unit (1 corporal, 2 throwers, 2 car- 
riers, 2 assistant grenadiers, and 1 connecting file) or in two 
groups (1 leader,, 1 thrower, 1 carrier, and 1 assistant). All mem- 
bers of the squad should be trained in throwing grenades. In 
each battalion one officer, detailed from one of the companies, 
has charge of the instruction and training of the grenade squads; 
he should be prepared, if necessary, to take command of all of the 
grenade squads of the battalion and handle them in action as a 
unit. The squads are assembled for instruction or combat at the 
order of the company or battalion commander; otherwise the 
grenadiers remain with their platoons. 

The equipment of the grenadier includes the rifle and 
bayonet, the trench knife, and the automatic pistol. The throwers 
are not always required to carry their rifles when the attack is not 
to be followed up, for example, in a trench raid. With this excep- 
tion, the tendency of grenadiers to get rid of their rifles and to 



104 MILITARY TRAINING 

lay them aside during a combat must be firmly opposed. The 
grenadier should take a pride in his specialty, in the fact that he 
is an advance guard soldier, and in the effecitve work which 
he can accomplish in cases where the rifle fails. But he should 
understand also that a grenadier who is out of grenades must not 
think that his work is done; he must fight with his rifle until 
more grenades come up. Attacks with limited objectives do not 
give an idea of what the supply of grenades will be during an ad- 
vance of several miles or of several days' marches. It would be 
a mistake not to foresee that there will be a shortage in the 
supply for several days in succession and to separate the grenadier 
from his rifle at a time when the attack should be pushed to the 
utmost, with or without the grenades. 

Grenade squads are furnished a number of baskets for 
carrying grenades or are equipped with belts for carrying them. 
A grenadier can carry, in addition to 6 boxes of cartridges,, 10 F. 1 
grenades or 20 O. F. grenades. 

Rifle Grenades. — Grenadiers should be trained in the use of 
rifle grenades. V. B. (Viven Bessieres) grenade tubes are issued 
to two men of everv infantry squad. They are carried on the 
belt in a leather case. V. B. grenades are carried by these two 
men and by one carrier for each two firers. They have the ad- 
vantage of being a very small encumbrance. The supply of 
grenades, relatively easy in the defense of a position, will be 
hard to keep up on the offensive, until the approach trenches 
have been constructed. The men equipped with the grenade 
tubes and their carriers must, on this account, be furnished at 
the outset with as many grenades as they can carry. 

TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF HAND GRENADES 

Grenade fighting may have for its object: 1. The defense of 
a trench in close-range trench fighting. 2. Taking possession, step 
by step, of a trench or an approach occupied by the enemy. 3. 
Preparation for an assault on a hostile trench. 4. Close-range 
righting within a hostile position and "mopping up" the trenches 
and bomb proofs. 5. A trench raid. 

In the Defense of a Trench. — Some positions for grenadiers 
and for accumulations of grenadiers should be provided for in 
advance in arranging the defensive sectors of the company and 
the battalion. Grenadiers are distributed in groups along the 
line; the number is increased on exposed fronts (in salients and 
parts which are very near the enemy's trenches). It is better, 
in the latter case, to double these portions of the trench by other 
lines very close to the first, so as to form substantially two 
ranks of grenadiers in these places. 



SCHOOLS 105 

All soldiers who have had any training in this work should 
be able to take part in forming a barrier with grenade fire at a 
distance of 30 yards; this can be done by one grenadier to 12 
yards of front using O. F. grenades, and by one grenadier to 3(X 
yards of front using F. 1 grenades. In order to avoid continual 
losses in places where the hostile trenches are very close to our 
own, a decided superiority should be seized in the throwing o£ 
grenades and the hostile trenches rendered untenable. 

"Some grenadiers' positions and grenade depots should be pro- 
vided in the covering trench, at the entrance of the approaches, 
at the angles of long communicating trenches and in the cave 
shelters, in order to cover exit from them when the trench 19 
invaded by the enemy, and also behind barricades. The differ- 
ent squads should be trained to make counter-attacks with gre- 
nades quickly, and retake any part of the trench which may have 
been taken by the enemy. 

Step-by-Step Progress in a Trench or in a Communicating 
Trench. — In the dispositions taken in the communication trenches 
bunching up is always to be avoided. Only the minimum of men 
actually needed for the work should be exposed to the enemy's 
grenades, and they should not be so crowded as to prevent free 
movement. This form of fighting is very severe and frequent 
reliefs should be provided for; and the squad leader should be 
able to replace immediately an injured man, and to reinforce, if 
necessary, the leading group by fresh riflemen or throwers. 

A profound silence should be maintained, so that all sounds 
coming from the direction of the enemy, and which might serve 
as an indication as to what he is doing, can be heard; commu- 
nications should therefore be, as far as possible, by gestures and 
signals. 

The throwers are constantly kept supplied by the carriers. 
They keep up their grenade throwing continuously; one throw- 
ing at the nearest group of the enemy, the other throwing as far 
as he can to the enemy's rear to block his supply of grenades, 
Barriers of sandbags are torn to pieces as much as possible by 
explosive charges. When the leading group has reason to be- 
lieve that the enemy has been overwhelmed (by a slackening or 
discontinuance of his grenade throwing or by significant sounds) 
the grenade thrower's assistant should creep under cover of the 
smoke to a point from which he can see into the next angle of the 
trench and signal to his comrades; and progress is made in this 
manner from one angle of the trench to another or from one trav- 
erse to the next. 

When the assistant perceives the entrance of a lateral trench 
he makes a signal to the throwers. Grenades are thrown into it, 
and it is then reconnoitered in order to avoid surprises. If 



106 MILITARY TRAINING 

ground is not to be gained in the new direction, a barrier of sand- 
bags is constructed far enough from the main trench to be out 
of the range of grenades and a guard placed upon it. A squad is 
specially detailed to fill sandbags so that barriers can be put up 
without delay. 

It is a good plan to make use of rifle grenades or trench 
mortars of low power to block the enemy's supply of grenades. 

If the enemy gains a momentary superiority, his advance 
should be contested step by step until the superiority can be 
wrested from him. For this purpose the number of sandbag bar- 
riers should be multiplied to retard his progress, the trench should 
be obstructed by heaps of sandbags,, or should be blown up so as 
to compel the enemy to show himself in the open before our 
rifles. 

The enemy may be drawn to a point where we are able to get 
into action a greater number of grenadiers than he possesses. 
The cries of wounded men may be simulated to draw the enemy 
under rifle fire and surprise him. 

Preparation for a Grenade Assault on a Hostile Trench. — An 
assault is usually a combined action executed under cover of at 
powerful artillery fire. But sometimes a part of our line comes 
very close to the enemy and artillery preparation can not be 
made. An attempt is then made to overwhelm the enemy with 
grenades before rushing on him with the bayonet. 

The throwers approach the enemy, taking advantage of all 
cover afforded by the ground; the remainder of the squad awaits 
under cover the moment for making the rush. The throwers 
overwhelm the enemy with a shower of well-directed grenades 
and compel him either to vacate the trench or to take cover in 
his bombproof s; the assault is then made. 

Close Fighting in the Enemy's Position and Mopping Up 
Trenches. — An assault is followed by a struggle within the hostile 
position. Preparations may be made in advance for this struggle 
by a reconnaissance of the enemy's defensive organization. Cer- 
tain groups of grenadiers can then be assigned to definite tasks; 
for instance, mopping up the trenches and bombproofs, or gain- 
ing ground through the communicating trenches toward the 
enemy's second or third line. The units which are assigned these 
tasks are required to rehearse them before making the attack. 

Mopping up trenches requires two kinds of work which are 
quite distinct and which should not be assigned to the same 
units: (a) The crushing of hostile units which continue the re- 
sistances at certain parts of the trench, and (b) the mopping up 
proper; that is to say, searching the trenches and bombproofs 
with a view to making sure that none of the enemy is left in 
them. 



SCHOOLS 107 

The units which overcome the final resistance of the enemy 
are composed for the most part, if not exclusively, of grenadiers. 
They advance with the first or second wave; they are continually 
on the alert and seek out the points of resistance, skirting the 
trenches in order to approach them on their weakest side. 

The units charged only with mopping up the trenches have a 
definite task; they skirt the trenches and approaches rapidly and 
arrange their work in such a way that no part of the hostile 
position shall be neglected. In order to lose no time the moppers 
up do not go down into the trenches and approaches; they shower 
grenades along their route and they give especial attention to 
bombproofs whose openings may have been covered up by the 
artillery bombardment so completely as to hide them. 

Trench Raids. — Grenades are freely used in trench raids. 
These are executed (a) by small groups of selected men, who have 
confidence in one another and are specially trained in handling 
grenades, or (b) by a selected unit, sometimes reinforced by addi- 
tional officers or non-commissioned officers, leaving the unreliable 
element behind. 

The object of trench raids may be to throw grenades into 
an occupied portion of a hostile trench, to attack the head of a 
sap, to seize and hold an excavation, or to capture an outpost or 
small trench in order to obtain prisoners. The success of opera- 
tions of this kind depends chiefly upon the preparations which: 
have been made beforehand in the way of careful reconnaissances 
and by rehearsing in rear all phases of the operation under con- 
ditions as nearly like the real ones as possible. 

Meticulous care should be exercised in preparing for trench 
raids and the officers who command them should personally direct 
the units performing the main tasks. Subordinates should be 
specially detailed to supervise the replenishment of grenades. 

The troops making the trench raid approach the hostile 
trench silently: if preparation has been made by artillery fire the 
approach should be rapid. When they reach the points selected 
for crossing the obstacles (which are supposed to have been de- 
stroyed) a volley of grenades is thrown into the hostile trench; as 
soon as they burst the grenadiers rush the trench. 



CHAPTER IV 

CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS AND 
COURTESIES 

When forming for ceremonies the companies of the battalion 
and the battalions of the regiment are posted from right to left in 
line and from head to rear in column, in the order of rank of their 
respective commanders present in the formation, the senior on the 
right or at the head. The commander faces the command; subordi- 
nate commanders face to the front. 

At the command present arms, given by the colonel, the lieu- 
tenant colonel, and the colonel's staff salute; the major's staff sa- 
lute at the major's command. Each staff returns to the carry or 
order when the command order arms is given by its chief. 

At the assembly for a ceremony companies are formed on 
their own parades and informally inspected. At adjutant's call, 
except for ceremonies involving a single battalion, each battalion 
is formed on its own parade, reports are received, and the battalion 
presentd to the major. At the second sounding of adjutant's call! 
the regiment is formed. 



REVIEWS 



The adjutant posts men or otherwise marks the points where | 
the column changes direction in such manner that its flank in pass- 
ing will be about 12 paces from the reviewing officer. The post 
of the reviewing officer, usually opopsite the center of the line, is 
indicated by a marker. Officers of the same or higher grade, and 
distinguished personages invited to accompany the reviewing offi- 
cer, place themselves on his left; their staffs and orderlies place 
themselves respectively on the left of the staff and orderlies of the 
reviewing officer; all others who accompany the reviewing officer 
place themselves on the left of his staff, their orderlies in rear. A 
staff officer is designated to escort distinguished personages and 
to indicate to them their proper positions. 

While riding around the troops, the reviewing officer may 
direct his staff, flag and orderlies to remain at the post of the re- 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 109 

viewing officer, or that only his personal staff and flag shall accom- 
pany him; in either case the commanding officer alone accompanies 
the reviewing officer. If the reviewing officer is accompanied by 
his entire staff, the staff officers of the commander place them- 
selves on the right of the staff of the reviewing officer. The re- 
viewing officer and others at the reviewing stand salute the color 
as it passes; when passing around the troops, the reviewing officer 
and those accompanying him salute the color when passing in 
front of it. The reviewing officer returns the salute of the com- 
manding officer of the troops only. Those who accompany the re- 
viewing officer do not salute. In passing in review, each staff sa- 
lutes with its commander. 

After saluting the reviewing officer, the commanding officer 
of the troops turns out of the column, takes post on the right of 
the reviewing officer, and returns saber; the members of his staff 
accompanying him take post on the right of the reviewing officer's 
staff and return saber. When the rear element of his command has 
passed, without changing his position, the commanding officer of 
the troops salutes the reviewing officer; he and the members of 
his staff accompanying him then draw saber and rejoin his com- 
mand. The com-manding officer of the troops and the members of 
his staff are the only ones who turn out of the column. 

If the person reviewing the command is not mounted, the 
commanding officer and his staff on turning out of the column 
after passing the reviewing officer dismount preparatory to taking 
post. In such case, the salute of the commanding officer, prior 
to rejoining his command, is made with the hand before remount- 
ing. 

When the rank of the reviewing officer entitles him to the 
honor, each regimental color salutes at the command present arms, 
given or repeated by the major of the battalion with which it is 
posted; and again in passing in review. 

The band of an organization plays while the reviewing offi- 
cer is passing in front of and in rear of the organization. Each 
band, immediately after passing the reviewing officer, turns out of 
the column, takes post in front of and facing him, continues to play 
until its regiment has passed, then ceases playing and follows in 
rear of its regiment; the band of the following regiment com- 
mences to play as soon as the preceding band has ceased. While 
marching in review but one band in each brigade plays at a time, 
and but one band at a time when within 100 paces of the reviewing 
iofficer. 

If the rank of the reviewing officer entitles him to the honor, 
ithe band plays the prescribed national air or the field music 
sounds to the color, march, flourishes, or ruffles when arms are 
presented. When passing in review at the moment the regimental 



110 MILITARY TRAINING 

color salutes, the musicians halted in front of the reviewing offi- 
cer, sound to the color, march, flourishes, or ruffles. 

The formation for review may be modified to suit the ground, 
and the present arms and the ride around the line by the reviewing 
officer may be dispensed with. 

If the post of the reviewing officer is on the left of the col- 
umn, the troops march in review with the guide left; the command- 
ing officer and his staff turn out of the column to the left, taking 
post as prescribed above, but to the left of the reviewing officer; 
in saluting, the captains give the command: 1. Eyes, 2. LEFT. 

Except in the review of a single battalion, the troops pass 
in review in quick time only. 

In reviews of brigades or larger commands, each battalion, 
after the rear has passed the reviewing officer 50 paces, takes the 
double time for 100 yards in order not to interfere with the march 
of the column in rear; if necessary, it then turns out of the column 
and returns to camp by the most practicable route; the leading 
battalion of each regiment is followed by the other units of the 
regiment. 

In a brigade or larger review a regimental commander may 
cause his regiment to stand at ease, rest, or stack arms and fall 
out and resume attention, so as not to interfere with the ceremony. 

When an organization is to be reviewed before an inspector 
junior in rank to the commanding officer, the commanding officer 
receives the review and is accompanied by the inspector, who takes 
post on his left. 

BATTALION REVIEW 

The battalion having been formed in line the major faces 
to the front; the reviewing officer moves a few paces toward the 
major and halts; the major turns about and commands: 1. Present, 
2. ARMS, and again turns about and salutes. 

The reviewing officer returns the salute; the major turns 
about, brings the battalion to order arms, and again turns to the 
front. 

The reviewing officer approaches to about 6 paces from the 
major, the latter salutes, takes post on his right, and accompanies 
him around the battalion. The band plays. The reviewing officer 
proceeds to the right of the band, passes in front of the captains 
to the left of the line and returns to the right, passing in rear of 
the file closers and the band. 

On arriving again at the right of the line, the major salutes, 
halts, and when the reviewing officer and staff have passed moves 
directly to his post in front of the battalion, faces it, and com- 
mands: 1. Pass in review, 2. Squads right, 3. MARCH. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 1 1 1 

At the first command the band changes direction if neces- 
sary, and halts. 

At the third command, given when the band has changed di- 
rection, the battalion moves off, the band playing; without com- 
mand from the major the column changes, direction at the points 
indicated, and column of companies at full distance is formed suc- 
cessively to the left at the second change of direction; the major 
takes his post 30 paces in front of the band immediately after the 
second change; the band having passed the reviewing officer, turns 
to the left out of the column, takes post in front of and facing the 
reviewing officer, and remains there until the review terminates. 

The major and staff salute, turn the head as in eyes right, 
and look toward the reviewing officer when the major is 6 paces 
from him; they return to the carry and turn the head and eyes 
to the front when the major has passed 6 paces beyond him. 

Without facing about, each captain or special unit com- 
mander, except the drum major, commands: 1. Eyes, in time to 
add 2, RIGHT, when at 6 paces from the reviewing officer, and 
commands FRONT when at 6 paces beyond him. At the com- 
mand eyes the company officers armed with the saber execute the 
first motion of present saber; at the command right all turn head 
and eyes to the right, the company officers complete present saber 
and the non-commissioned officers armed with the saber execute 
the first motion of present saber; at the command front all turn 
head and eyes to the front, and officers and non-commissioned of- 
ficers armed with the saber resume the carry saber; without arms 
in hand the first motion of the hand salute is made at the com- 
mand right and the second motion at the command front. 

Non-commissioned staff officers, non-commissioned officers 
in command of subdivisions, and the drum major salute, turn the 
head and eyes, return to the front, resume the carry or drop the 
hand, at the points prescribed for the major. Officers and dis- 
mounted non-commissioned officers in command of subdivisions 
with arms in hand render the rifle or saber salute. Guides charged 
with the step, trace, and direction do not execute eyes right. 

If the reviewing officer is entitled to a salute from the color 
the regimental color salutes when at 6 paces from him, and is 
raised when at 6 paces beyond him. 

The major, having saluted, takes post on the right of the 
reviewing officer, returns saber and remains there until the rear 
of the battalion has passed, then salutes, draws saber, and rejoins 
his battalion. The band ceases to play when the column has com- 
pleted its second change of direction after passing the reviewing 
officer. 

When the battalion arrives at its original position in column, 
the major commands: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 



112 . MILITARY TRAINING 

The band plays in double time. The battalion passes in re- 
view as before, except that in double time the command eyes right 
is omitted and there is no saluting except by the major when he 
leaves the reviewing officer. 

The review terminates when the rear company has passed 
the reviewing officer; the band then ceases to play, and, unless 
otherwise directed by the major, returns to the position it occu- 
pied before marching in review, or is dismissed; the major rejoins 
the battalion and brings it to quick time. The battalion then exe- 
cutes such movements as the reviewing officer may have directed, 
or is marched to its parade ground and dismissed. 

Marching past in double time may, in the discretion of the 
reviewing officer, be omitted; the review terminates when the 
major rejoins his battalion. 

At battalion review the major and his staff may be dis- 
mounted in the discretion of the commanding officer. 

REGIMENTAL REVIEW 

The regiment is formed in line or in line of masses. In 
line the review proceeds as in the battalion, substituting "colonel" 
for " major " and " regiment " for " battalion." 

To march the regiment in review, the colonel commands: 
PASS IN REVIEW. The band changes direction, if necessary, 
and halts. Each major then commands: 1. Squads right, 2. 
MARCH. 

The band marches at the command of the major of the lead- 
ing battalion. 

At the second change of direction each major takes post 20 
paces in front of his leading company. 

The rear of the column having passed the reviewing officer, 
the battalions, unless otherwise directed, are marched to their 
parades and dismissed. 

In line of masses, when the reviewing officer has passed 
around the regiment, the colonel commands: PASS IN REVIEW. 
The band changes direction, if necessary, and halts. The major 
of the right battalion then commands: 1. Column of squads, first 
company, squads right, 2. MARCH. At the command march the 
band and the leading company of the right battalion move off. 
Each company and battalion in rear moves off in time to follow 
at its proper distance. 

The review of a small body of troops composed of different 
arms is conducted on the principles laid down for the regiment. 
The troops of each arm are formed and marched according to the 
drill regulations for that arm. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 113 
REVIEW OF LARGE COMMANDS 

A command consisting of one regiment, or less, and detach- 
ments of other arms is formed for review as ordered by the com- 
manding officer. The principles of regimental review will be ob- 
served whenever practicable. 

In the review of a brigade or larger command the present 
arms and the right around the line by the reviewing officer are 
omitted. The troops form and march in the order prescribed by 
the commanding officer. 

PARADES. 

When dismounted the officer receiving the parade, and his 
staff, stand at parade rest, with arms folded, while the band is 
sounding off; they resume attention with the adjutant. If mounted, 
they remain at attention. 

At the command report, given by a battalion adjutant, the 
captains in succession from the right salute and report: A (or 
other) company, present or accounted for; or, A (or other) com- 
pany, (so many) officers or enlisted men absent, and resume the 
order saber; at the same command given by the regimental 
adjutant, the majors similarly report their battalions. 

BATTALION PARADE. 

At adjutant's call the battalion is formed in line but not 
presented. Lieutenants take their posts in front of the center of 
their respective platoons at the captain's command for dressing his 
company on the line. The major takes post at a convenient dis- 
tance in front of the center and facing the battalion. 

The adjutant, from his post in front of the center of the 
battalion, after commanding: 1. Guides, 2. Posts, adds: 1. Parade, 
2. REST; the battalion executes parade rest. The adjutant directs 
the band: SOUND OFF. 

The band, playing in quick time, passes in front of the line of 
officers to the left of the line and back to its post on the right, 
when it ceases playing. At evening parade, when the band ceases 
playing, retreat is sounded by the field music and, following the last 
note and while the flag is being lowered, the band plays the Star 
Spangled Banner. 

Just before the last note of retreat, the adjutant comes to 
attention and, as the last note ends, commands 1. Battalion, 2. 
ATTENTION. When the band ceases playing he commands 
1. Present, 2 ARMS. He then turns about and reports Sir, the 



114 MILITARY TRAINING 

parade is formed. The major directs the adjutant: Take your post, 
Sir. The adjutant moves at a trot (if dismounted, in quick time), 
passes by the major's right, and takes his post. 

The major draws saber and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, 
and adds such exercises in the manual of arms as he may desire. 
Officers, non-commissioned officers commanding companies or 
armed with the saber, and the color guard, having once executed 
order arms, remain in that position during the exercises in the 
manual. 

The major then directs the adjutant: Receive the reports, 
Sir. The adjutant, passing by the major's right,, advances at a 
trot (if dismounted, in quick time) toward the center of the line, 
halts midway between it and the major, and commands: REPORT. 

The reports received, the adjutant turns about and reports: 
Sir, all are present or accounted for; or Sir, (so many) officers or 
enlisted men are absent, including in the list of absentees those 
from the band and field music reported to him by the drum major 
prior to the parade. 

The major directs: Publish the orders, Sir. 

The adjutant turns about and commands: Attention to or- 
ders; he' then reads the orders, and commands: 1. Officers, 2. 
CENTER, 3. MARCH. 

At the command center, the company officers carry saber 
and face to the center. At the command march they close to the 
center and face to the front; the adjutant turns about and takes 
his post. 

The officers having closed and faced to the front, the senior 
commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. The officers advance, the 
band playing; the left officer of the center or right center com- 
pany is the guide, and marches on the major; the officers are 
halted at 6 paces from the major by the senior who commands: 
1. Officers, 2. HALT. They halt and salute, returning to the 
carry saber with the major. The major then gives such instruc- 
tions as he deems necessary, and commands; 1. Officers, 2. 
POSTS, 3. MARCH. 

At the command posts, company officers face about. 

At the command march, they step off with guide as before, 
and the senior commands 1. Officers, 2. HALT, so as to halt 
3 paces from the line; he then adds 1. POSTS, 2. MARCH. 

At the command posts, officers face outward and, at the 
command march, step off in succession at 4 paces distance, resume 
their posts and order saber; the lieutenants march directly to 
their posts in rear of their companies. 

The music ceases when all officers have resumed their posts. 

The major then commands: 1. Pass in review, 2. Squads 
right, 3. MARCH, and returns saber. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS ,HONORS, COURTESIES 115 

The battalion marches according to the principles of review; 
when the last company has passed, the ceremony is concluded. 

The band continues to play while the companies are in march 
upon the parade ground. Companies are formed in column of 
squads, without halting, and are marched to their respective parades 
by their captains. 

When the company officers have saluted the major,, he 
may direct them to form line with the staff, in which case they 
individually move to the front, passing to the right and left of the 
major and staff, halt on the line established by the staff, face 
about, and stand at attention. The music ceases when the officers 
join the staff. The major causes the companies to pass in review 
under the command of their first sergeants by the same commands 
as before. The company officers return saber with the major 
and remain at attention. 

REGIMENTAL PARADE. 

The regiment is formed in line or in line of masses; the for- 
mation having proceeded up to, but not including the present, the 
parade proceeds as described for the battalion, with the following 
exceptions: 

"Colonel" is substituted for "major," "regiment" for "bat- 
talion," in the description, and "battalions" for "battalion" in the 
commands. 

Lieutenants remain in the line of file closers. 

After publishing the orders, the adjutant commands: 1. 
Officers, center, 2. MARCH. 

The company commanders remain at their posts with their 
companies. 

The field and staff officers form one line, closing on the 
center. The senior commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 

The second major is the guide and marches on the colonel. 

After being dismissed by the colonel, each major moves 
individually to the front, turns outward, and followed by his staff 
resumes his post by the most direct line. The colonel directs the 
lieutenant colonel to march the regiment in review; the latter 
moves to a point midway between the colonel and the regiment 
and marches the regiment in review as prescribed. If the lieu- 
tenant colonel is not present the colonel gives the necessary com- 
mands for marching the regiment in review. 

ESCORT OF THE COLOR 

The regiment being in line, the colonel details a company 
other than the color company, to receive and escort the national 



116 MILITARY TRAINING 

color to its place in line. During the ceremony the regimental 
color remains with the color guard at its post with the regiment. 

The band moves straight to its front until clear of the line 
of field officers, changes direction to the right, and is halted; the 
designated company forms column of platoons in rear of the 
band, the color bearer or bearers between the platoons. 

The escort then marches without music to the colonel's office 
or quarters and is formed in line facing the entrance, the band on 
the right, the color bearer in the line of file closers. 

The color bearer, preceded by the first lieutenant and 
followed by a sergeant of the escort, then goes to obtain the color. 

When the color bearer comes out, followed by the lieutenant 
and sergeant, he halts before the entrance, facing the escort; the 
lieutenant places himself on the right, the sergeant on the left of 
the color bearer; the escort presents arms, and the field music 
sounds to the color; the first lieutenant and sergeant salute. 

Arms are brought to the order; the lieutenant and sergeant 
return to their posts; the company is formed in column of platoons, 
the band taking post in front of the column; the color bearer 
places himself between the platoons; the escort marches in quick 
time, with guide left, back to the regiment, the band playing; the 
march is so conducted that, when the escort arrives at 50 paces 
in front of the right of the regiment, the direction of the march 
shall be parallel to its front; when the color arrives opposite its 
place in line, the escort is formed in line to the left; the color 
bearer, passing between the platoons, advances and halts 12 paces 
in front of the colonel. 

The color bearer having halted, the colonel, who has taken 
post 30 paces in front of the center of his regiment, faces about, 
commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, resumes his front, and salutes; 
the field music sounds to the color; and the regimental color 
bearer executes the color salute at tthe command present arms. 

The colonel then faces about, brings the regiment to the 
order, at which the color bearer takes his post with the color com- 
pany. 

The escort presents arms and comes to the order with the 
regiment, at the command of the colonel, after which the captain 
forms it again in column of platoons, and, preceded by the band, 
marches it to its place in line, passing around the left flank of the 
regiment. 

The band plays until the escort passes the left of the line, 
when it ceases playing and returns to its post on the right, passing 
in rear of the regiment. 

The regiment may be brought to a rest when the escort 
passes the left of the line. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 117 

Escort of the color is executed by a battalion according to 
the same principles. 

ESCORTS OF HONOR 

Escorts of honor are detailed for the purpose of receiving 
and escorting personages of high rank, civil or military. The 
troops for this purpose are selected for their soldierly appearance 
and superior discipline. 

The escort forms in line, opposite the place where the 
personage presents himself, the band on the flank of the escort 
toward which it will march. On the appearance of the personage, 
he is received with the honors due to his rank. The escort is 
formed into column of companies, platoons or squads, and takes 
up the march, the personage and his staff or retinue taking 
positions in rear of the column; when he leaves the escort, line is 
formed and the same honors are paid as before. 

When the position of the escort is at a considerable distance 
from the point where tthe personage is to be received, as for in- 
stance, where a courtyard or wharf intervenes, a double line of 
sentinels is posted from that point to the escort, facing inward; 
the sentinels successively salute as he passes and are then relieved 
and join the escort. 

An officer is appointed to attend him and bear such com- 
munication as he may have to make to the commander of the 
escort. 

FUNERAL ESCORT 

The composition and strength of the escort are prescribed 
in Army Regulations. 

The escort is formed opposite the quarters of the deceased; 
the band on that flank of the escort toward which it is to march. 

Upon the appearance of the coffin, the commander com- 
mands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, and the band plays an appropriate 
air; arms are then brought to the order. 

The escort is next formed into column of companies, 
platoons, or squads. If the escort be small, it may be marched in 
line. The procession is formed in the following order: 1. Music, 
2. Escort, 3. Clergy, 4. Coffin and pallbearers, 5. Mourners, 6. Mem- 
bers of the former command of the deceased, 7. Other officers and 
enlisted men, 8. Distinguished persons, 9. Delegations, 10. Societies, 
11. Civilians. Officers and enlisted men, with side arms, are in 
the order of rank, seniors in front. 

The procession being formed, the commander of the escort 
puts it in march. 



118 MILITARY TRAINING 

The escort marches slowly to solemn music; the column 
having arrived opposite the grave, line is formed facing it. 

The coffin is then carried along the front of the escort to 
the g'rave; arms are presented, the music plays an appropriate air; 
the coffin having been placed over the grave, the music ceases 
and arms are brought to the order. 

The commander next commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST. The 
escort executes parade rest, officers and men inclining the head. 

When the funeral services are completed and the coffin 
lowered into the grave the commander causes the escort to resume 
attention and fire three rounds of blank cartridges, the muzzles of 
the pieces being elevated. When the escort is greater than a 
battalion, one battalion is designated to fire the volleys. A mu- 
sician then sounds taps. 

The escort is then formed into column, marched in quick 
time to the point where is was assembled, and dismissed. The 
band does not play until it has left the inclosure. 

When the distance to the place of, internment is con- 
siderable, the escort, after having left the camp or garrison, may 
march at ease in quick time until it approaches the burial ground, 
when it is brought to attention. The music does not play while 
marching at ease. 

In marching at attention, the field music may alternate with 
the band in playing. 

When arms are presented at the funeral of a person entitled 
to any of the following honors, the band plays the prescribed 
national air, or the field music sounds to the color, march, flour- 
ishes, or ruffles, according to the rank of the deceased, after which 
the band plays an appropriate air. The commander of the escort, 
in forming column, gives the appropriate commands for the 
different arms. 

At the funeral of a mounted officer or enlisted man, his 
horse, in mourning caparison, follows the hearse. 

Should the entrance of the cemetery prevent the hearse ac- 
companying the escort till the latter halts at the grave, the column 
is halted at the entrance long enough to take the coffin from the 
hearse, when the column is again put in march. The cavalry and 
artillery, when unable to enter the inclosure, turn out of the column, 
face the column, and salute the remains as they pass. 

When necessary to escort the remains from the quarters of 
the deceased to the church before the funeral service, arms are 
presented upon receiving the remains at the quarters and also as 
they are borne into the church. 

The commander of the escort, previous to the funeral, gives 
the clergyman and pallbearers all needful directions. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 1 19 
COMPANY INSPECTION 

Being in line at a halt: 1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march the front rank executes right dress; 
the rear rank and the file closers march backward 4 steps, halt 
and execute right dress; the lieutenants pass around their respec- 
tive flanks and take post facing to the front, 3 paces in front of 
the center of their respective platoons. The captain aligns the 
front rank, rear rank, and file closers, takes post 3 paces in front 
of the right guide, facing to the left, and commands: 1. FRONT, 
2. PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. 

At the second command the lieutenants carry saber; the 
captain returns saber and inspects them, after which they face 
about, order saber, and stand at ease; upon the completion of the 
inspection they carry saber, face about and order saber. The 
captain may direct the lieutenants to accompany or assist him, in 
which case they return saber and, at the close of the inspection 
resume their posts in front of the company, draw and carry saber. 

Having inspected the lieutenants, the captain proceeds to the 
right of the company. Each man, as the captain approaches him, 
executes inspection arms. 

The captain takes the piece grasping it with his right hand 
just above the rear sight, the man dropping his hands. The captain 
inspects the piece, and, with the hand and piece in the same posi- 
tion as in receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with 
the left hand at the balance and executes order arms. 

As the captain returns the piece the next man executes in- 
spection arms, and so on through the company. 

Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man 
executes order arms as soon as the captain passes to the next man. 

The inspection is from right to left in front, and from left 
to right in rear, of each rank and of the line of file closers. 

When approached by the captain the first sergeant executes 
inspection saber. Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute in- 
spection pistol by drawing the pistol from the holster and holding 
it diagonally across the body, barrel up, and 6 inches in front of 
the neck, muzzle pointing up and to the left. The pistol is returned 
to the holster as soon as the captain passes. 

Upon completion of the inspection the captain takes post 
facing to the left in front of the right guide and on line with the 
lieutenants and commands: 1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH. 

At the command march the lieutenants resume their posts in 
line; the rear rank closes to 40 inches, each man covering his file 
leader; the file closers close to 2 paces from the rear rank. 

If the company is dismissed, the rifles are put away. In 
quarters, headdress and accouterments are removed and the men 



120 MILITARY TRAINING 

stand near their respective bunks; in camp they stand covered, but 
without accouterments, in front of their tents. 

If the personal field equipment has not been inspected in 
ranks and its inspection in quarters or camp is ordered, each man 
arranges the prescribed articles on his bunk, if in quarters or 
permanent camp, or in front of his half of the tent, if in shelter 
tent camp. 

The captain, accompanied by the lieutenants, then inspects 
the quarters or camp. The first sergeant precedes the captain and 
calls the men to attention on entering each squad room or on ap- 
proaching the tents; the men stand at attention but do not salute. 

If the inspection is to include an examination of the equip- 
ment while in ranks, the captain, after closing ranks, causes the 
company to stack arms, to march backward until 4 paces in rear 
of the stacks and to take intervals. He then commands: 1. UN- 
SLING EQUIPMENT, 2. OPEN PACKS. 

At the first command, each man unslings his equipment and 
places it on the ground at his feet, haversack to the front end of 
the pack 1 foot in front of toes. 

At the 'second command, pack carriers are unstrapped, packs 
removed and unrolled, the longer edge of the pack along the lower 
edge of the cartridge belt. Each man exposes shelter tent pins, 
removes meat can, knife, fork and spoon from the meat-can pouch 
and places them on the right of the haversack, knife, fork and 
spoon in the open meat can; removes the canteen and cup from 
the cover and places them on the left side of the haversack; un- 
straps and spreads out haversack so as to expose its contents; folds 
up the carrier to uncover the cartridge pockets; opens same; 
unrolls toilet articles and places them on the outer flap of the 
haversack; places underwear carried in pack on the left half of 
the open pack, with round fold parallel with front edge of pack; 
opens first-aid pouch and exposes contents to view. Special 
articles carried by individual men, such as flag kit, field glasses, 
compass, steel tape, notebook, etc., are arranged on the right half 
of the open pack. Each man then resumes the attention. 

The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers as 
before, inspects the equipment, returns to the right, and commands: 
CLOSE PACKS. 

Each man rolls up his toilet articles and underwear, straps 
up his haversack and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork 
and spoon, and the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and 
first-aid pouch; restores special articles to their proper receptacles; 
rolls up and replaces pack in carrier; and, leaving the equipment 
in its position on the gi-ound, resumes the attention. 

All equipments being packed, the captain commands: SLING 
EQUIPMENT. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 121 

The equipments are slung and belts fastened. The captain 
then causes the company to assemble and take arms. The in- 
spection is completed as already explained. 

When the rations are not carried in the haversack the in- 
spection proceeds as described, except that the toilet articles and 
bacon and condiment cans are displayed on the unrolled packs. 

The captain then passes along the ranks and file closers as 
before, inspects the equipment, returns to the right and commands: 
CLOSE PACKS. 

Each man rolls up his toilet articles, straps up his haversack 
and its contents, replaces the meat can, knife, fork and spoon, and 
the canteen and cup; closes cartridge pockets and first-aid pouch; 
rolls up and replaces pack in carrier, and, leaving the equipment 
in its position on the ground, resumes the position of attention. 

All equipments being packed, the captain commands: SLING 
EQUIPMENT. 

The equipments are slung and belts fastened. The captain 
then causes the company to assemble and take arms. The inspec- 
tion is completed as already explained. 

Should the inspector be other than the captain, the latter, 
after commanding front, adds REST, and faces to the front. When 
the inspector approaches, the captain faces to the left, brings the 
company to attention, faces to the front, and salutes. The salute 
acknowledged, the captain carries saber, faces to the left, com- 
mands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION, and again faces to the 
front. 

The inspection proceeds as before; the captain returns saber 
and accompanies the inspector as soon as the latter passes him. 



BATTALION INSPECTION 

If there be both inspection and review, tfte inspection may 
either precede or follow the review. 

The battalion being in column of companies at full distance, 
all officers dismounted, the major commands: 1. Prepare for inspec- 
tion, 2. MARCH. 

At the first command each captain commands: Open ranks. 

At the command march the ranks are opened in each com- 
pany, as in the inspection of the company. The field musicians 
join their companies. 

The drum major conducts the band to a position 30 paces in 
rear of the column, if not already there, and opens ranks. 

The major takes post facing to the front and 20 paces in front 
of the center of the leading company. The staff takes post as if 
mounted. The color takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. 



122 MILITARY TRAINING 

Field and staff officers senior in rank to the inspector do 
not take post in front of the column but accompany him. 

The inspector inspects the major, and, accompanied by the 
latter, inspects the staff officers. 

The major then commands: REST, returns saber, and, with 
his staff, accompanies the inspector. 

If the major is the inspector he commands: REST, returns 
saber, and inspects his staff, which then accompanies him. 

The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, then 
makes a minute inspection of the color guard, the non-commis- 
sioned staff, and the arms, accouterments, dress, and ammunition 
of each soldier of the several companies in succession, and inspects 
the band. 

The adjutant gives the necessary commands for the inspec- 
tion of the color guard, non-commissioned staff, and band. 

The color guard and non-commissioned staff may be dis- 
missed as soon as inspected. 

As the inspector approaches each company its captain com- 
mands: 1. Company, 2. ATTENTION, 3. PREPARE FOR IN- 
SPECTION, and faces to the front; as soon as inspected he re- 
turns saber and accompanies the inspector. The inspection pro- 
ceeds as in company inspection. At its completion the captain 
closes ranks and commands: REST. Unless otherwise directed 
by the inspector, the major directs that the company be marched 
to its parade and dismissed. 

If the inspection will probably last a long time the rear 
companies may be permitted to stack arms and fall out; before the 
inspector approaches they fall in and take arms. 

The band plays during the inspection of the companies. 
When the inspector approaches the band the adjutant commands.'* 
PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. 

As the inspector approaches him each man raises his instru- 
ment in front of the body, reverses it so as to show both sides, and 
then returns it. Company musicians execute inspection similarly. 

At the inspection of quarters or camp the inspector is ac- 
companied by the captain, followed by the other officers or by such 
of them as he may designate. The inspection is conducted as de- 
scribed in the company inspection. 

REGIMENTAL INSPECTION 

The commands, means, and principles are the same as de- 
scribed for a battalion. 

The colonel takes post facing to the front anl 20 paces in 
front of the major of the leading battalion. His staff takes post 
as if mounted. The color takes post 5 paces in rear of the staff. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 123 

The inspector inspects the colonel and the lieutenant colonel, 
and, accompanied by the colonel, inspects the staff officers. 

The colonel then commands: REST, returns saber, and, with 
the lieutenant colonel and staff, accompanies the inspector. 

If the colonel is the inspector he commands: REST, returns 
saber, and inspects the lieutenant colonel and staff, all of whom 
then accompany him. 

The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, makes 
a minute inspection of the color guard, non-commissioned staff, 
each battalion in succession, and the band. 

On the approach of the inspector each major brings his bat- 
talion to attention. Battalion inspection follows, 

REGIMENTAL, BATTALION, OR COMPANY MUSTER 

Muster is preceded by an inspection, and, when practicable, 
by a review. The adjutant is provided with the muster roll of the 
field, staff, and band, the surgeon with the hospital roll; each cap- 
tain with the roll of his company. A list of absentees, alphabeti- 
cally arranged, showing cause and place of absence, accompanies 
each roll. 

Being in column of companies at open ranks, each captain, 
as the mustering officer approaches, brings his company to right 
shoulder arms, and commands: ATTENTION TO MUSTER. 

The mustering officer or captain then calls the names on the 
roll; each man ,as his name is called, answers Here and brings his 
piece to order arms. 

After muster, the mustering officer, accompanied by the com- 
pany commanders and such other officers as he may designate, 
verifies the presence of the men reported in hospital, on guard, 
etc. 

A company may be mustered in the same manner on its Own 
parade ground, the muster to follow the company inspection. 

HONORS AND SALUTES 

Salutes are exchanged between officers and enlisted men not 
in a military formation, nor at drill, work, games, or mess, on every 
occasion of their meeting, passing near or being addressed, the offi- 
cer junior in rank or the enlisted man saluting first. 

When an officer enters a room where there are several en- 
listed men, the word " attention " is given by some one who per- 
ceives him, when all rise, uncover, and remain standing at attention 
until the officer leaves the room or directs otherwise. Enlisted 
men at meals stop eating and remain seated at attention. 



124 MILITARY TRAINING 

An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approach of an officer, 
faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. Standing he 
faces an officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain in the 
same place or on the same ground, such compliments need not be 
repeated. Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to salute 
an officer unless addressed by him. 

Before addressing an officer, an enlisted man makes the 
prescribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed, or, if 
unarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute after 
receiving a reply. 

In uniform, covered or uncovered, but not in formation, 
officers* and enlisted men salute military persons as follows: With 
arms, in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm (sentinels on 
interior guard duty excepted) ; without arms, the right-hand salute. 

In civilian dress, covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted 
men salute military persons with the right-hand salute. 

Officers and enlisted men render the prescribed salutes in a 
military manner, the officer junior in rank, or the enlisted men, 
saluting first. When several officers in company are saluted, all 
entitled to the salute return it. 

Except in the field under campaign or simulated campaign 
conditions, a mounted officer (or soldier) dismounts before ad- 
dressing a superior officer not mounted. 

A man in formation does not salute when directly addressed, 
but comes to attention if at rest or at ease. 

Saluting distance is that within which recognition is easy. 
In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. 

When an officer entitled to the salute passes in rear of 
a body of troops, it is brought to attention while he is opposite 
the post of the commander. 

In public conveyances, such as railway trains and street cars, 
and in public places, such as theaters, honors and personal salutes 
may be omitted when palpably inappropriate or apt to disturb or 
annoy civilians present. 

Soldiers at all times and in all situations pay the same com- 
pliments to officers of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Volun- 
teers, and to officers of the National Guard as to officers of their 
own regiment, corps, or arm of service. 

Sentinels on post during interior guard duty conform to the 
foregoing principles, but salute by presenting arms when armed 
with the rifle. They do not salute if it interferes with the proper 
performance of their duties. 

Commanders of detachments or other commands salute 
officers of grades higher than the person commanding the unit, by 
first bringing the unit to attention and then saluting as required. 
If the person saluted is of a junior or equal grade, the unit need not 



CEREMONIES ^INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 125 

be at attention in the exchange of salutes. If two detachments or 
other commands meet, their commanders exchange salutes, both 
commands being at attention. 

Salutes and honors, as a rule, are not paid by # troops actually- 
engaged in drill, on the march, or in the field under campaign or 
simulated campaign conditions. Troops on the service of security 
pay no compliments whatever. 

If the command is in line at a halt (not in the field) and 
armed t with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it is brought to 
present arms or present sabers before its commander salutes in 
the following cases: When the National Anthem is played, or 
when to the color or to the standard is sounded during ceremonies, 
or when a person is saluted who is its immediate or higher com- 
mander or a general officer, or when the national or regimental 
color is saluted. 

At parades and other ceremonies, under arms, the command 
renders* the prescribed salute and remains in the position of salute 
while the National~Anthem is being played; also at retreat and dur- 
ing ceremonies when to the color is played, if no band is present. 
If not under arms, the organizations are brough to attention at the 
first note of the National Anthem, to the color or to the standard, 
and the salute rendered by the officer or non-commissioned officer 
in command. 

When the National Anthem is played at any place when 
persons belonging to the military service are present, all officers 
and enlisted men not in formation stand at attention facing toward 
the music (except at retreat, when they face toward the flag). If 
in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in civilian clothes, uncovered, 
they salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the position of 
salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uniform and 
covered, they uncover at the first note of the anthem, holding the 
headdress opposite the left shoulder and so remain until its close, 
except that in inclement weather the headdress may be slightly 
raised. 

The same rules apply when to the color or to the standard is 
sounded as when the National Anthem is played. 

When played by an Army band, the National Anthem i9 
played through without repetition of any part not required to be 
repeated to make it complete. 

The same marks of respect prescribed for observances during 
the playing of the National Anthem of the United States are 
shown toward the national anthem ot any other country when 
played upon official occasions. 

Officers and enlisted men passing the uncased color render 
honors as follows: If in uniform, they salute as required above; 
if in civilian dress and covered, they uncover, holding the headdres9 



126 MILITARY TRAINING 

opposite the left shoulder with the right hand; if uncovered they 
salute with the right-hand salute. 

THE COLOR 

Army Regulations prescribe the rules for colors to be carried 
by regiments and battalions on all occasions. 

In garrison the colors, when not in use, are kept in the office 
or quarters of the colonel, and are escorted thereto and therefrom 
by the color guard. In camp the colors, when not in use, are in 
front of the colonel's tent. From reveille to retreat, when the 
weather permits, they are displayed uncased; from retreat to rev- 
eille and during inclement weather they are cased. Colors are 
said to be cased when furled and protected by the oil-cloth 
covering. 

The regimental color salutes in the ceremony of escort of the 
color, and when saluting an officer entitled to the honor, but in no 
other case. If marching, the salute is executed when at 6 paces 
from the officer entitled to the salute; the carry is resumed when 
6 paces beyond him. The national color renders no salute. 

THE COLOR GUARD 

The color guard consists of two color sergeants, who are 
the color bearers, and two experienced privates selected by the 
colonel. The senior color sergeant carries the national color; the 
junior color sergeant carries the regimental color. The regimental 
color, when carried, is always on the left of the national color, in 
whatever direction they may face. 

The color guard is formed and marched in one rank, the 
color bearers in the center. It is marched in the same manner and 
by the same commands as a squad, substituting., when necessary, 
guard for squad. 

The color company is the center or right center company 
of the center or right center battalion. The color guard remains 
with that company unless otherwise directed. 

In line the color guard is in the interval between the inner 
guides of the right and left center companies. 

In line of columns or in close line, the color guard is mid- 
way between the right and left center companies and on line 
with the captains. 

In column of companies or platoons the color guard is mid- 
way between the color company and the company in rear of the 
color company and equidistant from the flanks of the column. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 127 

In close column the color guard is on the flank of the color 
company. 

In column of squads the color guard is in the column be- 
tween the color company and the company originally on its left. 

When the regiment is formed in line of masses for cere- 
monies, the color guard forms on the left of the leading company 
of the center (right center) battalion. It rejoins the color com- 
pany when the regiment changes from line of masses. 

The color guard, when with a battalion that takes the battle 
formation, joins the regimental reserve, whose commander directs 
the color guard to join a certain company of the reserve. 

The color guard executes neither loadings nor firings; in 
rendering honors, it executes all movements in the manual; in 
drill, all movements unless specially excused. 

TO RECEIVE THE COLOR 

The color guard, by command of the senior color sergeant, 
presents arms on receiving and parting with the color. After 
parting with the color, the color guard is brought to order arms 
by command of the senior member who is placed as the right 
man of the guard. 

At drills and ceremonies, excepting escort of the color, 
the color, if present, is received by the color company after its 
formation. 

The formation of the color company completed, the captain 
faces to the front; the color guard, conducted by the senior ser- 
geant, approaches from the front and halts at a distance of 10 paces 
from the captain, who then faces about, brings the company to the 
present, faces to the front, salutes, again faces about and brings the 
company to the order. The color guard comes to the present and 
order at the command of the captain, and is then marched by the 
color sergeant directly to its post on the left of the color com- 
pany. 

When the battalion is dismissed the color guard escorts the 
color to the office or quarters of the colonel. 



MANUAL OF THE COLOR 

At the carry the heel of the pike rests in the socket of the 
sling; the right hand grasps the pike at the height of the shoulder. 

At the order the heel of the pike rests on the ground near 
the right toe, the right hand holding the pike in a vertical po- 
sition. 



128 MILITARY TRAINING 

At parade rest the heel of the pike is on the ground, as at 
the order; the pike is held with both hands in front of the center 
of the body, left hand uppermost. 

The order is resumed at the command attention. The left 
hand assists the right when necessary. The carry is the habitual 
position when the troops are at a shoulder, port or trail. The 
order and parade rest are executed with the troops. 

The color salute: Being at a carry, slip the right hand up 
the pike to the height of the eye, then lower the pike by straighten- 
ing the arm to the front. 

THE BAND 

The band is formed in two or more ranks, with sufficient 
intervals between the men and distances between the ranks to per- 
mit of a free use of the instruments. 

The field music, when united, forms with and in rear of the 
band; when the band is not present the posts, movements, and 
duties of the field music are the same as prescribed for the band; 
when a musician is in charge his position is on the right of the 
front rank. When the battalion or regiment turns about by squads, 
the band executes the countermarch; when the battalion or regi- 
ment executes right, left or about face, the band faces in the 
same manner. 

In marching each rank dresses to the right. In executing 
open ranks each rank of the band takes the distance of 3 paces 
from the rank next in front; the drum major verifies the align- 
ment. 

The field music sounds the march, flourishes, or ruffles, and 
to the color at the signal of the drum major. 

The drum major is 3 paces in front of the center of the front 
rank, and gives the signals or commands for the movements of the 
band as for a squad, substituting in the commands band for squad. 

SIGNALS OF THE DRUM MAJOR 

Preparatory to a signal the staff is held with the right hand 
near the head of the staff, hand below the chin, back to the front, 
ferrule pointed upward and to the right. 

Prepare to play: Face toward the band and extend the 
right arm to its full length in the direction of the staff. Play: 
Bring the arm back to its original position in front of the body. 

Prepare to cease playing: Extend the right arm to its full 
length in the direction of the staff. Cease playing: Bring the arm 
back to its original position in front of the body. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 129 

To march: Turn the wrist and bring the staff to the front, 
the ferrule pointing upward and to the front; extend the arm 
to its full length in the direction of the staff. 

To halt: Lower the staff into the raised left hand and raise 
the staff horizontally above the head with both hands, the arms 
extended; lower the staff with both hands to a horizontal position 
at the height of the hips. 

To countermarch: Face toward the band and give the 
signal to march. The countermarch is executed by each front- 
rank man to the right of the drum major turning to the right 
about, each to the left, turning to the left about, each followed by 
the men covering him. The drum major passes through the 
center. 

To oblique: Bring the staff to a horizontal position, the 
head of the staff opposite the neck, the ferrule pointing in the 
direction the oblique is to be made; extend the arm to its full 
length in the direction of the staff. 

To march by the right flank: Extend the arm to the right, 
the staff vertical, ferrule upward, back of the hand to the rear. 

To march by the left flank: Extend the arm to the left, 
the staff vertical, ferrule upward, back of the hand to the front. 

To diminish front: Let the ferrule fall into the left hand 
at the height of the eyes, right hand at the height of the hip. 

To increase front: Let the ferrule fall into the left hand at 
the height of the hip, right hand at the height of the neck. 

The march, flourishes or ruffles: Bring the staff to a vertical 
position, hand opposite the neck, back of the hand to the front, 
ferrule pointing down. 

To the color: Bring the staff to a horizontal position at the 
height of the neck, back of the hand to the rear, ferrule pointing to 
the left. 

When the band is playing, in marching, the drum major 
beats the time with his staff and supports the left hand at the 
hip, fingers in front, thumb to the rear. 

The drum major, with staff in hand, salutes by bringing his 
staff to a vertical position, head of the staff up and opposite the 
left shoulder. 

The drum major, marching in review with staff in hand, 
salutes by bringing his staff to a vertical position, head of the 
staff up and opposite the left shoulder. 

At a halt, and the band not playing, the drum major holds 
his staff with the ferrule touching the ground about 1 inch from 
toe of right foot, at an angle of about 60°, ball pointing upward to 
the right, right hand grasping staff near the ball, back of the hand 
to the front; left hand at the hip, fingers in front, thumb to the 
rear. 



130 MILITARY TRAINING 

MANUAL OF THE SABER 

1. Draw, 2. SABER. At the command draw unhook the 
saber with the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand, thumb 
on the end of the hook, fingers lifting the upper ring; grasp the 
scabbard with the left hand at the upper band, bring the hilt a 
little forward, seize the grip with the right hand, and draw the 
blade 6 inches out of the scabbard, pressing the scabbard against 
the thigh with the left hand. 

At the command saber draw the saber quickly, raising the 
arm to its full extent to the right front, at an angle of about 45° 
with the horizontal, the saber, edge down, in a straight line with 
the arm; make a slight pause and bring the back of the blade 
against the shoulder, edge to the front, arm nearly extended, 
hand by the side, elbow back, third and fourth fingers back of the 
grip; at the same time hook up the scabbard with the thumb and 
first two fingers of the left hand, thumb through the upper ring, 
fingers supporting it; drop the left hand by the side. This is the 
position of carry saber dismounted. 

Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the 
saber unhook the scabbard before mounting; when mounted, in 
the first motion of draw saber they reach with the right hand 
over the bridle hand and without the aid of the bridle hand draw 
the saber as before; the right hand at the carry rests on the 
right thigh. On foot the scabbard is carried hooked up. 

When publishing orders, calling the roll, etc., the saber is 
held suspended from the right wrist by the saber knot; when the 
saber knot is used it is placed on the wrist before drawing saber 
and taken off after returning saber. 

Being at the order or carry: 1. Present, 2. SABER (or 
ARMS). At the command present raise and carry the saber to the 
front, base of the hilt as high as the chin and 6 inches in front of 
the neck, edge to the left, point 6 inches farther to the front than 
the hilt, thumb extended on the left of the grip, all fingers grasp- 
ing the grip. At the command saber, or arms, lower the saber, 
point in prolongation of the right foot and near the ground, edge 
to the left, hand by the side, thumb on the left of grip, arm ex- 
tended. If mounted, the hand is held behind the thigh, point a 
little to the right and front of the stirrup. In rendering honors 
with troops officers execute the first motion of the salute at the 
command present, the second motion at the command arms; en- 
listed men with the saber execute the first motion at the command 
arms and omit the second motion. 

Being at a carry: 1. Order, 2. SABER (or ARMS). Drop 
the ooint of the saber directly to the front, point on or near the 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 131 

ground, edge down, thumb on* back of grip. Being at the present 
saber, should the next command be order arms, officers and non- 
commissioned officers armed with the saber order saber; if the 
command be other than order arms, they execute carry saber. 
When arms are brought to the order the officers or enlisted men 
with the saber drawn order saber. 

The saber is held at the carry while giving commands, 
marching at attention, or changing position in quick time. When at 
the order sabers are brought to the carry when arms are brought 
to any position except the present or parade rest. 

Being at the order: 1. Parade, 2. REST. Take the position 
of parade rest except that the left hand is uppermost and rests on 
the right hand, point of saber on or near the ground in front of 
the center of the body, edge to the right. 

At the command attention resume the order saber and the 
position of the soldier. 

In marching in double time the saber is carried diagonally 
across the breast, edge to the front; the left hand steadies the 
scabbard. 

Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the saber, 
on all duties under arms draw and return saber without waiting 
for command. All commands to soldiers under arms are given 
with saber drawn. 

Being at a carry: 1. Return, 2. SABER. 

At the command return carry the right hand opposite to 
and 6 inches from the left shoulder, saber vertical, edge to the left; 
at the same time unhook and lower the scabbard with the left 
hand and grasp it at the upper band. 

At the command saber drop the point to the rear and pass 
the blade across and along the left arm; turn the head slightly to 
the left, fixing the eyes on the opening of the scabbard, raise the 
right hand, insert and return the blade; free the wrist from the 
saber knot (if inserted in it), turn the head to the front, drop the 
right hand by the side; hook up the scabbard with the left hand, 
drop the left hand by the side. 

Officers and non-commissioned officers armed with the saber, 
when mounted, return saber without using the left hand; the scab- 
bard is hooked up on dismounting. 

At inspection enlisted men with the saber drawn execute tne 
first motion of present saber and turn the wrist to show both sides 
of the blade, resuming the carry when the inspector has passed. 

HONORS. 

The President of the United States is received with regi- 
mental standards or colors, officers and troops saluting, the drums 



132 MILITARY TRAINING 

giving four ruffles and the bugles spunding four flourishes. The | 
ruffles and flourishes are followed by the National Anthem, or, in 
the absence of a band, the field music or bugles sound " To the 
Color." 

An ex-President and the Vice President of the United States 
are received with the same honors as prescribed for the President, 
except that the flourishes are followed by a march in lieu of the 
National Anthem. 

The President of a foreign republic, a foreign sovereign, or 
a member of a royal family is received with the same honors as 
prescribed above, except that the National Anthem of his country 
is played. 

Officers of the following grades of rank are received with 
regimental standards or colors, officers and troops saluting, and 
field music playing as follows: General, four ruffles and flourishes; 
lieutenant general, three ruffles and flourishes; major general, two 
ruffles and flourishes; brigadier general, one ruffle and flourish. 

In tendering honors to a general officer or official of like 
rank, the Generals' March is played immediately after the 
flourishes. 

To the members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the Presi- 
dent pro tempore of the Senate, the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives, American or foreign ambassadors, and governors 
within their respective States and Territories the same honors are 
paid as to the general, except that a foreign ambassador is received 
with the National Anthem of his country, and that the number of 
guns fired as personal salute will be as prescribed; to the Assistant 
Secretary of War and to American or foreign envoys or ministers 
the same honors as to lieutenant general; to officers of the Navy 
the honors due to their relative rank; to officers of marine and 
volunteers, and militia when in the service of the United States, 
the honors due to like grades in the regular service; to officers of 
a foreign service the honors due to their rank. 

In rendering personal honors, when the command presents 
arms, officers and men in uniform who are not in formation and 
are in view and within saluting distance salute and remain in the 
position of salute until the end of ruffles and flourishes, or, if none, 
until " order arms." 

The national or regimental color or standard, uncased, pass- 
ing a guard or other armed body is saluted, the field music sound- 
ing " To the Color " or " To the Standard." Officers or enlisted 
men passing the uncased color, render the prescribed salute; with 
no arms in hand, the salute is the hand salute using the right 
hand, the headdress not to be removed. 

Whenever the National Anthem is played at any place when 
persons belonging to the military service are present, all officers 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO UR TESIES 133 

and enlisted men not in formation shall stand at attention facing 
toward the music (except at retreat, when they face toward the 
flag). If in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in civilian clothes, 
uncovered, they salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the 
position of salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uni- 
form and covered, they shall uncover at the first note of the 
anthem, holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder and so 
remain until its close, except that in inclement weather the head- 
dress may be held slightly raised. The same rules apply when " To 
the Color " or " To the Standard " is sounded as when the National 
Anthem is played. When played by an Army band, the National 
Anthem is played through without repetition of any part not re- 
quired to be repeated to make it complete. The same marks of 
respect prescribed for observance during the playing of the National 
Anthem of the United States are shown toward the National 
Anthem of any other country when played upon official occasions. 

No honors are paid by troops when on the march or in 
trenches, except that they may be called to attention, and no salute 
is rendered when marching in double time or at the trot or gallop. 

The commanding officer is saluted by all commissioned offi- 
cers in command of troops or detachments. Troops under arms 
salute as prescribed in drill regulations. 

When making or receiving official reports or on meeting out 
of doors all officers salute. Military courtesy requires the junior to 
salute first, but when the salute is introductory to a report made at 
a military ceremony or formation to the representative of a com- 
mon superior — as, for example, to the adjutant, officer of the day, 
etc. — the officer making the report, whatever his rank, salutes first; 
the officer to whom the report is made acknowledges, by saluting, 
that he has received and understood the report. 

Salutes are exchanged between officers and enlisted men not 
in a military formation, nor at drill, work, games, or mess, on every 
occasion of their meeting, passing near, or being addressed, the 
officer junior in rank or the enlisted man saluting first. 

When an officer enters a room where there are several 
enlisted men, the word " attention " is given by some one who per- 
ceives him, when all rise, uncover, and remain standing at atten- 
tion until the officer leaves the room or directs otherwise. En- 
listed men at meals stop eating and remain seated at attention. 

An enlisted man, if seated, rises on the approach of an 
officer, faces toward him, stands at attention, and salutes. Stand- 
ing, he faces an officer for the same purpose. If the parties remain 
in the same place or on the same ground, such compliments need 
not be repeated. Soldiers actually at work do not cease work to 
salute an officer unless addressed by him. 

Before addressing an officer, an enlisted man making the pre- 



134 MILITARY TRAINING 

scribed salute with the weapon with which he is armed, or, if 
unarmed, with the right hand. He also makes the same salute after 
receiving a reply. 

In uniform covered or uncovered, but not in formation, offi- 
cers and enlisted men salute military persons as follows: With 
arms in hand, the salute prescribed for that arm (sentinels on in- j 
terior guard duty excepted); without arms, the right-hand salute. J 

In civilian dress covered or uncovered, officers and enlisted j 
men salute military persons with the right-hand salute. 

Officers and enlisted men render the prescribed salutes in J 
a military manner, the officer junior in rank or the enlisted man \ 
saluting first. When several officers in company are saluted, all j 
entitled to the salute return it. 

Except in the field under campaign or simulated campaign 1 
conditions, a mounted officer (or soldier) dismounts before ad- | 
dressing a superior officer not mounted. 

A man in formation does not salute when directly addressed, 1 
but comes to attention if at rest or at ease. 

Saluting distance is that within which recognition is easy. 
In general, it does not exceed 30 paces. When an officer entitled 
to the salute passes in rear of a body of troops it is brought to 
attention while he is opposite the post of the commander. In public ] 
conveyances, such as railway trains and street cars, and in public 
places, such as theaters, honors and personal salutes may be | 
omitted when palpably inappropriate or apt to disturb or annoy 
civilians present. 

Salutes to the National Anthem or when " To the Color" (oi 
" Standard ") is sounded during ceremonies are as prescribed in 
regulations. 

Officers and enlisted men passing the uncased color render 
honors as follows: If in uniform they salute as above when in 
uniform covered; if in civilian dress and covered they uncover, 
holding the headdress opposite the left shoulder with the rigfit 
hand, if uncovered they salute with the right-hand salute. 

Sentinels on post doing interior guard duty conform to the 
foregoing principles, but salute by presenting arms when armed 
with the rifle. They do not salute if it interferes with the proper 
performance of their duties. Troops under arms salute as pre- 
scribed in drill regulations. 

Commanders of detachments or other commands salute 
officers of grades higher than the person commanding the unit by 
first bringing the unit to attention and then saluting as above when 
in uniform covered. If the person saluted is of a junior or equal 
grade the unit need not be at attention in the exchange of salutes. 
If two detachments or other commands meet, their commanders 
exchange salutes, both commands being at attention. 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 135 

Salutes and honors as a rule are not paid by troops actually 
engaged in drill, on the march, or in the field under campaign or 
simulated campaign conditions. Troops on the service of security 
pay no compliments whatever. 

If the command is in line at halt (not in the field) and armed 
with the rifle, or with sabers drawn, it is brought to " present 
arms " or " present sabers " before its commander salutes in the 
following cases: When the "National Anthem is played, or when 
"To the Color" or "To the Standard" is sounded during cere- 
monies, or when a person is saluted who is its immediate or higher 
commander or a general officer, or when the national or regimental 
color is saluted. 

At parades and other ceremonies, under arms, the command 
renders the prescribed salute and remains in the position of salute 
while the National Anthem is being played; also at retreat and dur- 
ing ceremonies when " To the Color " is played if no band is 
present. If not under arms, the organizations are brought to atten- 
tion at the first note of the National Anthem, " To the Color," or 
" To the Standard," and the salute rendered by the officer or non- 
commissioned officer in command as prescribed in regulations. 

No officer in civilian clothes or present informally in uniform 
is saluted with guns or has a guard paraded in his honor. 

Guards do not turn out on Sundays as a matter of compliment 
for officers of the United States Army, Navy, or Marine Corps. 

Soldiers at all times and in all situations pay the same 
compliments to officers of the Army. Navy, Marine Corps, and 
Volunteers, and to officers of the National Guard in uniform as to 
officers of their own Regiment, corps or arm of service. 

SALUTES WITH CANNON 

Salutes with cannon are fired under charge of commissioned 
officers, who are present at the'firing and direct it. 

Guns using metallic-case ammunition are used whenever 
practicable; in their absence other breech-loading guns should 
preferably be used. Muzzle-loaders are used only when breech- 
loaders are not available. When using muzzle-loading guns a 
sufficient number should be employed, if practicable, to avoid the 
necessity of firing the same gun a second time. 

For muzzle-loading guns, or breechloaders using cartridge 
bags, the bags are made of silk, measuring in length at least one 
and one-half times their diameter, and care is taken that the 
sponges are not worn and that they thoroughly fill the chamber 
or bore of the gun, and when the same gun is fired more than 
once, that the intervals between the discharges are sufficient to 



136 MILITARY TRAINING 

allow the chamber or bore to be thoroughly sponged and chamber 
of breechloaders examined. Unless all of these conditions be ful- 
filled salutes are not fired with these classes of guns. 

The minimum number of pieces with which salutes may be 
fired is 1 for rapid-fire and field guns using metallic-case ammuni- 
tion, 2 for breechloaders using cartridge bags, 4 for siege, and 6 for 
seacoast guns. When practicable, rapid-fire guns are used for 
saluting purposes. 

The rapidity with which pieces are discharged during a salute 
depends upon their caliber. Subject to the restrictions of the pre- 
ceding paragraph, guns of 4-inch caliber or less should have inter- 
vals of 5 seconds between discharges; guns of over 4-inch caliber, 
10 seconds. When a single field gun is used to fire a salute the 
interval between charges should be 10 seconds. 

When muzzle-loading guns are used, the pieces for a salute 
should, if* possible, be of the same or equivalent caliber. If the 
number of guns in the saluting battery admits of it, the entire 
number required and two .or three over should be loaded and made 
ready previous to commencing the salute; the detachments are then 
dispensed with, and a single cannoneer at each piece discharges it 
at the proper time. When the number of pieces is insufficient for 
the entire salute, as many as possible should be used so as to avoid 
frequent reloadings. The pieces are numbered from 'right to left — 
1, 2, 3, and so on — and each detachment or the cannoneer, as the 
case may be, is made clearly to understand the number of the 
piece. 

At the proper moment the officer in charge commands: 
"Number 1, fire!" and observing the proper interval, "Number 2, 
fire!" and so on to the left piece, when he returns to the first and 
repeats the same commands until the entire number required for 
the salute is discharged. In order to preserve regularity in the 
fires he does not concern himself with the running number, but 
has a capable person to keep count and notify him when the re- 
quired number of discharges is made. In giving the command 
" Fire! " he looks toward the piece to be fired, and gives it in such 
a pronounced manner, accompanied by a signal with his sword, 
as to be unmistakable. The cannoneer discharging a piece when 
its number is called casts his eye to the officer and, observing the 
signal as well as the command, fires the piece promptly. Should a 
piece miss fire, the officer immediately commands the next to fire 
and allows the piece that has missed to remain undischarged until 
its proper turn comes again. Immediately after each piece is 
discharged it is reloaded and made ready if there is probability 
of its being fired again. • 

When troops are drawn up for the reception of a dignitary, 
and it is practicable to have a battery of field guns on the ground, 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 137 

a salute from it should form a part of the ceremony; otherwise guns 
in position are used. When field guns are used, it is most appro- 
priate to fire the salute at the place of review, and at the time 
just previous to the review when the personages arrive on the 
ground. 

Salvos are simultaneous discharges from several cannon; 
they correspond to volleys of musketry and are fired by way of 
salute only over the graves of officers at the time of burial. The 
order designating a funeral escort prescribes whether the fire shall 
be three volleys of 'musketry or three salvos of artillery. 

Salutes are not fired between sunset and sunrise, and not on 
Sunday unless required by international courtesy. As a general 
rule, salutes are fired between 8 a. m. and sunset. The national 
flag is always displayed at the time of firing a salute. 

NATIONAL SALUTES 

The national salute is 21 guns. It is also the salute to a 
national flag. 

The salute to the Union, commemorative of the Declaration 
of Independence and consisting of 1 gun for each State, is fired 
at noon on July 4 at every post provided with suitable artillery. 

It is the custom of foreign ships of war, on entering a harbor 
or passing near a fortification, to display at the main the 'flag of 
the country in whose waters they are, and to salute it. It is the 
rule, however, in our own and foreign navies to fire salutes only 
between 8 a. m. and sunset. On the completion of the salute to 
the flag, a salute of the same number of guns will be promptly 
returned by the designated saluting station. United States vessels 
return salutes to the flag in United States waters only when there 
is no fort or battery designated to do so. United States vessels do 
not salute United States forts or posts, and the converse. 

Saluting stations for the purpose of returning the salutes of 
foreign men-of-war in the ports and territorial waters of the United 
States are designated in orders from time to time by the War De- 
partment. 

The salute to the flag is the only salute that is returned and 
this is invariably done as soon as possible. The time intervening 
should never exceed 24 hours. The failure to return such salutes 
is regarded as a discourtesy or lack of friendship justifying the 
other party in asking an explanation. 

Notice of an intention to salute the flag is sometimes given 
by the vessel direct to the fort, but as giving notice involves delay, 
vessels generally salute without it. Surveying vessels, storeships, 
and transports do not salute. If notice of intention to salute the 



138 MILITARY TRAINING 

flag be received by a fort not the saluting station, such fort im- 
mediately notifies the saluting station and informs the vessel of 
the fact. 

PERSONAL SALUTES 

The President, both on his arrival at and departure from a 
military post, or when in its vicinity, receives a salute of 21 guns. 
No other personal salute is fired in his presence. 

The sovereign or chief magistrate of a foreign country re- 
ceives the salute prescribed for the President; and members of a 
royal family receive the salute due their sovereign. No salute to 
a personage of lesser degree is fired iti their offical presence. 

An ex-President of the United States receives a salute of 21 
guns, and the Vice President receives a salute of 19 guns. 

When officials other than those named visit military posts, 
they receive salutes as follows: 

Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and the president 

pro tempore of the Senate 19 guns 

The Chief Justice, the Speaker of the House of Repre- 
sentatives, a committee of Congress officially visiting a 
military post, governors within their respective States 
or Territories, or a governor general, and the civil 

governor of the Philippine Islands 17 guns 

The Assistant Secretary of War or the Assistant Secre- 
tary of the Navy, when officially visiting a military 
post; the vice governor of the Philippine Islands, and 

American or foreign envoys or minister....... 15 guns 

Ministers resident accredited to the United States 13 guns 

Charges d'affaires 11 guns 

Consuls general accredited to the United States 11 guns 

The General 17 guns 

The Lieutenant General 15 guns 

Major General 13 guns 

Brigadier general 11 guns 

As a rule, a personal salute is to be fired when the personage 
entitled to it enters a post. When several persons, each of whom 
is entitled to a salute, arrive together at a post, the highest in rank 
or position is alone saluted. If they arrive successively, each is 
saluted in turn. An officer assigned to duty according to his brevet 
rank is entitled to the salute prescribed for the grade to which he 
is assigned. A retired general officer making an official visit is 
saluted according to his rank. An officer, whether civil, military, 
or naval, holding two or more positions either of which entitles him 
to a salute, receives only the salute due to the highest grade. In 
no event is the same person to be saluted in more than one 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 139 

capacity. Personal salutes at the same place and in compliment 
to the same person, whether civil, diplomatic, military, or naval, 
are never to be fired oftener than once a year, unless such person 
shall have been in the meantime advanced in rank. 

Officers of the Navy are saluted according to their relative 
rank; officers of marines and of the volunteer forces or militia in 
the service of the United States, and officers of foreign service, 
are saluted according to rank. 

When a civil functionary entitled to a salute arrives at a 
military post, the commanding officer meets or calls upon him as 
soon as practicable, and tenders him a review if the garrison con- 
sists of not less than four companies. When a general officer visits" 
a post within his command, the troops are paraded for review, 
unless he directs otherwise. When a salute is to be given an officer 
junior to another present at a post, the senior is notified to that 
effect by the commanding officer. 

In addition to the foregoing, occasions of a public nature 
frequently arise when salutes are both desirable and proper. Orders 
are given in such cases. 

The flag of a military post is not dipped by way of salute 
or compliment. 

VISITS AND COURTESIES 

An officer arriving at the headquarters of a military com- 
mand, station, or post, calls upon the commander thereof as soon 
as practicable and registers his name, address, and the probable 
time of his stay. If the visiting officer be senior to the com- 
mander, the former may send his card and his address for regis- 
tration, in which case it becomes the duty of the commander to 
make the first call. 

When any officer arrives at Washington, D. C, or at the 
headquarters of a territorial department, he reports at the office 
of the Adjutant General, or of the department adjutant, and 
registers his name and address, and the authority for his presence 
there. 

An officer arriving for duty with an organization, a staff 
department, at the Military Academy, or any of the service schools, 
makes both an official and a call of courtesy upon the head or 
commander thereof as soon as practicable. If the arriving officer 
is the senior, the first call is made by the junior. 

In case of large commands or posts, an arriving officer pay9 
such additional visits as his post, station, or regimental commander 
may prescribe. Under normal conditions it is considered desirable 
that at least the arriving field officers should call at the various 
organization headquarters. 



140 MILITARY TRAINING^ 

Official calls are made at the office of the commanding 
officer. If made after office hours and the commanding officer is 
not present, the visiting officer registers, leaves his ca*i, and re- 
peats the call informally the following morning during office hours. 
Social calls are made at some convenient time at the quarters of 
the commanding officer. 

As a rule, juniors give way to seniors, and at all times 
juniors show deference to their seniors and do not ignore their 
presence. These rules apply whether in vehicles, on horseback, 
or on foot. In accompanying officers, juniors walk or ride on the 
left of their seniors, unless there be special reason to the contrary. 

In case of an organization reporting at a post or station for 
duty, the commanding officer thereof, accompanied by his staff 
(if there be one), immediately makes an offical call upon the com- 
mander of the post or station, as above prescribed. The command- 
ing officer of the arriving troops may, at his discretion, be accom- 
panied by the other officers of his command. If not accompanied 
by them at this first visit, he arranges to present them officially at 
some convenient time to the post or station commander, unless 
otherwise directed. A similiar procedure is observed on the depar- 
ture of an organization from a post or station. 

A subordinate officer, after reporting officially to the com- 
manding officer of the post, headquarters, or station, reports as 
soon as practicable to his intermediate commanding officers, pre- 
senting to them copies of his assignment or other duty order. An 
officer returning from leave or detached service makes an official 
call, without delay, on the post or station commander and upon his 
intermediate commanders. An officer about to leave the post or 
station for any length of time makes an official call upon the 
commander thereof and also upon his intermediate commanding 
officers. 

Newly arrived officers are called upon promptly by the other 
officers of the post or station. In case of large commands, where 
the conditions are such as to make this usual custom burdensome 
or impracticable, the commanding officer may prescribe that visits 
shall only be exchanged between senior officers, or he may desig- 
nate officers to make the visits, who extend the usual civilities on 
behalf of all the others, or he may prescribe that no visits of 
courtesy be required. A general officer is not required to return 
the official visits of officers of his command, except in the case of 
general officers or colonels; but when he considers it advisable, 
return calls on officers of grades junior to colonel are made at his 
direction by aids or other staff officers. 

The interchange of compliments and visits between officers 
of the service is of great importance. Failure to pay the civilities 
customary in official and polite society is to the prejudice of the 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 141 

best interests of the service. The well-established customs of the 
Army in this regard should be carried out. 

The interchange of official compliments and visits between 
military and naval officers is international in character and opens 
the way to official and social courtesies. In cases of vessels of 
war and transports carrying troops, foreign or otherwise, recently 
arrived, it is the duty of the post or station commander to send a 
suitable officer to offer civilities and assistance. This is called the 
" boarding visit," and it is expected that this civility be returned. 
Within 24 hours thereafter, weather permitting, the officer in chief 
command of the ship or ships or the senior general officer on 
board the transport or, in case a general officer is not present, then 
the commanding officer of the troops should visit the commanding 
officer of the post or station should the latter be his equal or 
superior in grade. This visit is returned within 24 hours. Should 
the naval officer in command or the general officer on board the 
transport, or in case a general officer is not present, the command- 
ing officer of the troops be superior in grade to the officer com- 
manding the post or station, the first visit is paid by the latter. 

In ports of the United States, whether within the continental 
limits, outlying Territories, or in the insular possessions, visits of 
ceremony between officers of the United States Army and Navy 
are governed by the rules laid down above. 

In the interchange of visits between officers in command of 
Army posts, Territorial or other departments and the naval officers 
in command of naval stations on shore, whether within the con- 
tinental limits, outlying Territories, or insular possessions of the 
United States, the officer already established sends an aid to offer 
the customary courtesies on the arrival for duty of a newcomer of 
the other service. The latter then makes the first visit if of equal or 
inferior grade to the former. The officer junior in grade makes the 
first visit, whether he is the last comer or not. 

The following rules prescribed by Navy Regulations are 
observed in regard to the interchange of visits between officers 
of the United States Navy, United States Army, and the governors 
of the United States insular possessions, and outlying territories. 

1. When a naval vessel or group of vessels arrives at a port 
of an island or group of islands or outlying possessions of the 
United States where there is a governor general or governor, hold- 
ing a commission -or appointment as such from the President of 
the United States, the commander in chief or senior commanding 
officer of such vessel or group of vessels within 24 hours of arrival 
makes the first visit upon such governor general or governor. 

2. In case of the temporary absence of such governor general 
or governor from his post the official duly acting in his stead 
receives the same courtesies. 



142 MILITARY TRAINING 

3. Should such governor general or governor find that from 
indisposition or pressure of important business he is unable to make 
or return the prescribed visits in person, he deputes his aid or some 
other official to do so. In like manner should naval commander 
in chief or senior commanding officer find that from indisposition 
or pressing occupation he is unable to make the prescribed visits, 
he deputes an officer of his staff to do so. In each case the officer 
failing to make the prescribed visit in person reports the circum- 
stances and states the reasons fully and in detail which led to 
the omission of the visit to the department under which he is 
acting. 

For the purpose of developing efficiency in intercommunica- 
tion between signal stations of the Army and the Navy, both on 
ship and ashore, commanding officers of seacoast fortifications at 
all times encourage the interchange of messages and signals be- 
tween signal stations at their posts and ships of the Navy or naval 
stations making use of radio-telegraphy and visual signaling. 
Whenever, upon entering a harbor of the United States, vessels 
of the Navy come within signal distance of fortifications and open 
communication with them, suitable acknowledgment is made by the 
Army stations. As far as practicable, the name of the fort, the 
name and rank of the commanding officer, and such other informa- 
tion as may be of interest will be communicated. A similar appro- 
priate exchange of signals will be made when a naval vessel leaves 
a harbor, the initiative being taken by the Navy. Commanding 
officers of forts provided with radio equipment issue the necessary 
orders requiring their stations to co-operate with and communicate 
with all naval radio stations in their vicinity, both on shipboard 
and ashore, but Army coast radio stations are not used in the trans- 
mittal of official messages in any case where commercial or military 
telegraph lines are available. 

When a military commander officially visits a vessel of war he 
gives notice in advance of his intention to do so. He is received 
at the gangway by the commander of the vessel and is accom- 
panied there by the same officer when leaving. The officer who is 
sent with the customary offer of civilities is met at the gangway of 
a vessel of war by the officer of the deck, and is presented by the 
latter to the commander of the vessel. 

On the occasion of the official reception or departure of a 
civil, diplomatic, or consular official or of any commissioned officer 
of the Navy, Army, Marine Corps, Naval Militia, or Coast Guard, 
the side shall be piped. The side shall not be piped for shore 
boats, but officers in them, if in uniform, shall be so saluted on 
reaching or leaving the deck. Piping the side for officers not 
wearing side arms may, by order of the commanding officer, be 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, COURTESIES 143 

dispensed with, without distinction of rank or grade, on board the 
ships to which they are attached. 

Side boys shall attend at the side when the side is piped, as 
follows, except as noted in (e) below: (a) For officials saluted 
with 15 or more guns, eight, (b) For officials saluted with 11 or 
13 guns, six. (c) For other officers of and above the rank of com- 
mander and for officials entitled to corresponding honors, four, 
(d) For other commissioned officers of the Navy or Marine Corps 
and officials entitled to corresponding honors, two. 

(1) All honors, except such as social courtesy may demand, 
shall be dispensed with at the reception or departure of all officers 
under the following circumstances: (a) When they are in plain 
clothes, (b) When the departure or reception takes place after 
sunset and before 8 a. m. (except that for foreign officers the side 
shall be piped), (c) During the meal hours of the crew for officers 
of the United States Navy or Marine Corps, (d) When coaling 
ship, for officers of the United States Navy or Marine Corps, (e) 
On board ships having a complement, exclusive of the engineer 
force, of 125 men or less the attendance of side boys for officers 
of the United States Navy shall be required on occasions of cere- 
mony, but shall not be required on ordinary occasions. When the 
side is piped for officers of the United States Army or of foreign 
services, side boys shall be in attendance between 8 a. m. and 
sunset. 

The guard and band shall not be paraded on Sundays for 
ships or officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps. 

In case of vessels of war of foreign powers at peace with the 
United States lying in our ports or harbors and celebrating their 
national festivities the commander of each fort, battery, or military 
post may participate in the celebration by firing salutes, parading 
commands, etc. In such a case the flag of the United States is 
hoisted and lowered simultaneously with that of the ship on board 
of which the celebration occurs. 

A vessel of war on which the President of the United States 
is traveling displays the President's flag at the main. In case of 
foreign sovereigns, vessels display the royal standards of the sov- 
ereign in like maner. 

FUNERAL HONORS 

On the receipt at any post or camp of official notice of the 
death of the President of the United States, the commanding offi- 
cer, on the following day, causes a gun to be fired every half hour, 
beginning at sunrise and ending at sunset. When posts are in sight 
or within 6 miles of each other the firing takes place only at the 
post commanded by the senior officer. 
10 



144 MILITARY TRAINING 

The orders announcing the death of a Secretary of War, 
Assistant Secretary of War, or a general officer on the active or 
retired list, or other person entitled to a salute of cannon, specify 
the number of guns to be fired at half-hour intervals, commencing 
at 8 o'clock a. m. on the day after the receipt of the order, and the 
posts at which they are fired. During the firing the flag is displayed 
at halfstaff. 

When the funeral of an officer who was entitled to a salute 
takes place at or near a military post, minute guns are fired while 
the remains are being borne to the place of interment, but the 
number of guns do not exceed that to which the officer was entitled 
as a salute. After the remains are deposited in the grave a salute 
corresponding to the rank of the deceased is fired, in addition to 
three salvos of artillery or three volleys of musketry. 

If the remains of a flag officer of the Navy or a general 
officer are brought ashore in the vicinity of a military post, the flag 
will be displayed at halfstaff and minute guns are fired as the pro- 
cession moves. The number of guns is that to which the officer 
was entitled as a salute. • 

During the funeral at or near a military post of a civil func- 
tionary who was entitled to a salute, the flag is displayed at half- 
staff and minute guns are fired. The number of guns is that to 
which the functionary was entitled as a salute. 

On the death of an officer at a military post the flag is dis- 
played at halfstaff and so remains, between reveille and retreat, 
until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave; or if the re- 
mains are not interred at the post, until they are removed therefrom. 

During the funeral of an enlisted man at a military post the 
flag is displayed at halfstaff. It is hoisted to the top after the final 
volley or gun is fired, or after the remains are taken from the post. 
The same honors are paid on the occasion of the funeral of a retired 
enlisted man. 

All military posts in sight of each other display their flags 
at halfstaff upon the occasion of one doing so. The same rule is 
observed toward all vessels of war. 

When the flag is displayed at halfstaff it is lowered to that 
position from the top of the staff. It is afterwards hoisted to the 
top before it is finally lowered. 

The funeral escort of the Secretary of War or General of 
the Army consists of a regiment of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, 
and a battalion of field Artillery; of the Assistant Secretary of 
War or the Lieutenant General, a regiment of infantry, a squadron 
of cavalry, and a battery of field artillery; of a Major General, a 
regiment of infantry, two troops of cavalry, and a battery of field 
artillery; of a Brigadier General, a regiment of infantry, a troop of 
cavalry, and a platoon of field artillery of a Colonel, a regiment; a 



CEREMONIES, INSPECTIONS, HONORS, CO URTESIES 145 

Lieutenant Colonel or Major, a battalion or squadron; a Captain, 
one company; a Subaltern, a platoon. The funeral escort of a gen- 
eral officer, or of any other officer either on the active or retired list, 
when the funeral occurs at any other place than a military post or 
camp, is ordered by the War Department, and is composed of such 
bodies of troops, not exceeding the number prescribed in this para- 
graph, as the interests of the service will permit. But in all cases 
where the funeral ceremonies take place at or in the immediate 
vicinity of a military post, or where the remains are conveyed 
through a military post en route to the place of burial, the above 
regulation relative to escort is complied with so far as the strength 
of the garrison will allow. The flag is at halfstaff while the re- 
mains are at or in the immediate vicinity of the post, and the 
department or post commander gives the necessary orders. 

The funeral escort of an officer is commanded by an officer 
of the same grade; if none such be present, by one of the next 
tower grade available. 

The funeral escort of a non-commissioned staff officer con- 
sists of 16 men, commanded by a sergeant; of a sergeant, of 14 
men, commanded by a sergeant; of a corporal, of 12 men, com- 
manded by a corporal; of a private, of 8 men, commanded by a 
corporal; of an enlisted man of the field artillery, one section. Six 
pallbearers are selected, as far as practicable, from the grade of 
the deceased. 

Officers and enlisted men attending military funerals wear 
uniform and side arms and in the funeral procession follow the 
mourners in order of rank, seniors in front. The funeral of an 
officer is attended by such officers of the post or organization in 
the field as other duties will permit. The funeral of a non-com- 
missioned officer is attended by the non-commissioned officers and 
privates of the regiment, or such part of it as may be present and 
can be spared from other duties; that of a private by the non-com- 
missioned officers and privates of his company. 

The badge of military mourning consists of a straight band 
of black crape or plain black cloth 5 inches wide, worn around the 
left arm above the elbow; also, when the sword is worn, a knot 
of black crape on the hilt; but no badge of military mourning is 
worn with the uniform except at funerals or for occasions pre- 
scribed by the War Department. As family mourning, officers may 
wear the arm band. 

The drums of a funeral escort are covered with black crape 
or thin black serge, furnished by the quartermaster. 

The colors of a regiment are not placed in mourning or 
draped, except when ordered from the War Department. Two 
streamers of crape 7 feet long and about 12 inches wide attached 
to the ferrule below the spearhead are used for the purpose. 



CHAPTER V 

MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE IN PEACE 
AND IN CAMPAIGN 

Good marching is secured by careful preparation, strict dis- 
cipline, and the due observance of march sanitation. A success- 
ful march, whether in peace or war, is one that places the troops 
at their destination at the proper moment and in the best possible 
condition. In war, marches are of daily occurrence, and success 
depends in a great measure upon the skill with which they are 
conducted. While conforming to other requirements, marches 
are conducted so as to reduce to a minimum the hardships of the 
troops. 

The march is habitually at route order and the men are not 
kept under arms longer than necessary, nor required to carry 
heavy burdens when transportation is available. Special care is 
paid to the feet of the men and to the hoofs and backs of animals. 

The conduct of a march (forming the column or columns, 
distribution of troops, the start, rate, length of march, etc.) is 
controlled by the situation and object to be accomplished. 

CONDUCT OF MARCHES 

It is the duty of the commander to see that the necessary 
preparations are made — that the men and animals are in fit con- 
dition and that they are properly equipped; that all trains accom- 
panying the command are loaded as prescribed; that proper meas- 
ures have been inaugurated for the replenishment of supplies, 
and that the necessary arrangements have been made for the care 
and evacuation of the sick and wounded. 

Forming the Column. — To form the column for a march, 
the commander issues the necessary orders (march order). 

The march order states the object of the march, gives the 
distribution of the troops, order of march of the main body, 
manner of forming the column, etc. If the command consists of 
two or more columns, the order of the supreme commander gen- 
erally indicates the march to be made by each column, and the 
column commanders issue corresponding march orders. 

When troops are encamped or bivouacked at some distance 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 147 

from the road, columns are formed by the successive arrival of 
the fractions at an initial or starting point, which, as a rule, is 
located in the direction of the proposed march. The commander 
fixes the initial point after considering the position of the troops 
and the roads by which they can join the column. He also pre- 
scribes the hour at which the leading fraction or fractions clear 
the initial point, and, if necessary, the routes to be followed in 
reaching it. To prevent needless marching, he may designate 
special initial points for parts of the command. As a general 
rule, the larger units of a command should be camped in the 
order in which they will march on the following day. 

In drafting march orders, the road space and rate of march 
of the different fractions of the command and their distances from 
the initial point must be considered. With foot troops and cava 1 ™ 
marching four abreast, artillery and trains in single column of 
carriages, the following may be assumed for approximate calcula- 
tions: Two men per yard for foot troops, one man per yard for 
each mounted man, 20 yards for each gun, caisson, or wagon, and 
12 yards for each autotruck. 

Commanders of subordinate units examine the route to be 
followed, calculate the time required, and start their commands 
accordingly. They may designate initial points for their own 
commands. In every case the initial point should be of easy 
access. 

When troops are located on or near the roads to be fol- 
lowed, the commander prescribes the hour of starting for the 
larger units; the subordinate commanders issue corresponding 
orders for their commands. 

Distribution of Troops. — The order of march of a column 
is controlled mainly (1) by tactical considerations, which are para- 
mount in the presence of the enemy, and (2) by the rule requiring 
the hardships of troops to be reduced to a minimum. 

During an advance the order of march of a column is gen- 
erally as follows, the necessary security being provided: Com- 
batant troops (with combat trains). 1. Cavalry and horse artillery. 
2. Infantry and light or mountain artillery. 3. Engineers and 
signal troops. 4. Trains, etc. During a retreat the order of march 
is practically the reverse of the above. 

In mixed commands, large bodies of cavalry and horse 
artillery should not be intermingled with foot troops. A detach- 
ment of engineers usually marches near the head of each column 
to repair roads, strengthen bridges, etc. The order of brigades 
in divisions, regiments in brigades, battalions or squadrons in 
regiments, and company units in battalions or squadrons is gen- 
erally changed from day to day — the leading unit one day taking 
its place at the tail the following, and so on. 



148 MILITARY TRAINING 

On the march, troops, as far as practicable, keep to the 
right of the road, leaving the left free. When the roads are 
narrow, space should still be left for messengers to pass freely 
along the column. When roads are soft with mud or heavy with 
sand or very dusty, it may be advisable to divide the column 
longitudinally, thus permitting men and animals to pick their way, 
the middle of the road being left clear. Care should be taken not 
to permit straggling or undue lengthening of the column. 

Infantry usually marches in column of squads, column of 
twos when necessary; cavalry, in column of fours on good roads 
or when compact formation is desirable, otherwise in column of 
twos; artillery in section column (single column of carriages), or 
in double section column if the width of the road permits. On 
trails, troops march in column of files or troopers. In marching 
across country, the commander adopts the most advantageous 
formation. 

The Start. — When practicable, marches begin in the morn- 
ing, ample time being allowed for the men to breakfast, animals 
to feed, and the wagons or animals to be packed. The time for 
reveille and stables should be designated the evening before. 
Canteens are filled, fires put out, latrines covered, and the camp 
policed before departure. The hour for the start depends upon 
circumstances. As a rule foot troops do not start before broad 
daylight; mounted troops, when practicable, about an hour after 
broad daylight. Both men and animals rest well in the early 
morning hours. 

The signals for striking camp and putting the command in 
march, such as the general, boots and saddles, etc., are ordered 
by the commanders of the larger units at the proper time. After 
the general, one or more officers of each organization superin- 
tend the preparations of the march. The different units of the 
column, including those of the train, are separated at the start by 
distances prescribed in regulations or by the commander. These 
distances are temporarily increased or diminished, according to 
circumstances, thus facilitating uniform progress without checks, 
and with a continual tendency to the gradual resumption of 
normal distances. 

Rate and Length of Marches. — The rate of march of a 
mixed command is regulated by that of the foot troops. It varies 
with the length of the march, size of the command, condition of 
the troops, and other circumstances; sandy, rough, muddy, or 
slippery roads, great heat and dust, strong headwinds, storms and 
broken country, reduce the rate. If the hills are to be climbed 
or swampy country is to be crossed, or defiles passed, liberal 
allowances are made in time calculations. 

For infantry the rate prescribed for drill is 100 yards a 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 149 

minute or 3.4 miles an hour; on the road the maximum to be 
counted on is 88 yards a minute or 3 miles an hour, including 
halts 2 l / 2 to 2^4 miles. The rate of infantry columns, under 
average conditions, may be assumed at l 1 /^ to 2y 2 miles an hour. 

The average march of infantry, and of mixed commands 
consisting partly of foot troops, is 15 miles a day; but in extensive 
operations, involving large bodies of troops, the average is about 
12 miles a day. Small commands of seasoned infantry marching 
on good roads in cool weather can average 20 miles a day. It is 
of great importance that a uniform rate of march be maintained 
throughout the column. When a change in the rate is to be made, 
warning is sent along the column. 

For cavalry the rates prescribed for drill are: The walk 
4 miles, the trot 8 miles, and the gallop 12 miles an hour. The 
average walk of a horse is at the rate of a mile in 16 minutes or 
3^4 miles an hour; the average trot, a mile in 8 minutes or 7 l /> 
miles an hour. In the field the usual gait is the walk of 3^4 miles 
an hour; including halts, 3% to 3 l / 2 miles an hour. The average 
march of cavalry, after men and animals are hardened, is 25 miles 
a day. 

The daily march of field artillery is the same as that of the 
command of which it forms a part; if alone it covers from 15 to 20 
miles. The rate of horse artillery is the same as that of the cavalry 
to which it is attached. 

The rate of a wagon train varies with the class and condition 
of the draft animals, the load, length of the column, and the con- 
dition of the roads. While large mules drawing light loads on 
good roads can cover nearly 4 miles an hour, in long column a 
rate of 2 miles, including halts, is all that can be expected even 
under favorable conditions; small trains may make 2 l / 2 miles an 
hour. The daily march of a wagon train is about the same as that 
of infantry. 

The average load of a pack mule is 250 pounds, and a train 
thus loaded can travel from 20 to 25 miles a day on ordinary roads 
or trails; over rough country, from 10 to 15 miles. 

The rate of march, the load, and the distance that may be 
covered in a day with autotrucks or with tractors drawing wagons 
are dependent on the character and condition of the roads and the 
carrying or pulling power of the trucks or tractors. 

Halts. To rest the men and animals and for other purposes, 
a command on the march is occasionally halted. The first halt is 
made after marching about three-quarters of an hour, and is about 
15 minutes long. 

After the first rest, there is for foot troops a halt of about 10 
minutes every hour — that is, the troops march 50 minutes and then 
halt 10. In very hot weather the halts may be longer and more 



150 MILITARY TRAINING 

frequent. The men are allowed to fall out, but remain in the im- 
mediate vicinity of their places. 

For cavalry the hourly halts are shorter — 5 minutes; the men 
examine the horses' feet, adjust saddles, etc. 

For artillery the hourly halts are from 5 to 10 minutes; har- 
ness is adjusted, girths are tightened, etc. 

As a rule troops prefer to finish a day's march as soon as 
possible. In good weather, with favorable temperature, long halts 
are not desirable on marches of less than 15 miles for infantry or 
25 miles for cavalry. When the day's march will run well into the 
afternoon, a halt of about one hour near meal time is advantageous. 
Places for long halts should be selected with care; wood, water, 
grass, dry ground, and shade are desirable features. Arms are 
stacked and equipments removed; mounted troops dismount and 
loosen cinches. 

In hot weather, especially in the tropics, it may be desirable 
to avoid the midday heat. If the march is long, the command may 
make an earlier start, or it may rest for three or four hours during 
the hottest part of the day and finish the march in the evening. As 
a general proposition, however, it is undesirable to arrive at a 
strange place after nightfall or even late in the afternoon. 

Halts are not made in or near towns or villages unless to 
procure water or supplies, and when so made, the men remain in 
column, details being sent for whatever is necessary. In com- 
mands not exceeding a regiment, and in wagon trains of less than 
a mile in length'; the units may halt simultaneously, the signal from 
the head being promptly repeated. This may also be accomplished 
in longer columns by the commanders of units setting their watches 
at the same hour before starting, and agreeing when the halts 
shall be made. 

Crossing Bridges, Fords, and Ferries. — When a cause of de- 
lay — for example, a damaged bridge — is encountered, the troops in 
rear are notified of the minimum length of the delay; they then 
conduct themselves as at regular halt. 

In ascending or descending slopes, crossing streams or other 
obstacles, or passing through defiles requiring a reduction of front, 
every precaution is taken to prevent interruption of the march of 
the troops in rear. If the distances are not sufficient to prevent 
check, units are allowed to overlap; if necessary, streams are 
crossed at two or more places at the same time; in passing through 
short defiles the pace is accelerated and the exit cleared at once. 
If a company unit is delayed while crossing an obstacle, the head 
slackens the pace or halts until all of that unit has passed; it then 
resumes its place in the column, increasing the pace if necessary. 

Before attempting to cross with bodies of troops, careful 
examination is made of fords, boggy places, bridges of doubtful 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 151 

character, ice, etc., as the case may be. When necessary, an officer 
is designated to superintend the crossing; his instructions must be 
strictly observed, the troops crossing in formation prescribed by 
him. Foot troops crossing bridges march without cadence. 

Whenever a military bridge is constructed with the bridge 
equipage, or if deemed necessary, in cases where improvised mate- 
rial is employed, a bridge guard under an engineer officer is de- 
tailed for its care and maintenance during the period of its use. 
All orders, regulations, and instructions issued by this engineer 
officer relative to the care, protection, and use of the bridge are 
considered as emanating from the commander of the force crossing 
the bridge. 

When roads lead through swamps or quicksand, or across 
streams with treacherous bottoms, their limits are marked with 
stakes or bushes, or warnings are placed at dangerous points. At 
night lanterns are hung from the stakes, and a fire is built or a 
lantern hung to mark the landing. 

When the current is strong and the water deep, foot troops 
cross on as broad a front as possible, the men marching abreast 
and holding hands. They should not look at the water, but at the 
opposite shore. If the ford is wide enough, mounted troops may 
cross at the same time on the upstream side, thus breaking the 
force of the current. 

Fords that are at all difficult delay long columns unless the 
troops cross at several places at once. The crossing of many ani- 
mals or wagons may deepen a ford and render it impassable; new 
places may thus become necessary. 

The men enter pontoons or barges singly at the bow or stern 
and gradually move toward the stern or bow; larger vessels may 
be entered in column of twos; the men retain the places assigned 
them so as not to interfere with the handling of the boat; in small 
boats when the water is rough they sit down; when there is danger 
they are directed to remove their equipments. 

Horses are loaded one at a time. When there is room for a 
single row only they alternate heads and tails; if in two rows they 
face inward. If a horse falls into the water it is turned loose. 
Guns, caissons, and wagons are generally loaded by hand; if prac- 
ticable the teams are sent on the same vessel. Unloading is also 
from the bow, in good order, without crowding; men sitting down 
do not rise before their turn. 

When rafts are used, special precautions are necessary. The 
center of the raft is first occupied and then the load uniformly 
distributed. Unloading is carried out in inverse order, the center 
of the load being last to leave. The crossing of beef cattle on 
boats or rafts is dangerous. When practicable they are crossed by 
swimming. 



152 MILITARY TRAINING 

Care of Troops. — On the march, commanders of the larger 
units keep themselves informed of the condition of their commands 
and of the progress of subordinate units in rear. Sources of water 
supply are examined by experts and marked good or bad. In 
countries infected with cholera or other harmful bacteria, this is 
imperative. 

Precaution is taken to prevent excess in eating and drinking. 
The drinking of water is often a matter of habit; under ordinary 
conditions a canteen of water should last one man a day's march. 
Soldiers should be trained to be economical in the use of water, 
and to keep a small supply until their canteens can be replenished. 
If water is plentiful they may drink often, but only a small quan- 
tity at a time. 

Commanders afford the men ample opportunity for replenish- 
ing their canteens, but it is done by order, not by straggling from 
the command. In certain cases, the advance guard may require the 
inhabitants to place water in vessels along the line of march for 
the convenient use of troops. On long marches through country 
deficient in water, or where the water is bad, it may be necessary 
to carry a supply in wagons. 

The watering of cavalry horses upon the march depends 
largely on the facilities available. In hot weather, or if nothing is 
known about the water supply of the day's march, the horses are 
watered before leaving camp. Good opportunities for watering on 
the road should not be neglected. To avoid delay, as many troops 
as possible are watered at the same time; as the head of a command 
approaches a place suitable for watering, the several units are con- 
ducted, according to their position in column, to the different water- 
ing places. 

One of the greatest sources of hardship on a march, espe- 
cially for infantry, is hot weather. Every precaution is taken to 
prevent suffering from this cause. Halting places are selected when 
practicable where there are shade and free circulation of air, and 
the men are cautioned against drinking too much water. Green 
leaves or a moist handkerchief in the hat affords relief from the hot 
rays of the sun. If the men are overheated, care is taken to prevent 
them being chilled by exposure to cold winds or drafts. 

Straggling. — No man leaves the ranks without permission; it 
is the duty of all officers and non-commissioned officers to prevent 
straggling. Enlisted men found . away from their organizations 
without authority are arrested by the military police. Military 
prisoners held by military police are returned to their units at the 
first opportunity, with a statement of the circumstances of their 
apprehension. All persons found pillaging, marauding, or com- 
mitting crimes are arrested and dealt with according to law. 

Camp or Bivouac. — As a command approaches the camping 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 153 

place the commander issues a halt order. This order provides for 
the outpost, if necessary, and gives instructions for the encampment 
of the command. 



MARCHES IN PEACE 

The march order is issued from day to day, or it may cover 
marches of several days. It prescribes the distribution of troops, 
time of starting, camping places, service calls, and such other de- 
tails as the commander deems necessary. To accord greater free- 
dom of movement, the distances between the elements of a column 
may be materially increased. In wet weather, to avoid cutting up 
the road in advance, mounted troops of small mixed commands may 
follow the infantry; in going through high vegetation or snow, 
they may lead to break the way. Field trains may follow immedi- 
ately in rear of their regiments, and the supply trains be placed to 
facilitate issues. 

Practice Marches. — The practical training of troops is divided 
into two phases, namely, garrison training and field training. Prac- 
tice marches form a part of field training and are made with two 
objects in view: (1) That of hardening the men and animals and 
of keeping them in proper physical condition; (2) that of in- 
structing officers and men in duties incident to a campaign — • 
marching, camping, cooking, etc. — and the principles of tactics, 
including the services of information and security. A practice 
march conforms to the conditions it is intended to simulate. That 
the maximum benefit may be obtained, practice marches should 
always include instruction in field duties of some character. In 
maneuvers, and in exercises where the presence of the enemy is 
assumed, regular field orders are issued. 

MARCHES IN CAMPAIGN 

Concentration. — Marches of concentration are made for the 
purpose of assembling at a certain time and place bodies of troops 
from different localities. Such marches require an accurate com- 
putation of the time required for marching and of the road space 
occupied by the troops. The condition of the roads, weather, etc., 
must be considered. A column of troops on the march should not 
be cut by another. If the heads of two columns meet at a distance 
from the enemy, the senior commander has the right of way; 
if near the enemy, the senior determines what measures are to 
be taken. If a column in march overtakes another at a halt, it 
may pass on, provided its commander be the senior, or the other 
commander gives his consent. 



154 MILITARY TRAINING 

Marches in the Presence of the Enemy. — The order of march 
of these bodies is controlled^by tactical considerations. The order 
of march of the main body is determined by the contemplated em- 
ployment of the troops. When contact with the enemy is probable, 
columns are closed up and march on broad fronts; communication 
is maintained between the columns on parallel roads, and all im- 
pedimenta not necessary in the conflict are kept in rear. If a part 
of a unit of infantry is assigned to the advance guard, the re- 
mainder of that unit usually marches at the head of the main body. 

During the advance, the artillery, in order to expedite its 
entry into action, is generally near the head of the main body, suffi- 
cient infantry leading to insure proper security. Its commander 
usually accompanies the commander of the column. If there is 
danger to the flanks from small* bodies of the enemy, the artillery 
may be broken into columns not longer than a regiment; it then 
marches like a convoy with infantry in front, in or opposite the 
center, and at the rear. This form of necessity delays the entry 
into action of a part of the infantry; to reduce this delay, the 
artillery marches, if possible, in double column, and its combat 
train follows immediately in rear of the last infantry unit. When 
moving into action the artillery has the right of way. 

On marches through long defiles, or dense forests, or on 
night marches, it may be advisable to place the artillery near the 
rear of the column. 

Trains. — Military trains are at all times provided with the 
necessaryjguards. Field trains are guarded as far as practicable by 
men on duty with the train, by convalescents and other non- 
effectives, by dismounted men of the cavalry and by men from the 
battery reserves in the artillery. Supply, ammunition, and engi- 
neer trains are guarded by the military police. In marches into 
action the trains are # held far enough in rear not to interfere with 
the movements of troops or to check withdrawal in case of defeat. 

If a pontoon battalion is attached to a division and is to be 
used during the day's march, it is assigned a place in column as 
far forward as practicable. 

If a wagon breaks down or is stalled, its load is transferred 
to other wagons and the road cleared as soon as practicable. 

Forced Marches. — The conduct of forced marches is con- 
trolled by the distance to be covered and the time in which the 
march is to be accomplished. As they seriously impair the fighting 
power of even the best troops, forced marches are undertaken 
only in cases of necessity. Long forced marches can not be made 
without injury unless the command is in good condition and the 
march is made with good judgment. The difficulties of the problem 
rapidly increase with the size of the command and length of the 



. 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 155 

march, but in any case the completion of the march should find 
the troops in condition to accomplish the object of the march. 

With foot troops forced marches are generally made by in- 
creasing the number of marching hours, the halts and periods for 
cooking and sleep being arranged so as to afford the maximum 
benefit. The rules prescribed for the average march are followed 
as closely as possible. For large columns of infantry, marching 
long distances, increase of pace is seldom of value. 

A maximum day's march for infantry and trains is about 28 
to 30 miles. A march of this character cannot, as a rule, be pro- 
longed more than 36 hours. If a forced march is to continue for 
several days, it becomes practically a succession of daily marches 
of more than average length. 

Foot droops are favored in every way possible. They are 
assigned the best roads, and not intermingled with vehicles or 
mounted men. If transportation is available, their packs are light- 
ened. With mounted troops the gait, as well as the number of 
marching hours, may be increased. 

Under favorable conditions of road and weather a rate of 
50 miles in 24 hours can be maintained for three or four days. On 
such marches the usual hourly halts are made; in addition, a halt 
of 2 hours is made at the end of the first half of each day's march,, 
during which the horses are unsaddled and permitted to roll, feed, 
and lie down. The rate is about 5 miles an hour, excluding halts, 

On forced marches where the road is level or nearly so and 
the footing good, the men are occasionally required to dismount 
and march for short distances at a fast walk or slow double time, 
leading their horses. They are also permitted to loosen or remove 
their sweaters and overcoats, if their comfort will be materially 
increased thereby. 

Night Marches. — Night marches are sometimes made in hot 
weather; generally, however, they are made as the result of a 
forced march to surprise the enemy or to secure a favorable posi- 
tion from which he may be attacked at night or at dawn. Moonlight 
and good roads are favorable for night marches. A waning moon 
is of advantage in marches beginning early in the morning. As 
all-night marches rapidly impair the efficiency of a command, a few 
hours' rest should be taken if practicable. Special effort is neces- 
sary to maintain good march discipline. 

Precaution is taken that the proper road is followed and that 
contact between units is maintained, men being stationed to mark 
changes of direction. If necessary guides are secured and charged 
with the duty of following the right road. When, due to unfavor- 
able conditions, units can not be kept well closed, men will be 
placed at forks and crossing of roads, especially on dark nights 
and at times of dense fogs or storms, and always when passing 



156 MILITARY TRAINING 

through cities or towns from which roads diverge in many direc- 
tions. 

When the march is secret, additional precautions are neces- 
sary. Silence is maintained; mouthpieces of bugles are removed, 
and articles of equipment secured to prevent rattling; smoking is 
not permitted; villages and farm-houses are avoided on account 
of warning given by dogs. If the troops are compelled to leave 
the roads, their progress will be slow, and additional time allow- 
ance must be made. 

If cavalry forms a part of the column at night, it ordinarily 
marches in rear of the infantry; if there is artillery, it generally 
follows the cavalry and has a special infantry escort. 

PROTECTION OF THE MARCH 

A column on the march in the vicinity of the enemy is 
covered by detachments called " advance guards," " rear guards," 
or "flank guards." The object of these covering detachments is 
to facilitate the advance of the main body and to protect it from 
surprise or observation. 

They facilitate the advance of the main body by promptly 
driving off small bodies of the enemy who seek to harass or 
delay it; by removing obstacles from the line of advance, by re- 
pairing roads, bridges, etc., thus enabling the main body to advance 
uninterruptedly in convenient marching formations. 

They protect the main body by preventing the enemy from 
firing into it when in close formation; by holding the enemy and 
enabling the main body to deploy before coming under effective 
fire; by preventing its size and condition from being observed by 
the enemy; and, in retreat, by gaining time for it to make its 
escape or to reorganize its forces. 

The march order of the whole command should explain the 
situation, and, among other things, detail the commander and 
troops for each covering detachment. It should specify the route 
to be taken and the distance to be maintained between the main 
body and its covering detachments. It should order such recon- 
naissances as the commander specially desires to have made. 

The order of the commander of a covering detachment 
should clearly explain the situation to subordinates, assign the 
troops to the subdivisions, prescribe their distances, and order 
such special reconnaissance as may be deemed necessary in the 
beginning. 

An advance or flank guard commander marches well to the 
front and, from time to time, orders such additional reconnaissance 
or makes such changes in his disposition as the circumstances of 
the case demand. 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 157 

ADVANCE GUARDS 

An advance guard is a detachment of the main body which 
precedes and covers it on the march. 

The advance guard commander is responsible for its forma- 
tion and conduct. He should bear in mind that its purpose is to 
facilitate and protect the march of the main body. Its own security 
must be effected by proper dispositions and reconnaissance, not by 
timid or cautious advance. It must advance at normal gait and 
search aggressively for information of the enemy. Its action when 
the enemy attempts to block it with a large force depends upon 
the situation and plans of the commander of the troops. 

The strength of the advance guard varies from one-twentieth 
to one-third of the main body, depending upon the size of the 
main body and the service expected of the advance guard. 

The formation of the advance guard must be such that the 
enemy will be met first by a patrol, then in turn by one or more 
larger detachments, each capable of holding the enemy until the 
next in rear has time to deploy before coming under effective fire. 

Generally an advance guard consisting of a battalion or 
more is divided primarily into reserve and the support. When 
the advance guard consists of less than a battalion, the reserve is 
generally omitted. 

In an advance guard consisting of two battalions or less, 
the reserve and support, if both are used, are approximately equal; 
in larger advance guards, the reserve is approximately two-thirds 
of the whole detachment. In advance guards consisting of one 
battalion, the machine guns, if any, form part of the reserve. In 
an advance guard consisting of two or more battalions, the machine 
guns form part of the support. 

The support sends forward an advance party. The advance 
party, in turn, sends a patrol, called a point, still farther to the 
front. Patrols are sent out to the flanks when necessary. When 
the distance between parts of the advance guard or the nature of 
the country is such as to make direct communication difficult, con- 
necting files march between the subdivisions to keep up communi- 
cation. Each element of the column sends the necessary connecting 
files to its front. 

A battalion acting as an advance guard should be formed 
about as follows: The reserve, two companies; the support, two 
companies; the advance party, three to eight squads (about a half 
company), depending upon the strength of the companies and the 
reconnaissance to be made; the point, a non-commissioned officer 
and three or four men. Or the reserves may be omitted. In such 
case the advance party consists of one company preceded by a 
strong point. The remaining companies form the support. 



158 MILITARY TRAINING 

The distances separating the parts of an advance guard vary- 
according to the mission of the whole force, the size of the advance 
guard, the proximity and character of the enemy, the nature of the 
country, etc. They increase as the strength of the main body in- 
creases; they are less when operating in rolling, broken country 
than in open country; when in pursuit of a defeated enemy than 
against an aggressive foe; when operating against cavalry than 
when against infantry. If there be a mounted point, it should pre- 
cede the dismounted point by 250 to 600 yards. The advance party- 
may be stronger when there is a mounted point in front. The in- 
fantry maintains its gait without reference to the mounted point, 
the latter regulating its march on the former. 

To afford protection to an infantry column, the country 
must be observed on each side of the road as far as the terrain 
affords positions for effective rifle fire upon the column. If the 
country that is necessary to observe be open to view from the road, 
reconnaissance is not necessary. 

The advance guard is responsible for the necessary recon- 
naissance of the country on both sides of the line of march. 
Special reconnaissance may be directed by the commander of 
the troops, or cavalry may be reconnoitering at considerable dis- 
tances to the front and flanks, but this does not relieve the ad- 
vance guard from the duty of local reconnaissance. 

This reconnaissance is effected by patrols sent out by the 
leading subdivisions of the advance guard. In a large ad- 
vance guard the support commander orders the necessary 
reconnaissance. Patrols should be sent to the flanks when 
necessary to reconnoiter a specified locality and should 
rejoin the column and their proper subdivision as soon as 
practicable. When the advance party is strong enough, the 
patrols should be sent out from it. When depleted by the patrols 
sent out, the advance party should be reenforced during a halt 
by men sent forward from the support. If it be impracticable to 
send patrols from the advance party, they will be sent from the 
support. Where the country is generally open to view, but locali- 
ties in it might conceal an enemy of some size, reconnaissance is 
necessary. Where the road is exposed to fire and the view is re- 
stricted a patrol should be sent to examine the country in the 
direction from which danger threatens. The object may be ac- 
complished by sending patrols to observe from prominent points. 
When the ground permits and the necessity exists, patrols may 
be sent to march abreast of the column at distances which permit 
them to see important features not visible from the road. Mounted 
scouts or cavalry, when available, should be used for flank patrols. 

Cases may arise where the best means of covering the head 
and flanks of the column will be by a line of skirmishers extend- 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 159 

ing for several hundred yards to both sides of the road, and de- 
ployed at intervals of from 10 to 50 yards. A column may thus 
protect itself when passing through country covered with high 
corn or similar vegetation. In such case the vegetation forms a 
natural protection from rifle fire beyond very short ranges. 

Fixed rules for the strength, formation, or conduct of ad- 
vance guards can not be given. Each case must be treated to 
meet conditions as they exist. That solution is generally the best 
which, with the fewest men and unbroken units, amply protects 
the column and facilitates the advance. 



REAR GUARDS 

A rear guard is a detachment detailed to protect the main 
body from attack in rear. In a retreat, it checks pursuit and 
enables the main body to increase the distance between it and the 
enemy and to re-form if disorganized. The general formation is 
that of an advance guard reversed. 

Its commander should take advantage of every favorable 
opportunity to delay the pursuers by obstructing the road or by 
taking up specially favorable positions from which to force the 
enemy to deploy. In this latter case care must be taken not to 
become too closely engaged as to render withdrawal unnecessarily 
difficult. The position taken should be selected with reference to 
ease of withdrawal and ability to bring the enemy under fire at 
long range. 

In large commands artillery and cavalry form a very im- 
portant part of the rear guard. 

FLANK GUARDS 

A flank guard is a detachment detailed to cover the flank 
of a column marching past, or across the front of, an enemy. It 
may be placed in position to protect the passage, or it may be so 
marched as to cover the passage. 

The object of the flank guard is to hold the enemy in check 
long enough to enable the main body to pass, or, like the advance 
guard, to enable the main body to deploy. Like all other de- 
tachments, it should be no larger than is necessary, and should 
not be detailed except when its protection is required. 

When a flank guard consists of a regiment or less, its dis- 
tance from the main body should not exceed a mile and a half. 
Practicable communication must exist between it and the main 
body. 



160 



MILITARY TRAINING 



The flank guard is marched as a separate command; that is, 
with advance or rear guards or both, as circumstances demand, 
and with patrolling on the exposed flank. 

At times it may be necessary for an advance guard com- 
mander to send out large reconnoitering parties which temporarily 
assume the character and duties of a flank guard. Such parties 
should be given specific orders as to when and where they are to 
rejoin the column. 

VETERINARY SERVICE ON THE MARCH 

Veterinarians are assigned to certain units while on the 
march; but, frequently, veterinary advice is not available. In such 
times some of the following list of common ailments and injuries 
with symptoms and treatment may be found useful: 



Ailment or Injury. 
1. Abrasions: bruises... 



2. Bit injuries 

3. Blind staggers 

4. Broken knees 

5. Bullet or shell wounds 



6. Colic 



Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 



Treatment: White lotion, 1 ounce each sugar of lead and 
sulphate of zinc to 1 quart of water. 

Caution: Do not mistake a soft puffy swelling near joints 
and tendons or on the abdomen for abscesses. 

Treatment for true pus abscess: Poultice (if not open), 
cut through skin with knife, then insert blunt instru- 
ment to pus cavity, flush twice daily, provide for drain- 
age. Inject 5 per cent, salt solution. 

Treatment: Rest mouth, work in snaffle; improvise 
martingale, if necessary. Wrap bit with 1-inch 

bandage at point of contact. Apply white lotion or 
5 per cent. alum. 

Treatment: Throw cold water on animal's head, remove 
collar, give an active physic. Place animal in a cool, 
dark, well ventilated stable. _ Keep him quiet and give 
cooling diet. Call veterinarian. 

Treatment: Wash clean. Apply loose cotton and bandage 
or wash with 5 per cent, salt solution and bandage. 

Treatment: Of lower legs — Check bleeding by compres- 
sion or packing and bandage. Later apply 5 per cent, 
salt water solution by injection or bathing. Of upper- 
leg regions and body — Stop bleeding by packing with 
cotton, gauze, or oakum, or take up bleeding vessel 
with forceps, tie with thread. Sewing up wound not 
necessary first few days, but keep clean and stimulate 
flow of blood with salt-solution (5 per cent.). Cleanse 
parts of hair, dirt, pieces of flesh, and all foreign 
matter. Improvised forceps for this purpose can be 
made with 2 flat splinters of wood (disinfected) tied 
at one end. 

Symptoms: Horse looks round at his sides, tries to He 
down and roll, paws, stamps with hind legs, and kicks 
at beriy. 

Treatment: Walk about, give chloral hydrate ball if avail- 
able, or 2 ounces turpentine, well shaken up, either 
with a pint of linseed oil. If not relieved in an hour 
repeat the dose and give in addition an aloes ball, or 
Cannabis indica 2 to 4 drams, aromatic spirits of am- 
monia 1 ounce, water to make 1 pint; or fluid extract 
of belladonna 2 drams, nitrous ether 2 ounces, water to 
make 1 pint. In the absence of drugs give half 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 



161 



Ailment or Injury. 



Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 



7. Constipation 



8. Coughs, colds, nasal 
catarrh. 



9. Cracked heels and mud 
fever. 



10. Diarrhea 



11. Dirty sheath 



12. Exhaustion after hard 
work. 



13. Epizootic lymphangitis. 



14. Farcy 



15. Fever, pneumonia, 



16. Girth galls 



tumbler of rum or whisky in. a pint of warm water, 
or hot ginger or pepper tea. Hand rub belly and .give 
frequent enemas of soapy water. (See " Sand colic ") 

Treatment: Soft food and green also, if available; regular 
work and frequent enemas. Withhold alfalfa hay; 
dampen clover or timothy hay, bran mashes, pasture, 
cold-water enemas, linseed oil, 1 pint, night and 
morning. 

Any animal with a nasal discharge should be' isolated, 
and veterinary aid obtained as soon as possible. 

Treatment: Steam head with 2 ounces creolin in one-half 
bucket water, and apply linament or mustard mixed, a9 
for the table, to throat from ear to ear, and leave on 
for 15 minutes. Give soft food. Keep body warm 
with blankets and bandages, and give plenty of fresh 
air. 

Prevention: Do not wash legs when muddy, but leave 
until dry, and then brush dirt out. 

Treatment: Cleanse and dry (if greasy, apply dry bran 
poultice), dust on boric acid or powdered starch. Stand 
in dry place. 

Treatment: Examine feed for molds. Dry food; remove 
salt, restrict water. Clean out bowels: 1 pint linseed 
oil night and morning. Give 1 ounce dose white lotion 
3 times a day. 

Draw out pents and wash it and sheath with soap and 
warm water. Attendant should clean and trim his 
own nails before the operation. 

Treatment: Complete rest, dry standing, blanket and leg 
bandage. Stimulate with whisky or aromatic spirits 
of ammonia, 2 ounces of each in l /& pint cold water. 
Bran mashes, steamed oats, oatmeal gruel. Strych- 
nine', 1 grain in 2 ounces aromatic spirits of ammonia 
three times a day. Place in paddock. 

Symptoms: Sores similar to and in similar situations to 
farcy. They have a greater tendency to heal. Usually 
originates from a wound, from which point cordlike 
swellings appear and on the course of which these 
sores form. 

Treatment: Isolate. Very contagious. Proceed as for 
farcy. Call for services of veterinarian. 

Symptoms: Skin form of glanders. Appears as a string 
of running sores, usually on inside of hind legs, oc- 
casionally neck and face. No tendency to heal. 

Treatment: As for glanders. Be careful to distinguish 
from epizotic lymphangitis. Seek veterinary aid at 
once. 

Symptoms: Horse off feed, dull, temperature over 100 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

Treatment: Isolate and apply for veterinary aid. Give 
soft food and green stuff when available. Keep water 
always by and change frequently. Blister chest walls 
with thin mustard paste and cover up. If procurable, 
give a handful of epsom salts in each 'bucket of water. 
Keep body warm with blankets and bandages and give 
plenty of fresh air. 

Treatment: If simply a swelling, lightly smooth over the 
swollen surface with the hand in the direction of the 
hair, as if to smooth it out, for 15 minutes at a time, 
supply white lotion. If skin is chafed, treat as for 
wounds. To work horse strap girth back, tying it 
under the belly to surcingle, which should be placed 
over fans of saddle. When healed, place piece of 
sheepskin under .girth. 



162 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Ailment or Injury. 



Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 



17. Glanders 



18. Influenza 



19. Mange 



20. Ringworm 



21. Rope, harness, or sad 
die galls. 



22. Sand colic , 

23. Scratches; grease..., 



Symptoms: Thick, gluey discharge from one or both 
nostrils, ulcers on the membrane, inside nostrils, 
glands between lower jaws enlarged, tender and hard. 

Treatment: Very contagious. Rigid isolation of affected 
cases, in contacts and whole unit t if possible. On 
suspicion, immediately obtain veterinary aid. If un- 
doubted " glanders " animal should be shot. Very 
contagious to man, and fatal. 

Symptoms: Same as in fever; also animal holds head low. 
staggers when walking, visible mucous membrane of 
yellowish tinge. When digestive organs affected, con- 
stipation the rule at first. Eyelids swollen, hot and 
sensitive to touch. 

Treatment: Isolate, as very contagious. Give quinine sul- 
phate, 1 dram, gentian 2 drams, in ball, three times a 
day; add Y% ounce saltpeter to drinking water twice 
daily. Fever may be reduced by rectal injections of 
cool water. Intestinal troubles may be relieved by giv- 
ing bicarbonate of soda in one dram doses three times 
a day. Bathe eyes in warm water, anoint with cos- 
moline. 

Symptoms: Marked skin irritation. Horse bites and rubs 
himself against any available object. Hair comes off in 
patches and skin becomes thickened and corrugated 

Treatment: Isolate. Clip, burn clippings, dress with warm 
5/100 creolin solution one-third surface of body daily 
milder solution may be used all over. Thoroughly dis> 
infect all stables, harness, utensils. Discontinue cloth- 
ing. Exercise to sweating daily, if possible, and apply 
warm solution immediately on return. Seek veterinary 
aid. Suspect rash on man in contact with affected 
animals; treat man by frequent application. 2/100 
creolin solution. 

Symptoms: Hair falls out in circular patches. 

Treatment: Wash region affected with common laundry 
soap and water, then apply creolin 2 parts, water 100 
parts; or paint patches with tincture iodine or 1/000 
bichloride of mercury, alcohol or water solution. Disin- 
fect harness, brushes, curry combs, rubbing posts, picket 
lines with strong soap solution, then 5/100 creolin 
solution. 

Prevention: Head rope short. Care in fitting saddlery, 
use pads where irritation exists; keep pads washed 
clean. Keep saddle off while healing. 

Treatment: Grease when marching; protect if possible, 
with light bandage; on return to camp wash with soap 
and water; dry and apply bran poultice. Apply methy- 
lene blue. 

Prevention: Feed off blankets, etc. Clean food. 

Treatment: Give chloral hydrate balls and linseed oil in 
quart doses. 

Both due to uncleanliness as a rule. Scratches run into 
grease if not attended to. 

Treatment: for scratches: Cleanse with castile soap and 
water; dry and apply sulphate zinc 1 ounce, acetate of 
lead 1 ounce, water 1 quart, or oxide of zinc 1 part, 
lanolin 10 parts. In bad case of grease, proud flesh 
must be cut and burned, better call the veterinarian. 
Marked skin irritation of heels, tenderness, lame at 
first. May follow "mud fever" in wet seasons and 
usually due to neglect. To treat scratches always use 
cotton and bandage drawn lightly. Don't use water but 
clean dry and dust with boric acid, starch or apply 
white lotion or zinc ointment; use cotton and bandage. 
Grease heel requires hospital and veterinary aid. 



: 



MARCHES AND MARCH DISCIPLINE 



163 



Ailment or Injury. 



24. Sore backs and saddle 
galls. 



25. Sore withers 



26. Sprained tendons or 
joints, etc. 



27. Strangles 



28. Sunstroke or heat- 
stroke. 



29. Thrush 



30. Ticks, lice. 



Symptoms, Treatment, etc. 



Prevention: Careful supervision and fitting of saddlery. 

Treatment: If swelling only, treat as for (20) or batho 
with cold salt water. Apply white lotion. If skin 
chafed, treat as for wounds. Keep saddle off back until 
healed. Apply methylene blue. 

Treatment: Keep arch of saddle clear of withers. If 
swelling, only bathe with cold salt water. If skin 
broken, treat as for wounds. 

Treatment: Rest, examine foot for possible injury. For 
sprain apply wet cotton pad and bandage lightly; keep 
wet or use white lotion; i. e., lead acetate 1 ounce, zinc 
sulphate 1 ounce, water 1 quart; apply direct and cover 
with wet bandage. In absence of medicines, etc., use 
cold salt water or clay poultice. 

Symptoms: High fever and nasal discharge. Swelling at 
the back of or under the jaw. May be some difficulty 
in swallowing. 

Treatment: Isolate and obtain veterinary aid. Rest, soft 
food, blanket and bandage; plenty of fresh air and 
foment swelling. Lance swelling, or if it bursts treat 
as for wounds. Give l /i ounce saltpeter in drinking 
water. 

Reduce temperature by cold water or ice on head and 
cold water injections. Give 2 ounces aromatic spirits of 
ammonia or 4 ounces alcohol in 8 ounces (1 pint) of 
water. Repeat dose in 1 hour if necessary. 

Treatment: Clean frog, dress cleft with boric acid or salt, 
and then plug with piece of tow. If severe, poultice or 
eoak foot before applying dressing. Powdered calomel 
sprinkled over diseased part will dry up thrush in 2 or 
3 days. Keep foot dry for several hours after adminis- 
tering. Stand on driest ground available. Open heels 
with knife. 

Treatment: Pull out only when dead; apply strong de- 
coction tobacco in saturated (all water will dissolve) 
solution of salt. Soak affected parts every other day. 
Look out for lice; nits readily seen fastened to hair; 
hatch in 7 to 10 days. Coal oil, alcohol, turpentine very 
useful. 



Horses on sick report are under the immediate charge of 
the stable sergeant. When a veterinarian is present he should 
prescribe the treatment to be given to sick horses, and he should 
inspect all sick horses at least once daily. He should also visit 
each organization at least once a day at one of the stated 
" stables," and should be freely consulted as to minor ailments 
and as to the means of keeping the horses in fit condition. In the 
absence of a veterinarian the sick horses are treated by the stable 
sergeant under the direction of the captain. 



CHAPTER VI 

CAMPS, CANTONMENTS, CAMP SANITATION AND 
THE SHELTERING OF TROOPS 

In campaign, tactical necessity may leave little choice in the 
selection of camp sites, but under any conditions the requirements 
of sanitation should be given every consideration consistent with 
the tactical situation. 

Great care should be exercised in selecting sites. In general, 
the following principles govern: The site should be convenient 
to an abundant supply of pure water. Good roads should lead to 
the camp. Interior communication throughout the camp should be 
easy. A camp near a main road is undesirable on account of dust 
and noise. Wood, grass, forage, and supplies should be at hand or 
easily obtainable. The ground should accommodate the command 
without crowding and without compelling the troops of one unit to 
pass through the camp of another. 

The site should be sufficiently high and rolling to drain off 
storm water readily, and, if the season be hot, to catch the breeze. 
In cold weather it should preferably have a southern exposure, 
with woods to the north to break the cold winds. In warm weather 
an eastern exposure, with the site moderately shaded by trees, is 
desirable. The site should be dry. For this reason, porous soil, 
covered with stout turf and underlaid by a sandy or gravelly sub- 
soil, is best. A site on clay soil, or where the ground water 
approaches the surface, is damp, cold, and unhealthful. 

Alluvial soils, marshy ground, and ground near the base of 
hills, or near thick woods or dense vegetation, are undesirable as 
camp sites on account of dampness. Ravines and depressions are 
likely to be unduly warm and to have insufficient or undesirable 
air currents. Proximity to marshes or stagnant water is unde- 
sirable on account of the dampness, mosquitoes, and the diseases 
which the latter transmit. The high banks of lakes or large streams 
often make desirable camp sites. Dry beds of streams should be 
avoided; they are subject to sudden freshet. 

The occupation of old camp sites is dangerous, since these 
are often permeated by elements of disease which persists for con- 
siderable periods. Camp sites must be changed promptly when 
there is evidence of soil pollution or when epidemic disease threat- 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 165 

ens, but the need for frequent changes on this account may be a 
reflection on the sanitary administration of the camp. 

A change of camp site is often desirable in order to secure a 
change of surroundings and to abandon areas which have become 
dusty and cut up. 



WATER SUPPLY 

Immediately on making camp a guard should be placed over 
the water supply. If the water be obtained from a stream, places 
should be designated foi* drawing water (1) for drinking and cook- 
ing, (2) for watering animals, (3) for bathing and washing clothing. 
The first named should be drawn farthest up.the stream; the others, 
in the order named, downstream. 

If the stream be small, the water supply may be increased 
by building a dam. Small springs may be dug out and each lined 
with a gabion, or a barrel or box with both ends removed, or with 
stones, the space between the lining and the earth being filled 
with puddled clay. A rim of clay should be built to keep out sur- 
face drainage. The same method may be used near swamps, 
streams, or lakes to increase or clarify the water supply. 

Water that is not known to be pure should be boiled 20 
minutes; it should then be cooled and aerated by being poured 
repeatedly from one clean container to another, or it may be puri- 
fied by approved apparatus supplied for the purpose. 

Arrangements should be made for men to draw water from 
the authorized receptacles by means of a spigot or other similar 
arrangement. The dipping of water from the receptacles, or the 
use of a common drinking cup, should be prohibited. 

KITCHENS 

Camp kettles can be hung on a support consisting of a 
green pole lying in the crotches of two upright posts of the same 
character. A narrow trench for the fire, about 1 foot deep, dug 
under the pole, not only protects the fire from the wind, but saves 
fuel. A still greater economy of fuel can be effected by digging a 
similar trench in the direction of the wind and slightly narrower 
than the diameter of the kettles. The kettles are then placed on the 
trench and the space between the kettles filled in with stones, clay, 
etc., leaving the flue running beneath the kettles. The draft can be 
improved by building a chimney of stones, clay, etc., at the leeward 
end of the flue. Four such trenches radiating from a common 
central chimney will give one flue for use whatever may be the 



166 MILITARY TRAINING 

direction of the wind. A slight slope of the flue, from the chimney 
down, provides for drainage and improves the draft. 

The lack of portable ovens can be met by ovens constructed 
of stone and covered with earth to better retain the heat. If no 
stone is available, an empty barrel, with one head out, is laid on 
its side, covered with wet clay to a depth of 6 or more inches and 
then with a layer of dry earth equally thick. A flue is constructed 
with the clay above the closed end of the barrel, which is then 
burned out with a hot fire. This leaves a baked clay covering 
for the oven. A recess can be similarly constructed with boards 
or even brushwood, supported on a horizontal pole resting on 
upright posts, covered and burnt out as in the case of the barrel. 
When clay banks are available, an oven may be excavated therein 
and used at once. To bake in such ovens, first heat them and then 
close flues and ends. 

Food must be protected from flies, dust, and sun. Facilities 
must be provided for cleaning and scalding the mess equipment of 
the men. Kitchens and the ground around them must be kept 
scrupulously clean. 

Solid refuse should be promptly burned, either in the kitchen 
fire or in an improvised crematory. 

In temporary camps, if the soil is porous, liquid refuse from 
the kitchens may be strained through gunnysacking into seepage 
pits dug near the kitchen. Flies must not have access to these pits. 
Boards or poles, covered with brush or grass and a layer of earth, 
may be used for this purpose. The strainers should also be pro- 
tected from flies. Pits of this kind, dug in clayey soil, will not 
operate successfully. All pits should be filled with earth before 
marching. 

DISPOSAL OF EXCRETA 

Immediately on arriving in camp sinks should be dug. This 
is a matter of fundamental sanitary importance, since the most 
serious epidemics of camp diseases are spread from human excreta. 
One sink is usually provided for each company and one for the 
officers of each battalion. Those for the men are invariably located 
on the side of camp opposite the kitchens. All sinks should 
be so placed that they cannot pollute the water supply or camp 
site as a result of drainage or overflow. To insure this, their loca- 
tion and their distance from camp may be varied. When camp is 
made for a single night, shallow trenches, 12 inches deep and 15 
to 18 inches wide, which the men may straddle, will suffice. In 
more permanent camps, the trenches should be about 2 feet wide, 
6 feet deep, and 15 feet long. They should be provided with seats 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 167 

and back rests made of poles, and should be screened by brush or 
old tent flys. 

In cold weather the contents of sinks should be covered once 
daily with quicklime, ashes, or dry earth. When filled to within 
2 feet of the top, sinks should be discontinued and filled in. Open 
pits are dangerous during the fly season. However, the danger may 
be greatly reduced by covering the excreta with earth or by a 
thorough daily burning of the entire area of the trench. Combus- 
tible sweepings or straw, saturated with oil, may be used for this 
purpose. In fly season, trenches may be closed with seats covered 
down to the ground with muslin and supplied with self-closing 
lids. Urinal troughs, made of muslin and coated with oil or paint, 
should discharge into the trenches. 

In permanent camps special sanitary facilities for the dis- 
posal of excreta are ordinarily provided. If necessary, urinal tubs 
may be placed in the company streets at night and removed at 
reveille. Their location should be plainly marked and thoroughly 
and frequently disinfected. 

When troops bivouac for the night the necessity for exten- 
sive sanitary precautions is not great; however, shallow sink 
trenches should be dug to prevent general pollution of the vicinity. 
If the cooking be collective, shallow kitchen sinks should be dug. 
If the cooking be individual, the men should be required to build 
their fires on the leeward flank of the camp or bivouac. Before 
marching, all trenches should be filled in. 

PROTECTION OF CAMP OR BIVOUAC 

The outpost is a covering detachment detailed to secure the 
camp or bivouac against surprise and to prevent an attack upon it 
before the troops can prepare to resist. 

The size and disposition of the outpost depends upon many 
circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the prox- 
imity of the enemy and the situation with respect to him, the 
nature of the terrain, etc. A suitable strength may vary from 
a very small fraction to one-third of the whole force. For a single 
company in bivouac a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a 
large command a more elaborate outpost system must be provided. 
It should be no stronger than is consistent with reasonable security. 
The most economical protection is furnished by keeping in close 
contact with the enemy by means of outpost patrols, in conjunction 
with resisting detachments on the avenues of approach. The out- 
post should be composed of complete organizations. 

In a brigade or smaller force on the march toward the 
enemy, the outpost is generally formed from the advance guard, 



168 MILITARY TRAINING 

and is relieved the following day when the new advance guard 
crosses the line of outguards. In a retreat, the detail for outpost 
duty is generally made from the main body. The new outpost 
becomes the rear guard the following day. 

When, as in large forces, an advance and rear guard per- 
forms such duty for several days, the outpost, during this period, 
is furnished by the advance or rear guards. When the command 
is small and stationary for several days, the outpost is relieved 
daily. In large commands, the outpost is, as a rule, relieved at 
intervals of several days. 

The positions held by the subdivisions of the outpost should 
generally be prepared for defense, but conditions may render this 
unnecessary. Troops on outpost keep concealed as much as is 
consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially 
do they avoid appearing on the sky line. Outpost troops do not 
render honors. 



DISTRIBUTION OF OUTPOST TROOPS 

The outpost is generally divided into three parts. These, in 
order from the main body, are the reserve, the line of supports, and 
the line of outguards. The distances separating these parts, and 
their distance from the main body, will depend upon the object 
sought, the nature of the terrain, and the size of the command. 
There can be no uniformity in the distance between supports and 
reserve, nor between outguards and supports, even in the same 
outpost. The avenues of approach and the important features of 
the terrain will largely control their exact positions. The outpost 
of a small force should ordinarily hold the enemy beyond effective 
rifle range of the main body until the latter can deploy. For the 
same purpose the outpost of a large force should hold the enemy 
beyond artillery range. 

The reserve constitutes the main body of the outpost and is 
held at some central point from which it can readily support the 
troops in front or hold a rallying position on which they may retire. 
The reserve may be omitted when the outpost consists of less than 
two companies. The reserve may comprise one-fourth to two- 
thirds of the strength of the outpost. 

The supports constitute a line of supporting and resisting 
detachments varying in size from a half company to a battalion. 
They furnish the line of outguards. The supports are numbered 
consecutively from right to left. They are placed at the more 
important points on the outpost line, usually in the line on which 
resistance is to be made in case of attack. 

As a general rule, roads exercise the greatest influence on 
the location of supports, and a support will generally be placed on 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 169 

or near a road. The section which is to cover should be clearly- 
denned by means of tangible lines on the ground and should be 
such that the support is centrally located therein. 

The outguards constitute the line of small detachments 
farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. For convenience 
they are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts. 
They are numbered consecutively from right to left in each support. 

A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, 
ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of 
outguards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or 
more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry squads; or cossack posts 
for observation. Pickets are placed at the more important points 
in the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each 
depends upon the number of small groups required to observe 
properly its sector. 

A sentry squad is a squad posted in observation at an indi- 
cated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remain- 
ing men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. 
In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 

A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation 
group similar to a sentry squad, but employs a single sentinel. 

At night, it will sometimes be advisable to place some of the 
outguards or their sentinels in a position different from that which 
they occupy in the daytime. In such case the ground should be 
carefully studied before dark and the change made at dusk. How- 
ever, a change in the position of the outguard will be exceptional. 

Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but at night 
double sentinels are required in most cases. Sentinels furnished 
by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those 
furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. Every 
sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to 
which he belongs. 

Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively from right to left 
in each outguard. Sentry squads and cossack posts furnished 
by pickets are counted as sentinel posts. 

Instead of using outguards along the entire front of observa- 
tion, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These, 
should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be crossed 
by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is not likely 
to attempt a crossing after dark. In daylight much of the local 
patrolling may be dispensed with if the country can be seen from 
the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols should frequently be 
pushed well to the front unless the ground in that direction is 
exceptionally open. 

Patrols or sentinels must be the first troops which the enemy 
meets, and each body in rear must have time to prepare for the 



*/V MILITARY TRAINING 

blow. These bodies cause as much delay as possible without sacri- 
ficing themselves, and gradually retire to the line where the out- 
post is to make its resistance. 

Patrols must be used to keep up connection between the 
parts of the outpost except when, during daylight, certain frac-. 
tjons or groups are mutually visible. After dark this connection 
must be maintained throughout the outpost except where the 
larger subdivisions are provided with wire communication. 

In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost commander 
may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to cover 
roads or areas not in the general line assigned to the supports. 
In like manner the commander of the whole force may order 
detached posts to be sent from the main body to cover important 
roads or localities not included in the outpost line. The number 
and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute needs 
of the situation. 

ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST 

The outpost is posted as quickly as possible so that the 
troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until the leading outpost troops 
are able to assume their duties, temporary protection, known as 
the march outpost, is furnished by the nearest available troops. 

The halt order of the commander, besides giving the neces- 
sary information and assigning camp sites to the parts of the 
command, details the troops to constitute t*te outpost, assigns a 
commander therefor, designates the general line to be occupied, 
and, when practicable, points out the position to be held in case of 
attack. 

The outpost commander, upon receipt of this order, should 
issue the outpost order with the least practicable delay. In large 
commands it may often be necessary to give the order from the 
map, but usually the outpost commander will have to make some 
preliminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed 
map. The order gives such available information of the situation 
as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of sub- 
ordinates; designates the troops to constitute the supports; assigns 
their location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the 
necessary detached posts; indicates any special reconnaisance 
that is to be made; orders the location and disposition of the 
reserve; disposes of the train if same is ordered to join the outpost; 
and informs subordinates where information will be sent. 

Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give 
verbal orders to his support commanders from some locality 
which overlooks the terrain. The time and locality should be so 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 171 

selected that the support commanders may join their commands 
and conduct them to their positions without causing unnecessary 
delay to their troops. The reserve commander should, if pos- 
sible, receive his orders at the same time as the support com- 
manders. Subordinates to whom he gives orders separately should 
be informed of the location of other parts of the outpost. After 
issuing the initial orders, the outpost commander inspects the out- 
post, orders the necessary changes or additions, and sends his 
superior a report of his dispositions. 

The reserve is marched to its post by its commander, who 
then sends out such detachments as have been ordered and 
places the rest in camp or bivouac, over which at least one sentinel 
should be posted. Connection must be maintained with the main 
body, the supports and nearby detached posts. 

The supports march to their posts, using the necessary cov- 
ering detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A 
support commander's order should fully explain the situation to 
subordinates, or to the entire command, if it be small. It should 
detail the troops for the different outguards and, when necessary, 
define the sector each is to cover. It should provide the neces- 
sary sentinels at the post of the support, the patrols to be sent 
therefrom, and should arrange for the necessary intrenching. Con- 
nection should be maintained with adjoining supports and with 
the outguards furnished by the support. 

? In posting his command the support commander must seek 

to cover his sector in such manner that the enemy can not reach, 
in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position of the support 
or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the support. On the 
other hand, he must economize men on observation and patrol 
duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must practice 
the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements 
of practical security. 

As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its com- 
mander carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if 
any, and reports the dispositions of his support, including the 
patrolling ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is 
preferably made by means of a sketch. 

Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned 
station, and, especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the 
necessary patrolling to prevent surprise. Having reached the posi- 
tion, the commander explains the situation to his men and estab- 
lishes reliefs for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol 
to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must 
have a sentinel at its post. The commander then posts the sentinels 
and points out to them the principal features, such as towns, roads, 
and streams, and gives their names. He gives the direction and 



172 



MILITARY TRAINING 



location of the enemy, if known, and of adjoining parts of the 
outpost. He gives to patrols the same information and the neces- 
sary orders as to their routes and the frequency with which the 
same shall be covered. Each patrol should go over its route once 
before dark. 

Every picket should maintain connection by patrols with 



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CAMP OF A REGIMENT OF INFANTRY. 



outguards on its right and left. Each commander takes precaution 
to conceal his outguard and generally strengthens his position by 
intrenching. 

Batteries and squadrons usually camp in cotumn of com- 
panies. Between adjacent tents, center to center, in a row, 8 yards 
are allowed for large pyramidal (16 by 16 feet), 5 or 6 yards for 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 173 

small pyramidal (9 by 9 feet), and 10 yards for storage (17 feet 
10 inches by 20 feet 5 inches). Between adjacent company rows, 
picket line, and gun or carriage parks, center to center, 20 yards; 
but this distance may be reduced. From latrines 50 yards to nearest 
occupied tent; but, when a smaller camp is desired, the space 
between company latrines and the men's tents may be used to 
park carriages and animals. For picket lines and parks, allow 1 
yard per animal and 4 yards per vehicle; but, for shelter for animals 
in a double row, 2 l /2 lineal feet of structure per animal will suffice. 
No fixed type of camp is prescribed for use in the theater of 
operations. In the presence of the enemy, camps and bivouacs 
must be modified to afford the best protection for men, animals, 
and trains. This will frequently necessitate the juxtaposition of 
shelter for the men and picket lines for the animals. The illus- 
tration shows the Camp of an Infantry Division at war strength. 



TENT PITCHING 

Being in line or in columns of platoons, the captain causes 
the company to take intervals as described in the School of the 
Squad, and commands: Pitch Tents. 

At the command pitch tents, each man steps off obliquely to 
the right with the right foot and lays his rifle on the ground, the 
butt of the rifle near the toe of the right foot, muzzle to the front, 
barrel to the left, and steps back into his place; each front-rank 
man then draws his bayonet and sticks it in the ground by the 
outside of the right* heel. 

Equipments are unslung, packs opened, shelter half and pins 
removed; each man then spreads his shelter half, small triangle 
to the rear, flat upon the ground the tent is to occupy, the rear- 
rank man's half on the right. The halves are then buttoned 
together; the guy loops at both ends of the lower half are passed 
through the buttonholes provided in the lower and upper halves; 
the whipped end of the guy rope is then passed through both guy 
loops and secured, this at both ends of the tent. Each front- 
rank man inserts the muzzle of his rifle under the front end of 
the ridge and holds the rifle upright, sling to the front, heel of 
butt on the ground beside the bayonet. His rear-rank man pins 
down the front corners of the tent on the line of bayonets, 
stetching the tent taut; he then inserts a pin in the eye of the 
front guy rope and drives the pin at such a distance in front of 
the rifle as to hold the rope taut; both men go to the rear of the 
tent, each pins down a corner, stretching the sides and rear of 
the tent before securing; the rear-rank man then inserts an in- 
trenching tool, or bayonet in its scabbard, under the rear end 



174 MILITARY TRAINING 

of the ridge inside the tent, the front-rank man pegging down 
the end of the rear guy ropes; the rest of the pins are then driven, 
by both men, the rear-rank man working on the right. 

The front flaps of the tent are not fastened down, but thrown 
back on the tent. 

As soon as the tent is pitched each man arranges his equip- 
ment and the contents of his pack in the tent and stands at atten- 
tion in front of his own half on line with the front guy-rope pin. 

To have a uniform slope when the tents are pitched, the guy 
ropes should all be of the same length. 

In shelter-tent camps, in localities where suitable material is 
procurable, tent poles may be improvised and used in lieu of the 
rifle and bayonet or intrenching tool as supports for the shelter 
tent. 

When the pack is not carried the company is formed for 
shelter tents, intervals are taken, arms are laid aside or on the 
ground, the men are dismissed and proceed to the wagon, secure 
their packs, return to their places, and pitch tents. 

Double shelter tents may be pitched by first pitching one 
tent as heretofore described, then pitching a second tent against 
the opening of the first, using one rifle to support both tents, 
and passing the front guy ropes over and down the sides of 
the opposite tents. The front corner of one tent is not pegged 
down, but is thrown back to permit an opening into the tent. 



SINGLE SLEEPING BAG 

Spread the poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the 
feet, buttoned side to the left; fold the blanket once across its 
short dimension and lay it on the poncho, folded side along the 
right side of the poncho; tie the blanket together along the left 
side by means of tapes provided; fold the left half of the 
poncho over the blanket and button it together along the side and 
bottom. 

DOUBLE SLEEPING BAG 

Spread one poncho on the ground, buttoned end at the 
feet, buttoned side to the left; spread the blankets on top of the 
poncho; tie the edges of the blankets together with the tapes 
provided; spread a second poncho on top of the blankets, but- 
toned end at the feet, buttoned side to the right; button the two 
ponchos together along both sides and across the end. 

The drawing on opposite page shows the position, number, 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 



175 



and length of tapes with which blankets should be provided when 
required to be used in forming the sleeping bag. 

TO STRIKE SHELTER TENTS 

The men standing in front of their tents: Strike Tents. 
Equipments and rifles are removed from the tent; the tents are 




us 



i 



.Z 



lowered, packs made up, and equipment slung, and the men stand 
at attention in the places originally occupied after taking intervals. 

COMMON AND WALL TENTS 



To pitch all types of Army tents, except shelter and conical 
wall tents: Mark line of tents by driving a wall pin on the spot 
to be occupied by the right (or left) corner of each tent. For 
pyramidal tents the interval between adjacent pins should be about 
30 feet, which will give a passage of two feet between tents. 
Spread tripod on the ground where the center of tent is to be, if 
tripod is used. Spread the tent on the ground to be occupied, door 
to the front, and place the right (or left) front wall loop over the 
12 



176 MILITARY TRAINING 

pin. The door (or doors, if more than one) being fastened and 
held together at the bottom, the left (or right) corner wall loop is 
carried to the left (or right) as far as it will go and a wall pin 
driven through it, the pin being placed in line with the right (or 
left) corner pins already driven. At the same time the rear 
corner wall loops are pulled to the rear and outward so that the 
rear wall of the tent is stretched to complete the rectangle. Wall 
pins are then driven through these loops. Each corner pin should 
be directly in rear of the corresponding front corner pin, making a 
rectangle. Unless the canvas be wet, a small amount of slack 
should be allowed before the corner pins are driven. According 
to the size of the tent, one or two men, crawling under the tent if 
necessary, fit each pole or ridge or upright into the ring or ridge 
pole holes, and such accessories as hood, fly, and brace ropes are 
adjusted. If a tripod be used an additional man goes under the 
tent to adjust it. The tent, steadied by the remaining men, one 
at each corner guy rope, is then raised. If the tent is a ward or 
storage type, corner poles are now placed at the four corners. 
The four corner guy ropes are then placed over the lower notches 
of the large pins driven in prolongation of the diagonals at such 
distance as to hold the walls and ends of the tent vertical and 
smooth when the guy ropes are drawn taut. A wall pin is then 
driven through each remaining wall loop and a large pin for each 
guy rope is driven in line with the corner guy pines already driven. 
The guy ropes of the tent are placed over the lower notches, while 
the guy ropes of the fly are placed over the upper notches, and are 
then drawn taut. Brace ropes, when used, are then secured to 
stakes or pins suitably placed. 

CONICAL WALL TENTS 

Drive the door pin and center pin 8 feet 3 inches apart. 
Using the hood lines with center pin as center, describe two con- 
centric circles with radii 8 feet 3 inches and 11 feet 3 inches. 
In the outer circle drive two door guy pins 3 feet apart. At 
intervals of about 3 feet drive the other guy pin. 

In other respects conical tents are erected practically as in 
the case of pyramidal tents. 

TO STRIKE COMMON, WALL, PYRAMIDAL AND 
CONICAL WALL TENTS 

The men first remove all pins except those of the four corner 
guy ropes, or the four quadrant guy ropes in the case of the conical 
wall tent. The pins are neatly piled or placed in their receptacle. 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 177 

One man holds each guy, and when the ground is clear the 
tent is lowered, folded, or rolled and tied, the poles or tripod 
and pole fastened together, and the remaining pins collected. 

TO FOLD TENTS 

For folding common, wall, hospital, and storage tents: 
Spread the tent flat on the ground, folded at the ridge so that 
bottoms of side walls are even, ends of tent forming triangles 
to the right and left; fold the triangular ends of the tent in 
toward the middle, making it rectangular in shape; fold the top 
over about 9 inches; fold the tent in two by carrying the top 
fold over clear to the foot; fold again in two from the top to the 
foot; throw all guys on tent except the second from each end; 
fold the ends in so as to cover about two-thirds of the second 
cloths; fold the left end over to meet the turned-in edge of the 
right end, then fold the right end over the top, completing the 
bundle; tie with the two exposed guys. 



METHOD OF FOLDING PYRAMIDAL TENT 

The tent is thrown toward the rear and the back wall and 
roof canvas pulled out smooth. This may be most easily accom- 
plished by leaving the rear-corner wall pins in the ground with 
the wall loops attached, one man at each rear-corner guy, and 
one holding the square iron in a perpendicular position and pulling 
the canvas to its limit away from the former front of the tent. 
This leaves the three remaining sides of the tent on top of the 
rear side, with the door side in the middle. 

Now carry the right-front corner over and lay it on the left- 
rear corner. Pull all canvas smooth, throw guys toward square 
iron, and pull bottom edges even. Then take the right-front 
corner and return to the right, covering the right-rear corner. 
This folds the right side of the tent on itself, with the crease in 
the middle and under the front side of tent. 

Next carry the left-front corner to the right and back as 
described above; this when completed will leave the front and 
rear sides of the tent lying smooth and flat and the two side walls 
folded inward, each on itself. 

Place the hood in the square iron which has been folded 
downward toward the bottom of tent, and continue to fold around 
the square iron as a core, pressing all folds down flat and smooth, 
and parallel with the bottom of the tent. If each fold is com- 
pactly made and the canvas kept smooth, the last fold will exactly 



178 MILITARY TRAINING 



cover the lower edge of the canvas. Lay all exposed guys along 
the folded canvas except the two on the center width, which should 
be pulled out and away from bottom edge to their extreme length 
for tying. Now, beginning at one end, fold toward the center on 
the first seam (that joining the first and second widths) and fold 
again toward the center so that the already folded canvas will 
come to within about 3 inches of the middle width. Then fold 
over to the opposite edge of middle width of canvas. Then begin 
folding from opposite end, folding the first width in half, then 
making a second fold to come within about 4 or 5 inches of that 
already folded, turn this fold entirely over that already folded. 
Take the exposed guys and draw them taut across each other, turn 
bundle over on the under guy, cross guys on top of bundle drawing 
tight. Turn bundle over on the crossed guys and tie lengthwise. 

When properly tied and pressed together this will make a 
package 11 by 23 by 34 inches, requiring about 8,855 cubic inches 
to store or pack. 

SHELTER IN THE SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 

In mobilization and concentration camps, troops are shel- 
tered under canvas or in temporary barracks, and proper provision 
is made for their health, comfort, and instruction. As a rule, such 
camps or cantonments should fulfill the following conditions: 

1. The grounds should be easily drained, naturally healthful, 
large enough for depots, corrals, hospitals, etc., and the encamp- 
ment of the troops without crowding, and with ample space for 
exercise and instruction. 

2. The water supply should be excellent and abundant and 
not liable to contamination from any source. 

3. There should be ample railroad and switching facilities 
and suitable arrangements for loading and unloading, as the funda- 
mental reasons for the mobilization or concentration will be de- 
feated if ample rail or water facilities are not available to promptly 
receive and dispatch troops and supplies. 

4. All parts of the camp should be readily accessible by 
good wagon roads. 

All arrangements for the accommodation and supply of the 
troops should be completed before their arrival by the permanent 
camp personnel sent ahead for the purpose. Camps are laid out 
so as to preserve the integrity of units, the headquarters of each 
being centrally or conveniently located with respect to its troops; 
tents are pitched and aligned, kitchens equipped, water and fuel 
supply arranged, latrines prepared, hospitals erected, and arrange- 
ments made for ample mail, telegraph, and telephone service. The 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 179 

general headquarters should be centrally located and connected by 
wire with the principal subordinate headquarters. Depots and 
storehouses are placed at railroad sidings and the hospitals near 
the railroad station. Trains are placed so as to interfere as little 
as possible with the comfort and cleanliness of the troops. 

No individuals, troops, or trains of organizations tempo- 
rarily present should be attached to the permanent camp per- 
sonnel, if it can be avoided. It is the function of the permanent 
camp personnel to operate depots, hospitals, to maintain camp 
telephone and telegraph lines, etc. The troops temporarily present 
must be in constant readiness to move. 

SHELTER IN THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS 

Tactical considerations demand greater concentration and 
generally control the location of the camp. 

If troops are actually engaged in field operations, their 
equipment, including tentage, is necessarily limited to that carried 
on the men, on animals, and in trains. In certain instances, after 
proper sanitary inspection, local buildings in the theater of opera- 
tions may be used to advantage in affording additional shelter to 
officers, enlisted men, and animals. 

If the length of a halt, during the period of operations, is 
of some considerable duration, when practicable additional camp 
equipment (baggage, tents, surplus kits, etc.) is sent up from the 
line of communication and temporarily placed at the disposition 
of organizations. In this instance every possible use is made 
of local buildings and temporary structures, to the end that the 
troops be made as comfortable as possible during the period of 
the halt. 

Selection of Site. There is often little choice in the selec- 
tion of camp sites in war. Troops may have to camp many nights 
pn objectionable ground. Nevertheless, sanitary considerations 
ire given all the weight possible consistent with the tactical 
requirements. 

When tactical questions are not involved, and especially 
when the camp is to be occupied for some time, great care is 
exercised in selecting the side. Through no fault of their own 
troops occupying an unsanitary site may suffer greater losses than 
,n the battles of a long campaign. A medical officer assists in the 
election of camp sites. 

The selection of camp sites while on the march or during 
ctive operations is governed by the following conditions: 1. The 
;round should accommodate the command with as little crowd- 
ng as possible, be easily drained, and have no stagnant water 
vithin 300 yards. 2. The water supply should be sufficient, pure,, 



180 MILITARY TRAINING 

and accessible. 3. There should be good roads to the camp and 
good interior communication. 4. Wood, grass, forage, and supplies 
must be at hand or obtainable. 

Closely cropped turf with sandy or gravelly subsoil is best; 
high banks or rivers are suitable, provided no marshes are near. 
In hot summer months, the ground selected should be high, free 
from underbrush, and shaded with trees if possible. In cold 
weather ground sloping to the south, with woods to break the 
north winds, is desirable. 

Old camp grounds and the vicinity of cemeteries are unde- 
sirable. Marshy ground and stagnant water are objectionable on 
account of the damp atmosphere and the annoyance and infecfion 
from mosquitoes. Ground near the foot of a hill range generally 
has a damp subsoil and remains muddy for a long time. Thick 
forests, dense vegetation, made ground, alluvial soil, punch-bowl 
depressions, inclosed ravines, and dry beds of streams are un- 
favorable. 

Camp sites should be selected so that troops of one unit 
need not pass through the camp grounds of another. As a pro- 
tection against epidemics, temporary camp sites in the theater of 
operations should be changed every two or three weeks. 

Form and Dimensions of Camps. The forms of the camp 
should be such as to facilitate the prompt encampment of troops 
after a march and their prompt departure when camp is broken. 
The form of camps will depend upon the tactical situation and 
the amount and nature of ground available. In certain cases, 
particularly in one-night halts in the presence of the enemy, 
camps must of necessity be contracted, While, in other cases, 
where a more extended halt is contemplated and where tactical 
reasons will permit, better camp sanitation may be secured, and 
a more comfortable arrangement made by the expansion of camp 
areas. 

Establishing the Camp. Camp is established pursuant to 
the halt order. This order provides for the outpost, if necessary, 
and gives instructions for the encampment . of the main body. 
When practicable, large commands are encamped by brigades. 

The camping ground -may be selected by the supreme com- 
mander, but in large commands is generally chosen by a staff 
officer sent forward for that purpose. This officer, with a repre- 
sentative from each brigade and regiment and a medical officer, 
precedes the command, selects the camping ground, assigns sec- 
tions thereof to the larger fractions of the command, and causes 
them to be conducted to their respective sections on arrival. He 
also designates the place for obtaining drinking and cooking 
water, for watering animals, for bathing, and for washing cloth- 
ing, in the order named, from upstream down. 



CAMPS AND SHELTERING OF TROOPS 181 

On the arrival of the troops, guards are posted to enforce 
proper use of the water supply; the interior-camp guards proceed 
to their places, and after posting sentinels, pitch their tents. The 
remaining troops pitch tents and secure animals and equipment; 
kitchens are established and details made to procure fuel, water, 
forage, etc., and to prepare latrines and kitchen pits; if necessary, 
tents, company streets, and picket lines are ditched. 

In the presence of the enemy, places of assembly for the 
troops are designated and directions given for their conduct in 
case of attack. Lines of information are established with the 
outpost. 

Billeting. When troops are to be billeted a staff officer and 
a representative from each brigade and regiment precede the 
column. The staff officer confers with the civil authorities, if 
present, makes an equitable division of the available quarters into 
distinct sections, and assigns a section to each regimental repre- 
sentative; the latter distributes the quarters to the troops of his 
regiment and conducts them to their places on arrival. 

Unless the force is small, shelter of this character is usually 
inadequate, and some of the troops must use shelter tents or 
bivouac. Villages and large farms often afford facilities, such as 
wells and cisterns, bakeries, blacksmith shops, material for repairs, 
fuel, and forage, which contribute to the comfort of the troops; 
it is therefore advantageous to camp or bivouac near them. 

Bivouac. On marches or in the presence of the enemy 
troops are frequently forced to bivouac on account of lack of 
suitable ground or for tactical reasons. On the other hand, in 
fine weather, in midsummer, or in the dry season in the tropics, 
the troops may bivouac from choice. 

From the tactical point of view bivouacs are very con- 
venient, but for sanitary reasons they are resorted to, as a rule, 
only when necessary. The general principles governing the selec- 
tion of camp sites apply to bivouacs. The ground should be dry 
and protected against sun and wind. Light woods are nearly 
always good sites for infantry bivouacs, on account of the shelter 
and material available. 

SHELTER DURING BATTLE 

During a lull in an engagement, or when hostilities are 
suspended for the night, the troops bivouac in line of battle on or 
near the position they occupy, the officers in rear of the center of 
their units. Reserves required to remain in instant readiness 
generally bivouac in column with a flank to the front. After the 
outposts are established, the commander of the main body decides 
whether the troops shall use their shelter tents or not. 



182 MILITARY TRAINING 

SHELTER DURING SIEGES 

On account of the long range of modern fortress artillery 
the camps or cantonments of the main body of the besiegers 
unless good cover is available, are generally not less than 5 mile 
from the enemy's works. To guard against sorties a large par 
of the command is continually on outpost duty, but when tha 
duty is completed the troops return to their own camp with th 
main body in order to recuperate from this arduous work. 

To guard against danger from epidemics in the necessaril; 
■crowded camps or cantonments of the besiegers the most carefu 
attention is paid to the water supply and sanitation. 

Officers and men of all arms must have a knowledge o 
-sanitation and its importance, to the end that no depletion of th 
fighting force occurs through avoidable causes. The important 
of adopting and carrying out proper sanitary measures cannot b< 
overestimated. 

Commanders— of all grades are responsible for the sanitar} 
condition of the quarters or localities occupied by their command; 
and for the enforcement of all sanitary regulations. In addition 
they are responsible that all sanitary defects reported to them art 
promptly corrected. 

A medical officer of experience, designated sanitary in 
■spector, is charged, under direction of the. division surgeon, with 
investigating and reporting upon the sanitation of the division tc 
which he is attached. Sanitary inspectors report the result of theii 
inspections to local commanders as well as to the division surgeon J 

In camps an ambulance service is furnished from the sani- 
tary train. Infirmaries are set up at convenient points by order 
of the division surgeon and operated by the sanitary personnel 
attached to the organizations which the infirmary serves. Here 
cases not requiring hospital treatment are cared for, all other cases 
being promptly removed by the ambulance service. The senior 
medical officer of the units served by the infirmary assumes charge 
of the same and is authorized to call directly on the other organi- 
zations for their proportionate share of medical officers and sani- 
tary personnel for the infirmary service. The sergeant, Hospital 
Corps, detailed with the infirmary remains with it in charge of 
the equipment. If necessary, field hospitals are set up for the 
reception of the seriously sick and wounded. 



CHAPTER VII 

INTERIOR GUARD DUTY, GUARDS AND 
MILITARY POLICE 

Guard duty is one of the most important duties of the 
soldier and especially so during times of war when the safety of 
the army or command depends upon the vigilance of the sentinels 
who watch that others may sleep and are the guardians of the 
quiet and safety of the camp. Respect for the person and office of 
a sentinel is strictly enjoined by military law, and invested as 
he frequently is, while on his post, with grave responsibilities, it 
is proper that he should be fully protected in the discharge of 
his duty. To permit any one to molest or interfere with him 
while thus employed, without becoming liable to severe penalty* 
would clearly establish a precedent highly prejudicial to the inter- 
ests of the service. 

Guards are usually classed as exterior guards, interior 
guards, military police, and provost guards. 

Exterior guards are used only in time of war. They belong 
:o the domain of tactics and their purpose is to prevent surprise, 
:o delay attack, and otherwise to provide for the security of the 
nain body. On the march they take the form of advance guards, 
■ear guards, and flank guards. At a halt they consist of outposts. 

Interior guards are used in camp or garrison to preserve 
[>rder, protect property, and to enforce police regulations. In 
fime of war such sentinels of an interior guard as may be neces- 
sary are placed close in or about the camp, and normally there is 
t'Ji exterior guard further out consisting of outposts. In time of 
•eace the interior guard is the only guard in a camp or garrison. 

Military police differ somewhat from either of these classes, 
^hey are used in time of war to guard prisoners, to arrest strag- 
lers and deserters, and to maintain order and enforce police 
egulations in the rear of armies, along lines of communication, 
nd in the vicinity of large camps. 

Provost guards are used in the absence of military police, 
enerally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near large 
osts or encampments, to preserve order among soldiers beyond 
le interior guard. 



184 MILITARY TRAINING 

INTERIOR GUARD 

The various elements of an interior guard classified accord- 
ing to their particular purposes and the manner in which they per- 
form their duties are the main guard and special guards, such as 
stable guards, park guards, prisoner guards, herd guards, train 
guards, boat guards, watchmen, etc. 

DETAILS AND ROSTERS 

At every military post, and in every regiment or separate 
command in the field, an interior guard is detailed and duly j 
mounted. It consists of such number of officers and enlisted men 
as the commanding officer may deem necessary, and is com- 
manded by the senior officer or non-commissioned officer there- 
with, under the supervision of the officer of the day or other 
officer detailed by the commanding officer. 

The system of sentinels on fixed posts is of value in dis- 
cipline and training because of the direct individual responsibility 
which is imposed and required to be discharged in a definite 
and precise manner. In order, however, that guard duty may not 
be needlessly irksome and interfere with tactical instruction, the 
number of men detailed for guard is the smallest possible. Com- 
manding officers are specifically charged with this matter, and, 
without entirely dispensing with the system of sentinels on fixed 
posts, as far as practicable, in time of peace, replace such sentinels 
with watchmen. 

At posts where there are less than three companies the 
main guard and special guards may all be furnished by one com- 
pany or by detail from each company. Where there are three or 
more companies, the main guard, if practicable is furnished by a 
single company, and, as far as practicable, the same organization 
supplies all details for that day for special guard, overseer, and 
fatigue duty. In this case the officer of the day, and the officer of 
the guard, if there are any, if practicable, are from the company 
furnishing the guard. 

At a post or camp where the headquarters of more than 
one regiment are stationed, or in the case of a small brigade. in the 
field, if but one guard be necessary for the whole command, the 
details are made from the headquarters of the command. If 
formal guard mounting is to be held, the adjutant, sergeant major, 
and band to attend guard mounting are designated by the com- 
manding officer. 

When a single organization furnishes the guard, a roster 
of organizations is kept by the sergeant major under the super- 
vision of the adjutant. 






GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 185 

When the guard is detailed from several organizations, 
rosters are kept by the adjutant, of officers of the day and offi- 
cers of the guard by name; by the sergeant major, under the 
supervision of the adjutant, of sergeants, corporals, musicians, 
and privates of the guard by number per organization; and by 
first sergeants, of sergeants, corporals, musicians, and privates by 
name. 

When organizations furnish their own stable, or stable and 
park guards, credit is given each for the number of enlisted men 
so furnished, as though they had been detailed for main guard. 

Special guards, other than stable or park guards are cred- 
ited the same as for main guard, credited with fatigue duty, carried 
on special duty, or credited as the commanding officer may direct. 
Captains supervise the keeping of company rosters and see that all 
duties performed are duly credited. 

There is an officer of the day with each guard, unless in the 
opinion of the commanding officer the guard is so small that his 
services are not needed. In this case an officer is detailed to 
supervise the command and instruction of the guard for such 
period as the commanding officer may direct. 

When more than one guard is required for a command, a 
field officer of the day is detailed, who receives his orders from the 
brigade or division commander as the latter may direct. When 
necessary, captains may be placed on the roster for field officer 
of the day. 

The detail of officers of the guard is limited to the necessi- 
ties of the service and efficient instruction; inexperienced officers 
may be detailed as supernumerary officers of the guard for pur- 
poses of instruction. 

Officers serving in staff departments are, in the discretion 
i of the commanding officer, exempt from guard duty. 

Guard details, if practicable, are posted or published the 
day preceding the beginning of the tour, and officers notified per- 
| sonally by a written order at the same time. 

1 The strength of guards and the number of consecutive days 

( for which an organization furnishes the guard are so regulated as 
to insure privates of the main guard an interval of not less than 
3 five days between tours. When this is not otherwise practicable, 
3 extra and special duty men are detailed for night-guard duty, still 
3 performing their daily duties. When so detailed a roster is kept 
[ by the adjutant showing the duty performed by them. 

The members of main guards and stable and park guards are 

r habitually relieved every 24 hours. The length of the tour of 

enlisted men detailed as special guards, other than stable or park 

I guards, is so regulated as to permit of these men being held ac- 

• countable for a strict performance of their duty. 



186 MILITARY TRAINING 

Should the officer of the day be notified that men are re- 
quired to fill vacancies in the guard, he causes them to be sup- 
plied from the organization to which the guard belongs. If none 
are available in that organization, the adjutant is notified and 
causes them to be supplied from the organization that is next for 
guard. 

The adjutant has posted on the bulletin board at his office 
all data needed by company commanders in making details from 
their companies. At first sergeant's call, first sergeants go to 
headquarters and take from the bulletin board all data necessary 
for making the details required from their companies; these details 
are made from their company rosters. 

In order to give ample notice, first sergeants, when prac- 
ticable, publish at retreat and post on the company bulletin board 
all details made from the company for duties to be performed. 

THE COMMANDING OFFICER 

The commanding officer exacts a faithful, vigilant and cor- 
rect performance of guard duty in all of its details, giving his 
orders to the officer of the day, or causing them to be communi- 
cated to him with the least practicable delay. He prescribes the 
strength of the guard, and the necessary regulations for guard, 
police and fatigue duty. 

The commanding officer receives the reports of the officers 
of the day immediately after guard mounting, at his office, or at 
some other place previously designated; carefully examines the 
guard report and remarks thereon (questioning the old officer of 
the day, if necessary, concerning his tour of duty), relieves the 
old officer of the day and gives the new officer of the day such 
instructions as may be necessary. 

THE OFFICER OF THE DAY 

The officer of the day is responsible for the proper per- 
formance of duty by the guard with which he marches on and 
for the enforcement of all police regulations. He is charged with 
the execution of all orders of the commanding officer relating to 
the safety and good order of the post or camp. His actual tour 
begins when he receives the instructions of the commanding officer 
after guard mounting, and ceases when he has been relieved by the 
commanding officer. In case of emergency during the interval 
between guard mounting and reporting to the commanding officer, 
the senior officer of the day gives the necessary instructions for 
both guards. 

In the absence of special instructions from the commanding 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 187 

officer, the officer of the day inspects the guard and sentinels 
during the day and at night at such times as he may deem neces- 
sary. He visits them at least once between 12 o'clock midnight 
and daylight. 

He prescribes patrols and visits of inspection to be made 
by officers and non-commissioned officers of the guard whenever 
he deems it necessary. 

He sees that the commander of the guard is furnished with 
the parole and countersign before retreat in case they are to be 
used, and informs him of the presence, in post or camp of any 
person entitled to the compliment. 

In case of alarm of any kind he at once takes such steps as 
may be necessary to insure the safety of life and public property 
and to preserve order in the command, disposing his guard so as 
best to accomplish this result. 

In the performance of his duties as officer of the day he is 
subject to the orders of the commanding officer only, except that 
in case of an alarm of any kind, and at a time of great danger, 
the senior line officer present is competent to give necessary orders 
to the officer of the day for the employment of the guard. 

At the inspections and musters prescribed in Army Regu- 
lations, the officer of the day is present at the post of the guard,, 
but all commands to the guard are given by the commander of 
the guard. 

Both officers of the day together verify the prisoners and 
inspect the guardhouse and premises. 

In the absence of special instructions, the old officer of the 
day, at guard mounting, releases all garrison prisoners whose 
sentences expired that day. If there are any prisoners with no 
record of charges against them, the old officer of the day reports 
that fact to the commanding officer who gives the necessary in- 
structions. 

The old officer of the day signs the report of the commander 
of the guard. He also enters on it such remarks as may be 
necessary. 

The officers of the day then report to the commanding 
officer. On presenting themselves, both salute with the right hand, 
remaining covered. The old officer of the day, standing on the 
right of the new, then says: "Sir, I report as old officer of the 
day," and presents the guard report. As soon as the commanding 
officer notifies the old officer of the day that he is relieved, the 
old officer of the day salutes the commanding officer and retires. 
The new officer of the day again salutes and says: " Sir, I report as 
new officer of the day," and then receives his instructions. ' 

The officer of the day always keeps the guard informed as 
to where he may be found at all hours of the day and night. 



188 MILITARY TRAINING 

COMMANDER OF THE GUARD 

The commander of the guard is responsible for the instruc- 
tion and discipline of the guard. He sees that all of its members 
are correctly instructed in their orders and duties, and that they 
understand and properly perform them. He visits each relief at 
least once while it is on post, and at least one of these visits is 
made between 12 o'clock midnight and daylight. He receives and 
obeys the orders of the commanding officer and the officer of the 
day, and reports to the latter without delay all orders to the guard 
not received from the officer of the day; he transmits to his suc- 
cessor all material instructions and information relating to his 
duties. 

He is responsible under the officer of the day for the general 
safety of the post or camp as soon as the old guard marches away 
from the guardhouse. In case of emergency while both guards 
are at the guardhouse, the senior commander of the two guards 
is responsible that the proper action is taken. 

Officers of the guard remain constantly with their guards, 
except while visiting patrols or necessarily engaged elsewhere in 
the performance of their duties. The commanding officer allows 
a reasonable time for meals. 

A commander of a guard leaving his post for any purpose 
informs the next in command of his destination and probable time 
of return. 

Except in emergencies, the commander of the guard may 
divide the night with the next in command, but retains his re- 
sponsibility; the one on watch must be constantly on the alert. 

When any alarm is raised in camp or garrison, the guard is 
formed immediately. If the case be serious, the proper call is 
sounded, and the commander of the guard causes the commanding 
officer and the officer of the day to be at once notified. 

If a sentinel calls: "The Guard," the commander of the 
guard at once sends a patrol to the sentinel's post. If the danger 
be great, in which case the sentinel discharges his piece, the patrol 
is as strong as possible. 

When practicable, there should always be an officer or 
non-commissioned officer and two privates of the guard at the 
guardhouse, in addition to the sentinels there on post. 

Between reveille and retreat, when the guard has been 
turned out for any person entiled to the compliment, the com- 
mander of the guard, if an officer, receives the report of the 
sergeant, returning the salute of the latter with the right hand. 
He then draws his saber and places himself two paces in front of 
the center of the guard. When the person for whom the guard 
has been turned out approaches he faces his guard and com- 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 189 

mands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS; faces to the front and salutes. 
When his salute is acknowledged he resumes the carry, faces about 
and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS; and faces to the front. 

If it be an officer entiled to inspect the guard, after saluting 
and before bringing his guard to an order, the officer of the guard 
reports: " Sir, all present or accounted for"; or, "Sir (so and so), 
is absent"; or, if the rollcall has been omitted: "Sir, the guard is 
formed," except that at guard mounting the commanders of the 
guards present their guards and salute without making any re- 
port. 

Between retreat and reveille, the commander of the guard 
salutes and reports, but does not bring the guard to a present. 

To those entitled to have the guard turned out but not en- 
titled to inspect it, no report is made; nor is a report made to any 
officer, unless he halts in front of the guard. 

When a guard commanded by a non-commissioned officer 
is turned out as a compliment or for inspection, the non-commis- 
sioned officer, standing .at a right shoulder on the right of the 
right guide, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. He then executes 
the rifle salute. If a report be also required he, after saluting, and 
before bringing his guard to an order, reports as prescribed for 
the officer of the guard. 

When a guard is in line, not under inspection, and com- 
manded by an officer, the commander of the guard salutes his 
regimental, battalion and company commander by bringing the 
guard to attention and saluting in person. For all other officers, 
excepting those entitled to the compliment from a guard, the 
commander of the guard salutes in person but does not bring the 
guard to attention. When commanded by a non-commissioned 
officer the guard is brought to attention in either case, and the 
non-commissioned officer salutes. The commander of a guard 
exchanges salutes with the commanders of all other bodies of 
troops; the guard is brought to attention during the exchange. 
" Present arms " is executed by a guard only when it has turned 
out for inspection or as a compliment, and at the ceremonies of 
guard mounting and relieving the old guard. 

If a person entiled to the compliment, or the regimental, 
battalion, or company commander, passes in rear of a guard, 
neither the compliment nor the salute is given, but the guard is 
brought to attention while such person is opposite the post of the 
commander. After any person has received or declined the com- 
pliment, or received the salute from the commander of the guard, 
official recognition of his presence thereafter while he remains in 
the vicinity will be taken by bringing the guard to attention. 

The commander of the guard inspects the guard at reveille 
and retreat, and at such other times as may be necessary, to assure 



190 MILITARY TRAINING 

himself that the men are in proper condition to perform their 
duties and that their arms and equipments are in proper condi- 
tion. For inspection by other officers, he prepares the guard in 
each case as directed by the inspecting officer. The guard is not 
paraded during ceremonies unless directed by the commanding 
officer. 

The commander of the guard sees that all sentinels are 
habitually relieved every two hours, unless the weather or other 
cause makes it necessary that it be done at shorter or longer 
intervals, as directed by the commanding officer. 

He will question his non-commissioned officers and sentinels 
relative to the instructions they may have received from the old 
guard; he sees that patrols and visits of inspection are made as 
directed by the officer of the day. 

He sees that the special orders for each post and member of 
the guard, either written or printed, are posted in the guardhouse, 
anjl, if practicable, in the sentry box or other sheltered place to 
which the member of the guard has constant access. 

He sees that the proper calls are sounded at the hours ap- 
pointed by the commanding officer. 

Should a member of the guard be taken sick, or be arrested, 
or desert, or leave his guard, he at once notifies the officer of 
the day. 

When the countersign is used, he communicates it to the 
non-commissioned officers of the guard and sees that it is duly 
communicated to the sentinels before the hour for challenging; the 
countersign is not given to sentinels posted at the guardhouse. 

He has the details for hoisting the flag at reveille, and lower- 
ing it at retreat, and for firing the reveille and retreat gun, made in 
time for the proper performance of these duties. He sees that the 
flags are kept in the best condition possible, and that they are 
never handled except in the proper performance of duty. 

He may permit members of the guard while at the guard- 
house to remove their headdress, overcoats, and gloves; if they 
leave the guardhouse for any purpose whatever he requires that 
they be properly equipped and armed according to the character of 
the service in which engaged, or as directed by the commanding- 
officer. 

He enters in the guard report a report of his tour of duty, 
and, on completion of his tour, presents it to the officer of the day. 
He transmits with his report all passes turned in at the post of the 
guard. 

Whenever a prisoner is sent to the guardhouse or guard tent 
for confinement, he causes him to be searched, and, without un- 
necessary delay, reports the case to the officer of the day. 

Under war conditions, if any one is to be passed out of 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 191 

camp at night, he is sent to the commander of the guard, who has 
him passed beyond the sentinels. 

The commander of the guard detains at the guardhouse all 
suspicious characters or parties attempting to pass a sentinel's 
post without authority, reporting his action to the officer of the 
day, to whom persons so arrested are sent, if necessary. 

He will inspect the guard rooms and cells, and the irons of 
such prisoners as may be ironed, at least once during his tour, and 
at such other times as he may deem necessary. 

He causes the corporals of the old and new reliefs to verify 
together, immediately before each relief goes on post, the number 
of prisoners who should then properly be at the guardhouse. 

He sees that the sentences of prisoners under his charge are 
executed strictly in accordance with the action of the reviewing 
authority. 

When no special prisoner guard has been detailed, he, as far 
as practicable, assigns as guards over working parties of prisoners 
sentinels from posts guarded at night only. 

The commander of the guard inspects all meals sent to the 
guardhouse and sees that the quantity and quality of food are in 
accordance with regulations. 

At guard mounting he reports to the old officer of the 
day all cases of prisoners whose terms of sentence expire on that 
day, and also all cases of prisoners concerning whom no statement 
of charges has been received. 

The commander of the guard is responsible for the security 
of the prisoners under the charge of his guard; he becomes respon- 
sible for them after their number has been verified and they have 
been turned over to the custody of his guard by the old guard or 
by the prisoner guard or overseers. 

The prisoners are verified and turned over to the new guard 
without parading them, unless the commanding officer or the 
officer of the day directs otherwise. 

To receive the prisoners at the guardhouse where they have 
been paraded and after they have been verified by the officers of 
the day, the commander of the new guard directs his sergeant to 
form his guard with an interval, and commands: 1. Prisoners, 
2. Right, 3. FACE, 4, Forward, 5. MARCH. The prisoners having 
arrived opposite the interval in the new guard, he commands: 
1. Prisoners, 2. HALT, 3. Left, 4. FACE, 5. Right (or left), 
6. DRESS, 7. FRONT. The prisoners dress on the line of the 
new guard. 

SERGEANT OF THE GUARD 

The senior non-commissioned officer of the guard always 
acts as sergeant of the guard, and if there be no officer of the 



192 MILITARY TRAINING 

guard, performs the duties prescribed for the commander of the 
guard. 

The sergeant of the guard has general supervision over 
the other non-commissioned officers and the musicians and pri- 
vates of the guard, and must be thoroughly familiar with all of 
their orders and duties. 

He is directly responsible for the property under charge of 
the guard, and sees that it is properly cared for. He makes lists 
of articles taken out by working parties, and sees that all such 
articles are duly returned. If they are not, he immediately reports 
the fact to the commander of the guard. 

Immediately after guard mounting he prepares duplicate 
lists of the names of all non-commissioned officers, musicians, and 
privates of the guard, showing the relief and post or duties of each. 
One list is handed as soon as possible to the commander of the 
guard; the other is retained by the sergeant. 

He sees that all reliefs are turned out at the proper time, 
and that the corporals thoroughly understand, and are prompt 
and efficient in, the discharge of their duties. 

During the temporary absence from the guardhouse of the 
sergeant of the guard, the next in rank of the non-commissioned 
officers performs his duties. 

Should the corporal whose relief is on post be called away 
from the guardhouse, the sergeant of the guard designates a non- 
commissioned officer to take the corporal's place until his return. 

The sergeant of the guard is responsible at all times for the 
proper police of the guardhouse or guard tent, including the 
ground about them and the prison cells. 

At " first sergeant's call " he proceeds to the adjutant's office 
and obtains the guard report book. 

When the national or regimental colors are taken from the 
stacks of the color line, the color bearer and guard, or the sergeant 
of the guard, unarmed, and two armed privates as a guard, escort 
the colors to the colonel's quarters, as prescribed for the color 
guard in the drill regulations of the arm of the service to which 
the guard belongs. 

He reports to the commander of the guard any suspicious 
or unusual occurrence that comes under his notice, warns him of 
the approach of any armed body, and sends to him all persons 
arrested by the guard. 

When the guard is turned out, its formation is as follows: 
The senior non-commissioned officer, if commander of the guard, 
is on the right of the right guide; if not the commander of the 
guard, he is in the line of file closers, in rear of the right four 
of the guard; the next in rank is right guide; the next left guide; 
the others in the line of file closers, usually, each in rear of his 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 193 

relief; the field music, with its left three paces to the right of the 
right guide. The reliefs form in the same order as when the guard 
was first divided, except that if the guard consists of dismounted 
cavalry and infantry, the cavalry forms on the left. 

The sergeant forms the guard, calls the roll, and, if not in 
command of the guard, reports to the commander of the guard 
as prescribed for a first sergeant forming a troop or company; 
the guard is not divided into platoons or sections, and, except when 
the whole guard is formed prior to marching off, fours are not 
counted. 

The sergeant reports as follows: "Sir, all present or ac- 
counted for, or Sir, (so-and-so) is absent"; or if the roll call has 
been omitted, "Sir, the guard is formed." Only men absent without 
proper authority are reported absent. He then takes his place 
without command. 

At night, the roll may be called by reliefs and numbers in- 
stead of names; thus, the First relief being on post: Second relief; 
No. 1; No. 2, etc. Third relief, Corporal; No. 1, etc. 

Calling the roll is dispensed with in forming the guard 
when it is turned out as a compliment, on the approach of an armed 
body, or in any sudden emergency; but in such cases the roll may 
be called before dismissing the guard. If the guard be turned out 
for an officer entitled to inspect it, the roll is, unless he directs 
otherwise, always called before a report is made. 

The sergeant of the guard has direct charge of the prisoners, 
except during such time as they may be under the charge of the 
prisoner guard or overseers, and is responsible to the commander 
of the guard for their security. 

He carries the keys of the guardroom and cells, and does 
not suffer them to leave his personal possession while he is at the 
guardhouse, except as hereinafter provided. Should he leave the 
guardhouse for any purpose, he turns the keys over to the non- 
commissioned officer who takes his place. 

He counts the knives, forks, etc., given to the prisoners with 
their food, and sees that none of these articles remain in their 
possession. He sees that no forbidden articles of any kind are con- 
veyed to the prisoners. 

Prisoners, when paraded with the guard, are placed in line 
in its centre. The sergeant, immediately before forming the guard, 
turns over his keys to the non-commissioned officer at the guard- 
house. Having formed the guard, he divides it into two nearly 
equal parts. Indicating the point of division with his hand, he 
commands: 

1. Right (or left), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. 
Guard, 6. HALT, 7. Left (or right), 8. FACE. 

If the first command be right face, the right half of the guard 



194 MILITARY TRAINING 

only executes the movements; if left face, the left half only exe- 
cutes them. The command halt is given when sufficient interval 
is obtained to admit the prisoners. The doors of the guardroom 
and cells are then opened by the non-ocmmissioned officer having 
the keys. The prisoners file out under the supervision of the ser- 
geant, the non-commissioned officer, and sentinel on duty at the 
guardhouse, and such other sentinels as may be necessary; they 
form in line in the interval between the two parts of the guard. 

To return the prisoners to the guardroom and cells, the ser- 
geant commands: 

1. Prisoners, 2. Right (or left), 3. FACE, 4. Column right (or 
left), 5. MARCH. 

The prisoners, under the same supervision as before, return 
to their proper rooms or cells. ^ 

To close the guard, the sergeant commands: 

I. Left (or right), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Guard, 
6. HALT, 7. Right (or left), 8. FACE. 

The left or right half only of the guard, as indicated, exe- 
cutes the movement. 

If there be but few prisoners, the sergeant may indicate the 
point of division as above, and form the necessary interval by the 
commands: 

1. Right (or left) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, HALT, and 
close the intervals by the commands: 

1. Left (or right) step, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. 

If sentinels are numerous, reliefs may, at the discretion of 
the commanding officer, be posted in detachments, and sergeants, 
as well as corporals, required to relieve and post them. 

CORPORAL OF THE GUARD 

A corporal of the guard receives and obeys orders from none 
but non-commissioned officers of the guard senior to himself, the 
officers of the guard, the officer of the day, and the commanding 
officer. 

It is the duty of the corporal of the, guard to post and re- 
lieve sentinels, and to instruct the members of his relief in their 
orders and duties. 

Immediately after the division of the guard into reliefs the 
corporals assign the members of their respective reliefs to. posts 
by number, and a soldier so assigned to his post is not changed 
to another during the same tour of guard duty, unless by direction 
of the commander of the guard or higher authority. Usually, ex- 
perienced soldiers are placed over the arms of the guard, and at 
remote and responsible posts. 

Each corporal then makes a list of the members of his re- 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 195 

lief, including himself. This list contains the number of the re- 
lief, the name, the company, and the regiment of every member 
thereof, and the post to which each is assigned. The list is made in 
duplicate, one copy to be given to the sergeant of the guard as 
soon as completed, the other to be retained by the corporal. 

When directed by the commander of the guard, the corporal 
of the first relief forms his relief, and then commands: CALL OFF, 

Commencing on the right, the men call off alternately rear 
and front rank, "one," "two," "three," "four," and so on; if in sin- 
gle rank, they call off from right to left. The corporal then com- 
mands: 

1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. 

The corporal marches on the left, and near the rear file, in 
order to observe the march. The corporal of the old guard 
marches on the right of the leading file, and takes command when 
the last one of the old sentinels is relieved, changing places with 
the corporal of the new guard. 

When the relief arrives at six paces from a sentinel the cor- 
poral halts it and commands, according to the number of the post: 
No. ( — ). Both sentinels execute port arms or saber; the new 
sentinel approaches the old, halting about one pace from him. 

The corporals advance and place themselves, facing each 
other, a little in advance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on 
his right, the new corporal on his left, both at a right shoulder, 
and observe that the old sentinel transmits correctly his instruc- 
tions. 

The instructions relative to the post having been communi- 
cated, the new corporal commands, POST; both sentinels then re- 
sume the right shoulder, face toward the new corporal, and step 
back so as to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new 
corporal then commands, 1, Forward, 2. MARCH; the old sentinel 
takes his place in rear of the relief as it passes him, his piece in 
the same position as those of the relief. The new sentinel stands 
fast at a right shoulder until the relief has passed six paces be- 
yond him. when he walks his post. The corporals take their places 
as the relief passes them. Mounted sentinels are posted and re- 
lieved in accordance with the same principles. 

On the return of the old relief, the corporal of the new 
guard falls out when the relief halts; the corporal of the old guard 
forms his relief on the left of the old guard, salutes, and reports to 
the commander of his guard: "Sir, the relief is present"; or "Sir, 
(so and so) is absent," and takes his place in the guard. 

To post a relief other than that which is posted when the 
old guard is relieved, its corporal commands: 

1. (Such) relief, 2. FALL IN; and if arms are stacked, they 
are taken at the proper commands. 



196 MILITARY TRAINING 

The relief is formed facing to the front, with arms at an or- 
der; the men place themselves according to the numbers of their 
respective posts, viz.: two, four, six, and so on, in the front rank, 
and one, three, five, and so on, in the rear rank. The corporal, 
standing about two paces in front of the center of his relief, then 
commands: CALL OFF. 

The men call off as prescribed. The corporal then com- 
mands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS, 3. Order, 4. ARMS; faces the com- 
mander of the guard, executes the rifle salute, reports: "Sir, the re- 
lief is present," or "Sir (so and so), is absent"; he then takes his 
place on the right at order arms. 

When the commander of the guard directs the corporal: 
"Post your relief," the corporal salutes and posts his relief as pre- 
scribed; the corporal of the relief on post does not go with the 
new relief, except when necessary to show the way. 

To dismiss the old relief, it is halted and faced to the front 
at the guardhouse by the corporal of the new relief, who then falls 
out; the corporal of the old relief then steps in front of the relief 
and dismisses it by the proper commands. 

Should the pieces have been loaded before the relief was 
posted, the corporal, before dismissing the relief, sees that no 
cartridges are left in the chambers or magazines. The same rule 
applies to sentinels over prisoners. 

Each corporal thoroughly acquaints himself with all the 
special orders of every sentinel on his relief, and sees that each 
understands and correctly transmits such orders in detail to his 
successor. 

There should be at least one non-commissioned officer con- 
stantly on the alert at the guardhouse, usually the corporal whose 
relief is on post. This non-commissioned officer takes post near 
the entrance of the guardhouse and does not fall in with the guard 
when it is formed. He has his rifle constantly with him. 

Whenever it becomes necessary for the corporal to leave 
his post near the entrance of the guardhouse, he notifies the ser- 
geant of the guard, who at once takes his place, or designates an- 
other non-commissioned officer to do so. 

He sees that no person enters the guardhouse, or guard tent, 
or crosses the posts of the sentinels there posted without proper 
authority. 

Should any sentinel call for the corporal of the guard, the 
corporal, in every case, at once and quickly proceeds to such sen- 
tinel. He notifies the sergeant of the guard before leaving the 
guardhouse. 

He at once reports to the commander of the guard any vio- 
lation of regulations or any unusual occurrence which is reported 
to him by a sentinel, or which comes to his notice in any other way. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 197 

Should a sentinel call: "The Guard," the corporal promptly 
notifies the commander of the guard. 

Should a sentinel call: "Relief," the corporal at once pro- 
ceeds to the post of such sentinel, taking with him the man next 
for duty on that post. If the sentinel is relieved for a short time 
only, the corporal again posts him as soon as the necessity for 
his relief ceases. 

When the countersign is used, the corporal at the posting 
of the relief during whose tour challenging is to begin gives the 
countersign to the members of the relief, excepting those posted 
at the guardhouse. 

He wakes the corporal whose relief is next on post in time 
for the latter to verify the prisoners, form his relief, and post it 
at the proper hour. 

Should the guard be turned out, each corporal calls his own 
relief, and causes its members to fall in promptly. 

Tents or bunks in the same vicinity are designated for the 
reliefs so that all the members of each relief may, if necessary, be 
found and turned out by the corporal in the least time and with 
the least confusion. 

When challenged by a sentinel while posting his relief, the 
corporal commands: 1. Relief, 2. HALT; to the sentinel's challenge 
he answers " Relief," and at the order of the sentinel he advances 
alone to give the countersign, or to be recognized. When the 
sentinel says, "Advance relief," the corporal commands: 1. For- 
ward, 2. MARCH. If to be relieved, the sentinel is then relieved as 
prescribed. 

Between retreat and reveille, the corporal of the guard chal- 
lenges all suspicious looking persons or parties he may observe, 
first halting his patrol or relief, if either be with him. He advances 
them in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like 
parties, but if the route of a patrol is on a continuous chain of 
sentinels, he should not challenge persons coming near him unless 
he has reasons to believe that they have eluded the vigilance of 
sentinels. 

Between retreat and reveille, whenever so ordered by an 
officer entitled to inspect the guard, the corporal calls: "Turn 
out the guard," announcing the title of the officer, and then, if not 
otherwise ordered, he salutes and returns to his post. 

As a general rule he advances parties approaching the guard 
at night in the same manner that sentinels on post advance like 
parties. Thus, the sentinel at the guardhouse challenges and re- 
peats the answer to the corporal; the corporal advancing at "port 
arms," says: "Advance (so and so) with the countersign," or "to 
be recognized," if there be no countersign used; the countersign 
being correctly given, or the party being duly recognized the cor- 



198 MILITARY TRAINING 

poral says: "Advance (so and so)"; repeating the answer to the 
challenge of the sentinel. 

When officers of different rank approach the guardhouse 
from different directions at the same time, the senior is advanced 
first, and is not made to wait for his junior. 

Out of ranks and under arms, the corporal salutes with the 
rifle salute. He salutes all officers whether by day or night. 

The corporal examines parties halted and detained by senti- 
nels, and if he has reason to believe the parties have no authority 
to cross sentinel's posts, will conduct them to the commander of 
the guard. 

The corporal of the guard arrests all suspicious looking 
characters prowling about the post or camp, all persons of a dis- 
orderly character disturbing the peace, and all persons taken in 
the act of committing crime against the Government on a military 
reservation or post. All persons arrested by corporals of the 
guard, or by sentinels, are at once conducted to the commander 
of the guard by the corporal. 

MUSICIANS OF THE GUARD 

The musicians of the guard sound calls as prescribed by the 
commanding officer. 

Should the guard be turned out for national or regimental 
colors or standards, uncased, the field music of the guard, when 
the guard present arms, sounds, "To the color " or "To the 
standard"; if, for any person entitled thereto, the march, flourishes, 
or ruffles. 

ORDERLIES AND COLOR SENTINELS 

When so directed by the commanding officer, the officer 
who inspects the guard at guard mounting selects from the mem- 
bers of the new guard an orderly for the commanding officer and. 
such number of other orderlies and color sentinels as may be 
required. 

For these positions the soldiers are chosen who are most 
correct in the performance of duty and in military bearing, neatest 
in person and clothing, and whose arms and accouterments are in 
the best condition. Clothing, arms, and equipments must conform 
to regulations. If there is any doubt as to the relative qualifica- 
tions of two or more soldiers, the inspecting officer causes them to 
fall out at the guardhouse and to form in line in single rank. He 
then, by testing them in drill regulations, selects the most pro- 
ficient. The commander of the guard is notified of the selection. 



I 

GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 199 

When directed by the commander of the guard to fall out 
and report, an orderly gives his name, company, and regiment to 
the sergeant of the guard, and, leaving his rifle in the arm rack in 
his company quarters, proceeds at once to the officer to whom he 

is assigned, reporting: "Sir, Private , Company — , reports 

as orderly." 

If the orderly selected be a cavalryman, he leaves his rifle 
in the arms rack of his troop quarters, and reports with his belt 
on, but without side arms unless specially otherwise ordered. 

Orderlies, while on duty as such, are subject only to the 
orders of the commanding officer and of the officers to whom they 
are ordered to report. 

When an orderly is ordered to carry a message, he is careful 
to deliver it exactly as it was given to him. 

His tour of duty ends when he is relieved by the orderly 
selected from the guard relieving his own. 

Orderlies are members of the guard, and their names, com- 
panies, and regiments are entered on the guard report and lists of 
the guard. 

If a color line is established, sufficient sentinels are placed 
on the color line to guard the colors and stacks. 

Color sentinels are posted only so long as the stacks are 
formed. The commander of the guard divides the time equally 
among them. 

When stacks are broken, the color sentinels may be per- 
mitted to return to their respective companies. They are required 
to report in person to the commander of the guard at reveille and 
retreat. They fall in with the guard, under arms, at guard 
mounting. 

Color sentinels are not placed on the regular reliefs, nor are 
their posts numbered. In calling for the corporal of the guard, 
they call : " Corporal of the guard. Color line." 

Officers or enlisted men passing the uncased colors render 
the prescribed salute. If the colors are on the stacks, the salute 
is made on crossing the color line or on passing the colors. 

A sentinel placed over the colors does not permit them to be 
moved, except in the presence of an armed escort. Unless other- 
wise ordered by the commanding officer, he allows no one to touch 
them but the color bearer. 

He does not permit any soldier to take arms from the stacks, 
or to touch them, except by order of an officer or non-commis- 
sioned officer of the guard. 

If any person passing the colors or crossing the color line 
fails to salute the colors, the sentinel cautions him to do so, and 
if the caution is not heeded he calls the corporal of the guard and 
reports the facts. 



200 MILITARY TRAINING 

PRIVATES OF THE GUARD- 

Privates are assigned to reliefs by the commander of the 
guard, and to posts, usually, by the corporal of their relief. They 
do not change from one relief or post to another during the same 
tour of guard duty unless by proper authority. 

ORDERS FOR SENTINELS 

Orders for sentinels are of two classes: General orders and 
special orders. General orders apply to all sentinels. Special 
orders relate to particular posts and duties. 

Sentinels are required to memorize the following: My gen- 
eral orders are: 1. To take charge of this post and all Government 
property in view. 2. To walk my post in a military manner, keep- 
ing always on the alert and observing everything that takes place 
within sight and hearing. 3. To report all violations of orders I 
am instructed to enforce. 4. To repeat all calls from posts more 
distant from the guardhouse than my own. 5. To quit my post 
only when properly relieved. 6. To receive, obey, and pass on to 
the sentinel who relieves me all orders from the commanding offi- 
cer, officer of the day, and officers and non-commissioned officers 
of the guard only. 7. To talk to no one except in line of duty* 
8. In case of fire or disorder to give the alarm. 9. To allow no 
one to commit a nuisance on or near my post. 10. In any case 
not covered by instructions to call the corporal of the guard. 

11. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased. 

12. To be especially watchful at night, and, during the time for 
challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post, and to 
allow no one to pass without proper authority. 

Sentinels posted at the guard are required to memorize the 
following special orders: 

Between reveille and retreat to turn out the guard for all 
persons designated by the commanding officer, for all colors or 
standards not cased, and in time of war for all armed parties 
approaching my post, except troops at drill and reliefs and detach- 
ments of the guard. 

At night, after challenging any person or party, to advance 
no one but call the corporal of the guard, repeating the answer 
to the challenge. 

After receiving an answer to his challenge, the sentinel 
calls, "Corporal of the guard (So and so)," repeating the answer 
to the challenge. 

He remains in the position assumed in challenging until 
the corporal has recognized or advanced the person or party 
challenged, when he resumes walking his post, or, if the person or 



^ 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 201 

party be entitled thereto, he salutes and, as soon as the salute has 
been acknowledged, resumes walking his post. 

The sentinel at the post of the guard will be notified by 
direction of the commanding officer of the presence in camp or 
garrison of persons entitled to the compliment. 

The following examples illustrate the manner in which the 
sentinel at the post of the guard will turn out the guard upon the 
approach of persons or parties entitled to the compliment; "Turn 
out the guard, Commanding Officer"; "Turn out the guard, Gov- 
ernor of a Territory"; "Turn out the guard, national colors"; 
"Turn out the guard, armed party"; etc. 

At the approach of the new guard at guard mounting the 
sentinel will call "Turn out the guard, armed party." 

Should the person named by the sentinel not desire the 
guard formed, he will salute, whereupon the sentinel will call 
"Never mind the guard." 

After having called "Turn out the guard," the sentinel will 
never call " Never mind the guard," on the approach of an armed 
party. 

Though the guard be already formed he will not fail to 
call "Turn out the guard," as required in his special orders, except 
that the guard will not be turned out for any person while his 
senior is at or coming to the post of the guard. 

The sentinels at the post of the guard will warn the com- 
mander of the approach of any armed body and of the presence in 
the vicinity of all suspicious or disorderly persons. 

In case of fire or disorder in sight or hearing, the sentinel 
at the guardhouse will call the corporal of the guard and report 
the facts to him. 

COUNTERSIGNS AND PAROLES 

Seventy-seventh Article of War. — Any person belonging to 
the armies of the United States who makes known the watchword 
to any person not entitled to receive it, according to the rules and 
discipline of war, or presumes to give a parole or watchword 
different from that which he received, shall suffer death or such 
other punishment as a court-martial may direct. 

The countersign is a word given daily from the principal 
headquarters of a command to aid guards and sentinels in identi- 
fying persons who may be authorized to pass at night. It is given 
to such persons as may be authorized to pass or repass sentinels' 
posts during the night, and to officers, non-commissioned officers, 
and sentinels of the guard. 

The parole is a word used as a check on the countersign in 
order to obtain more accurate identification of persons. It is 
imparted only to those who are entitled to inspect guards and to 



J 

202 MILITARY TRAINING 

commanders of guards. The parole or countersign, or both, are 
sent sealed in the form of an order to those entitled to them. 

When the commander of the guard demands the parole, 
he advances and receives it as the corporal receives the counter- 
sign. 

As the communications containing the parole and counter- 
sign must at times be distributed by many orderlies, the parole 
intrusted to many officers, and the countersign and parole to 
many officers and sentinels, and as both the countersign and 
parole must, for large commands, be prepared several days in 
advance, there is always danger of their being lost or becoming 
known to persons who would make improper use of them; more- 
over, a sentinel is too apt to take it for granted that any person 
who gives the right countersign is what he represents himself 
to be; hence for outpost duty there is greater security in omitting 
the use of the countersign and parole, or in using them with great 
caution. The chief reliance should be upon personal recognition 
or identification of all persons claiming authority to pass. 

Persons whose sole means of identification is the counter- 
sign, or concerning whose authority to pass there is a reasonable 
doubt, should not be allowed to pass without the authority of the 
corporal of the guard after proper investigation; the corporal takes 
to his next superior any person about whom he is not competent 
to decide. 

The countersign is usually the name of a battle; the parole, 
that of a general or other distinguished person. 

When they can not be communicated daily, a series of words 
for some days in advance may be sent to posts or detachments 
that are to use the same parole or countersign as the main body. 

If the countersign be lost, or if a member of the guard 
desert with it, the commander on the spot substitutes another for 
it and reports the case at once to headquarters. 

In addition to the countersign, use may be made of precon- 
certed signals, such as striking the rifle with the hand or striking 
the hands together a certain number of times, as agreed upon. 
Such signals may be used only by guards that occupy exposed 
| points. They are used before the countersign is given, and must 
not be communicated to any one not entitled to know the counter- 
sign. Their use is intended to prevent the surprise of a sentinel. 
In the daytime signals such as raising a cap or a handkerchief in a 
prearranged manner may be used by sentinels to communicate 
with the guard or with each other. 

GUARD PATROLS 

A guard patrol consists of one or more men detailed for the 
>erformance of some special service connected with guard duty. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 203 

If the patrol be required to go beyond the chain of sentinels, 
the officer or non-commissioned officer in charge is furnished 
with the countersign, and the outposts and sentinels warned. 

If challenged by a sentinel, the patrol is halted by its com- 
mander, and the non-commissioned officer accompanying it ad- 
vances alone and gives the countersign. 

WATCHMEN 

Enlisted men may be detailed as watchmen or as overseers 
over prisoners, and as such receive their orders and perform their 
duties as the commanding officer may direct. 

COMPLIMENTS FROM GUARDS 

The compliment from a guard consists in the guard turn- 
ing out and presenting arms. No compliments are paid between 
retreat and reveille except as provided below, nor does any person 
other than those named receive the compliment. 

Though a guard does not turn out between retreat and 
reveille as a matter of compliment, it may be turned out for in- 
spection at any time by a person entitled to inspect it. 

Between reveille and retreat the following persons are en- 
titled to the compliment: The President, sovereign or chief mag- 
istrate of a foreign country, and members of a royal family; Vice 
President; President and President pro tempore of the Senate; 
American and foreign ambassadors; members of the Cabinet; Chief 
Justice; Speaker of the House of Representatives; committees of 
Congress officially visiting a military post; governors within their 
respective States and Territories; governors general; Assistant 
Secretary of War officially visiting a military post; all general 
officers of the Army; general officers of foreign services visting 
a post; naval, marine, volunteer, and militia officers in the service 
of the United States and holding the rank of general officer; 
American or foreign envoys or ministers; ministers accredited to 
the United States; charges d'affaires accredited to the United 
States; consuls general accredited to the United States; command- 
ing officer of a coast artillery district, coast defense command post, 
fort or camp; officer of the day. 

The relative rank between officers of the Army and Navy is 
as follows: General with admiral, lieutenant general with vice ad- 
miral, major general with rear admiral, brigadier general with 
commodore, colonel with captain, lieutenant colonel with com- 
mander, major with lieutenant commander, captain with lieutenant, 
first lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade), second lieutenant 



204 MILITARY TRAINING 

with ensign. The grade of commodore ceased to exist as a grade 
on the active list of the Navy of the United States on March 3, 1899. 

Sentinels are not required to memorize the above mentioned 
persons entitled to the compliment, and except in the cases of gen- 
eral officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the officer 
of the day, they are advised in each case of the presence in camp 
or garrison of such persons. 

Guards turn out and present arms when the national or regi- 
mental colors or standards, not cased, are carried past by a guard 
or an armed party. This rule also applies when the party carrying 
the colors is at drill. If the drill is conducted in the vicinity of 
the guardhouse, the guard is turned out when the colors first pass, 
and not thereafter. 

In case the remains of a deceased officer or soldier are car- 
ried past, the guard turns out and presents arms. 

In time of war all guards turn out under arms when armed 
parties, except troops at drill and reliefs or detachments of the 
guard, approach their post. 

The commander of the guard is notified of the presence in 
camp or garrison of all persons entitled to the compliment, ex- 
cept general officers of the Army, the commanding officer, and the 
officer of the day. Members of the guard salute all persons en- 
titled to the compliment and all officers in the military or naval 
service of foreign powers, officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine 
Corps, officers of volunteers, and officers of militia when in uni* 
form. 

GENERAL RULES CONCERNING GUARD DUTY 

Any sentinel who is found drunk or sleeping upon his post, 
or who leaves it before he is regularly relieved, if the offense is 
committed in war time, suffers death or such other punish* 
ment as a court-martial may direct. 

Should the guard be formed, soldiers fall in ranks under 
arms. At roll call, each man, as his name or number and relief 
are called, answers " Here," and comes to an order arms. 

Whenever the guard or a relief is dismissed, each member 
not at once required for duty places his rifle in the arms racks, if 
they be provided, and does not remove it therefrom unless he 
requires it in the performance of some duty. 

Without permission from the commander of the guard, 
members of the main guard, except orderlies, do not leave the im- 
mediate vicinity of the guardhouse. Permission to leave is not 
granted except in cases of necessity. 

Members of the main guard, except orderlies, do not remove 
tkeir accouterments or clothing without permission from the 
commander of the guard. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 205 

PRISONERS 

The commander of the guard places a civilian in confine- 
ment on an order from higher authority only, unless such civilian 
is arrested while in the act of committing some crime within the 
limits of the military jurisdiction; in which case the commanding 
officer is immediately notified. 

An officer ordering a soldier into confinement sends, as 
soon as practicable, a written statement, signed by himself, to the 
commander of the guard, setting forth the name, company and 
regiment of such soldier, and a brief satement of the alleged 
offense. It is a sufficient statement of the offense to give the num- 
ber and article of war under which the soldier is charged. 

A prisoner, after his first day of confinement, and until his 
sentence has been duly promulgated, is considered as held in con- 
finement by the commanding officer. After due promulgation of his 
sentence, the prisoner is held in confinement by authority of the 
officer who reviews the proceedings of the court awarding sen- 
tence. The commander of the guard states in his report, in the 
proper place, the name of the officer by whom the prisoner wa9 
originally confined. 

Enlisted men against whom charges have been preferred 
are designated as "awaiting trial"; enlisted men who have been 
tried, prior to the promulgation of the result, are designated as 
"awaiting result of trial"; enlisted men serving sentence of con- 
finement, not involving dishonorable discharge, are designated as 
" garrison prisoners." Persons sentenced to dismissal or dishon- 
orable discharge and to terms of confinement at military posts or 
elsewhere are designated as " general prisoners." 

The sentences of prisoners are read to them when the order 
promulgating the same is received. The officer of the guard, or 
the officer of the day if there be no officer of the guard, reads 
them unless the commanding officer directs otherwise. 

STABLE GUARDS 

Under the head of stable guards are included guards for 
cavalry stables, artillery stables and parks, mounted infantry 
stables, machine gun organization stables and parks and quar- 
termaster stables and parks. Where the words " troop " and 
" cavalry " are used they include all of these organizations. 

When troop stable guards are mounted they guard the 
stables of the cavalry. When no stable guards are mounted, the 
stables are guarded by sentinels posted from the main guard, under 
the control of the officer of the day. The instructions given for 
troop stable guards are observed as far as applicable by the non- 



206 MILITARY TRAINING 

commissioned officers and sentinels of the main guard when in 
charge of the stables. 

TROOP STABLE GUARDS 

Troop stable guards are not used except in the field, or 
when it is impracticable to guard the stables by sentinels from the 
main guard. 

Troop stable guards are under the immediate control of their 
respective troop commanders; they are posted in each cavalry 
stable, or near the picket line, and consist of not less than one 
non-commissioned officer and three privates. Stable guards are 
for the protection of the horses, stables, forage,, equipments, and 
public property generally. They in addition enforce the special 
regulations in regard to stables, horses, and parks. 

Sentinels of stable guards are posted at the stables or at the 
picket lines when the horses are kept outside. The troop stable 
guard may be used as a herd guard during the day time or when 
grazing is practicable. 

The troop stable guard, when authorized by the post com- 
mander, is mounted under the supervision of the troop command- 
er. It is armed, at the discretion of the troop commander, with 
either rifle or pistol. The tour continues for 24 hours, or until the 
guard is relieved by a new guard. 

The employment of stable guards for police and fatigue 
duties at the stables is forbidden; but this does not prohibit them 
from being required to assist in feeding grain before reveille. 

The troop stable guard attends stables with the rest of the 
troop and groom their own horses, the sentinel being taken off 
post for the purpose. 

Neither the non-commissioned officer nor the members of 
the stable guard absent themselves from the immediate vicinity 
of the stables except in case of urgent necessity, and then for no 
longer time than is absolutely necessary. No member of the 
guard leaves for any purpose without the authority of the non- 
commissioned officer of the guard. 

The non-commissioned officer and one member of the stable 
guard go for meals at the proper hour; upon their return the other 
members of the guard are directed to go by the non-commissioned 
officer. 

When the horses are herded each troop furnishes its own 
"herd guard. 

Smoking in the stables or their immediate vicinity is pro- 
hibited. No fire or light, other than electric light or stable lan- 
terns, is permitted in the stables. A special place is designated for 
trimming, filling, and lighting lanterns. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 207 

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICER OF THE TROOP STABLE 

GUARD 

The non-commissioned officer receives his orders from his 
troop commander, to whom he reports immediately after posting 
his first relief, and when relieved turns over all his orders to his 
successor. He instructs his sentinels in their general and spe- 
cial duties; exercises general supervision over his entire guard; 
exacts order and cleanliness about the guardroom; prevents the 
introduction of intoxicants into the guardhouse and stables; re- 
ceives, by count, from his predecessor, the animals, horse equip- 
ments, and all property (both private and public) pertaining there- 
to; examines, before relieving his predecessor, all locks, windows, 
and doors, and should any be found insecure he reports the fact 
to his troop commander when he reports for orders. He person- 
ally posts and relieves each sentinel, taking care to verify the 
property responsibility of the sentinel who comes off post, and sees 
that the sentinel who goes on post is aware of the property re- 
sponsibility that he assumes. 

That the non-commissioned officer may be more thorough- 
ly informed of his responsibility, all horses returning, except those 
from a regular formation, are reported to him. He then notifies 
the sentinel on post, and, in the absence of the stable sergeant, 
sees that the horses are promptly cared for. In case of abuse, 
he promptly reports to the troop commander. Should the horse 
be the private property of an officer, he reports such abuse to the 
owner. 

The non-commissioned officer reports any unusual occur- 
rence during his tour direct to his troop commander. 

Horses and other property for which the non-commissioned 
officer is responsible are not taken from the stables without the 
authority of the post or troop commander. 

Wherever it becomes necessary for the non-commissioned 
officer to leave his guard, he designates a member of it to take 
charge and assume his responsibility during his absence, 

SENTINELS OF THE TROOP STABLE GUARD 

The sentinel in the discharge of his duties is governed by the 
regulations for sentinels of the main guard whenever they are 
applicable — such as courtesies to officers, walking post in a soldier- 
ly manner, challenging, etc.; he does not turn out the guard ex- 
cept when ordered by proper authority. 

The sentinel receives orders from the commanding officer, 
the troop commander, and the non-commissioned officers of the 
14 



208 MILITARY TRAINING 

stable guard only, except when the commanding officer directs the 
officers of the day to inspect the stable guard. 

In the field and elsewhere when directed by the command- 
ing officer the sentinel when posted verifies the number of horses 
for which he is responsible, and when relieved gives the number 
to his successor. 

The sentinel does not permit any horse or equipments to be ' 
taken from the stable, except in the presence of the non-commis- 
sioned officer. 

Should a horse get loose, the sentinel catches him and ties 
him up. If he be unable to catch the horse, the non-commissioned 
officer is at once notified. In case a horse be cast, or in any way 
entangled, he relieves him, if possible; if unable to relieve him, he I 
calls the non-commissioned officer. Sentinels are forbidden to pun- 
ish or maltreat a horse. 

When a horse is taken sick, the sentinel notifies the non- j 
commissioned officer, who in turn calls the farrier, and sees that 
the horse is properly attended to. 

In case of fire the sentinel gives the alarm by stepping out- 
side the stable and firing his pistol or piece repeatedly, and calling 
out at the same time, "Fire, stables, Troop ( )." 

As soon as the guard is alarmed, he takes the necessary pre- 
cautions in opening or closing the doors so as to prevent the spread- j 
ing of the fire and make it possible to remove the horses; he drops 
the chains and bars, and, with the other members of the guard, 
proceeds to lead out the horses and secure them at the picket line 
or such other place as may have been previously designated. 

Sentinels over horses, or in charge of prisoners, receive ord- 
ers from the stable sergeant, so far as the care of the horses and 
the labor of prisoners are concerned. 

In field artillery and machine gun organizations, the guard 
for the stables has charge of the guns, caissons, etc., with their 
ammunition and stores,, as well as the horses, harness and forage. 

FLAGS 

When practicable, a detail consisting of a non-commis- 
sioned officer and two privates of the guard will raise or lower 
the flag. This detail wears side arms, or, if the special equipments 
do not include side arms, then belts only. The non-commissioned 
officer carrying the flag, forms the detail in line, takes his post 
in the center, and marches it to the staff. The flag is then se- 
curely attached to the halyards and rapidly hoisted. The hal- 
yards are then securely fastened to the cleat on the staff and the 
detail marched to the guardhouse. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 209 

When the flag is to be lowered, the halyards are loosened 
from the staff and made perfectly free. At retreat the flag is 
lowered at the last note of retreat. It is then neatly folded and 
the halyards made fast. The detail is then reformed and marched 
to the guardhouse, where the flag is turned over to the commander 
of the guard. 

The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and 
should always be hoisted or lowered from the leeward side of 
the staff, the halyards being held by two persons. 

REVEILLE AND RETREAT GUN 

The morning and evening gun are fired by a detachment 
of the guard, consisting, when practcable,, of a corporal and two 
privates. The morning gun is fired at the first note of reveille, or,, 
if marches be played before the reveille, it is fired at the beginning 
of the first march. The retreat gun is fired at the last note of re- 
treat. 

The corporal marches the detachment to and from the piece, 
which is fired, sponged out, and secured under his direction. 

GUARD MOUNTING 

Guard mounting is formal or informal as the command- 
ing officer may direct. It is held as prescribed in the drill regu- 
lations of the arm of the service to which the guard belongs; if 
none is prescribed, then as for infantry. In case the guard is com- 
posed wholly of mounted organizations, guard mounting may be 
held mounted. 

When infantry and mounted troops dismounted are united 
for guard mounting, all details form as prescribed for infantry. 

FORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY 

Formal guard mounting is ordinarily held only in posts or 
camps where a band is present. 

At the assembly, the men designated for the guard fall in on 
their company parade grounds. The first sergeant then verifies 
the detail,, inspects it, replaces any man unfit to go on guard, turns 
the detail over to the senior non-commissioned officer and retires. 
The band takes its place on the parade ground so that the left of 
its front rank shall be 12 paces to the right of the front rank of 
the guard when the latter is formed. 

At adjutant's call, the adjutant, dismounted, and the ser- 



210 MILITARY TRAINING 

geant major on his left, marches to the parade ground. The 
adjutant halts and takes post so as to be 12 paces in front of and 
facing the center of the guard when formed; the sergeant major 
continues on, moves by the left flank, and takes post, facing to 
the left, 12 paces to the left of the front rank of the band; the 
band plays in quick or double time; the details are marched to 
the parade ground by the senior non-commissioned officers; the 
detail that arrives first is marched to the line so that, upon halt- 
ing, the breast of the front-rank man is near to and opposite the 
left arm of the sergeant major; the commander of the detail 
halts his detail, places himself in front of and facing the sergeant 
major, at a distance equal to or a little greater than the front of 
his detail, and commands: 1. Right, 2. DRESS. The detail dresses 
up to the line of the sergeant major and its commander, the right 
front-rank man placing his breast against the left arm of the 
sergeant major; the non-commissioned officers take posts two 
paces in rear of the rear rank of the detail. The detail aligned, the 
commander of the detail commands: FRONT, salutes, and then 
reports: "The detail is correct"; or "(So many) sergeants, cor- 
porals, or privates are absent"; the sergeant major returns the 
salute with the right hand after the report is made; the commander 
then passes by the right of the guard and takes post in the line 
of non-commissioned officers in rear of the right file or his detail. 

Should there be more than one detail, it is formed in like 
manner on the left of the one preceding; the privates, non-com- 
missioned officers, and commander of each detail dress on those 
of the preceding details in the same rank or line; each detail com- 
mander closes the rear rank to the right and fills blank files, as 
far as practicable, with the men from his front rank. 

Should the guard from a company not include a non-com- 
missioned officer, one will be detailed to perform the duties of 
commander of the detail. In this case the commander of the de- 
tail, after reporting to the sergeant major, passes around the 
right flank between the guard and the band and retires. 

When the last detail has formed, the sergeant major takes 
a side step to the right, draws sword, verifies the detail, takes post 
two paces to the right and two paces to the front of the guard, 
facing to the left, causes the guard to count off, completes the left 
squad, if necessary, as in the school of the company, and if there 
be more than three squads, divides the guard into two platoons, 
again takes post as described above and commands: 1; Open ranks, 
2. MARCH. 

At the command march, the rear rank and file closers march 
backward four steps, halt, and dress to the right. The sergeant 
major aligns the ranks and file closers and again, taking post as 
described above, commands: FRONT, moves parallel to the front 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 211 

rank until opposite the center, turns to the right, halts midway 
to the adjutant, salutes, and reports: "Sir, the details are cor- 
rect"; or, "Sir, (so many) sergeants, corporals, or privates are 
absent"; the adjutant returns the salute, directs the sergeant 
major: Take your post, and then draws saber; the sergeant major 
faces about, approaches to within two paces of the center of the 
front rank, turns to the right, moves three paces beyond the left of 
the front rank, turns to the left, halts on the line of the front 
rank, faces about, and brings his sword to the order. When the 
sergeant major has reported, the officer of the guard takes post, 
facing to the front, three paces in front of the center of the guard, 
and draws saber. 

The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer (or officers) and 
non-commissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. MARCH. 

At the command center, the officers carry saber. At the 
command march, the officer advances and halts three paces from 
the adjutant, remaining at the carry; the non-commissioned officers 
pass by the flanks, along the front, and form in order of rank 
from right to left, three paces in rear of the officer, remaining at 
the right shoulder; if there is no officer of the guard the non- 
commissioned officers halt on a line three paces from the ad- 
jutant; the adjutant then assigns the officers and non-commis- 
sioned officers according to rank, as follows: Commander of the 
guard, leader of first platoon, leader of second platoon, right guide 
of first platoon, left guide of second platoon, left guide of first 
platoon, right guide of second platoon, and file closers, or, if the 
guard is not divided into platoons: Commander of the guard, right 
guide, left guide, and file closers. 

The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer (or officers) and 
non-commissioned officers, 2. POSTS, 3. MARCH. 

At the command posts, all except the officer commanding 
the guard, face about. At the command march, they take the posts 
prescribed in the school of the company with open ranks. The 
adjutant directs: Inspect your guard, sir; at which the officer com- 
manding the guard faces about, commands: Prepare for inspection, 
returns saber, and inspects the guard. 

During the inspection, the band plays; the adjutant returns 
saber, observes the general condition of the guard, and falls out 
any man who is unfit for guard duty or does not present a credit- 
able appearance. Substitutes report to the commander of the 
guard at the guardhouse. 

The adjutant, when so directed, selects orderlies and color 
sentinels, and notifies the commander of the guard of his selection. 

If there be a junior officer of the guard he takes post at 
the same time as the senior, facing to the front, 3 paces in front 
Df the center of the first platoon; in going to the front and center 



212 MILITARY TRAINING 

he follows and takes position on the left of the senior and is as- 
signed as leader of the first platoon; he may be directed by the 
commander of the guard to assist in inspecting the guard. If there 
be no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. A non- 
commissioned officer commanding the guard takes post on the 
right of the right guide, when the guard is in line; and takes the 
post of the officer of the guard, when in column or passing in 
review. 

The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself about 30 
paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and draws 
saber; the new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing 
the guard, about 30 paces from the adjutant; the old officer of the 
day takes post 3 paces to the right of and 1 pace to the rear of the 
new officer of the day; the officer of the guard takes post 3 paces 
in front of its center, draws saber with the adjutant and comes to 
the order; thereafter he takes the same relative positions as a 
captain of a company. 

The adjutant then commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST, 3. 
SOUND OFF, and comes to the order and parade rest. The band, 
playing, passes in front of the officer of the guard to the left of 
the line, and back to its post on the right, when it ceases playing. 

The adjutant then comes to attention, carries saber, and 
commands: 1. Guard, 2. ATTENTION, 3. Close ranks, 4. MARCH. 

The adjutant then commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, faces 
toward the new officer of the day, salutes, and then reports: Sir, 
the guard is formed. The new officer of the day, after the adjutant 
has reported, returns the salute with the hand and directs the 
adjutant: March the guard in review, sir. 

The adjutant carries saber, faces about, brings the guard to 
an order, and commands: 1. At trail, platoons (or guard) right, 
2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT. 

The platoons execute the movement; the band turns to the 
right and places itself 12 paces in front of the first platoon. 

The adjutant places himself 6 paces from the flank and 
abreast of the commander of the guard; the sergeant major, 6 
paces from the left flank of the second platoon. 

The adjutant then commands: 1. Pass in review, 2. FOR- 
WARD, 3. MARCH. 

The guard marches in quick time past the officer of the day, 
according to the principles of review, and is brought to eyes right 
at the proper time by the commander of the guard; the adjutant, 
commander of the guard, leaders of platoons, sergeant major, and 
drum major salute. 

The band, having passed the officer of the day, turns to the 
left out of the column, places itself opposite and facing him, and 
continues to play until the guard leaves the parade ground. The 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 213 

field music detaches itself from the Dand when the latter turns 
out of the column, and, remaining in front of the guard, com- 
mences to play when the band ceases. 

Having passed 12 paces beyond the officer of the day, the 
adjutant halts; the sergeant major halts abreast of the adjutant 
and 1 pace to his left; they then return saber, salute, and retire; 
the commander of the guard then commands: 1. Platoons, right 
by squads, 2. MARCH, and marches the guard to its post. 

The officers of the day face toward each other and salute; 
the old officer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer 
of the day. 

While the band is sounding off, and while the guard is 
marching in review, the officers of the day stand at parade rest 
with arms folded. They take this position when the adjutant 
comes to parade rest, resume the attention with him, again take 
the parade rest at the first note of the march in review, and resume 
attention as the head of the column approaches. 

The new officer of the day returns the salute of the com- 
mander of the guard and the adjutant, making one salute with the 
hand. 

If the guard be not divided into platoons, the adjutant com- 
mands: 1. At trail, guard right, 2. MARCH, 3. Guard, 4. HALT, 
and it passes in review as above; the commander of the guard is 
3 paces in front of its center; the adjutant places himself 6 paces 
from the left flank and abreast of the commander of the guard; 
the sergeant covers the adjutant on a line with the front rank 

INFORMAL GUARD MOUNTING FOR INFANTRY 

Informal guard mounting is held on the parade ground of 
the organization from which the guard is detailed. If it is detailed 
from more than one organization, then at such place as the com- 
manding officer may direct. 

At assembly, the detail for guard falls in on the company 
parade ground. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects 
their dress and general appearance, and replaces any man unfit to 
march on guard. He then turns the detail over to the commander 
of the guard and retires. 

At adjutant's call, the officer of the day takes his place IS 
paces in front of the center of the guard and commands: 1. Officer 
(or officers) and non-commissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 
3. MARCH; whereupon the officers and non-commissioned officers 
take their positions, are assigned and sent to their posts as pre- 
scribed in formal guard mounting. 

The officer of the day then inspects the guard with especial 
; reference for its fitness for the duty for which it is detailed, and 



214 MILITARY TRAINING 

selects the necessary orderlies and color sentinels. The men found 
unfit for guard are returned to quarters and are replaced by others 
found to be suitable, if available in the company. If none are avail- 
able in the company, the fact is reported to the adjutant imme- 
diately after guard mounting. 

When the inspection has been completed, the officer of the 
day resumes his position and directs the commander of the guard 
to march the guard to its post. 

RELIEVING THE OLD GUARD 

As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard 
is formed in line, with its field music 3 paces to its right; and when 
the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite its 
left, the commander of the new guard commands: 1. Eyes, 
2. RIGHT; the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Pre- 
sent, 2. ARMS; commanders of both guards salute. The new 
guard marches in quick time past the old guard. 

When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field 
music of the old guard, he commands: FRONT; the commander 
of the old guard commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, as soon as the 
new guard has cleared the old guard. 

The field music having marched 3 paces beyond the field 
music of the old guard, changes direction to the right, and, fol- 
lowed by the guard, changes direction to the left when on a line 
with the old guard; the changes of direction are without command. 
The commander of the guard halts on the line of the front rank 
of the old guard, allows his guard to march past him, and when 
its rear approaches forms it in line to the left, establishes the left 
guide 3 paces to the right of the field music of the old guard, and 
on a line with the front rank, and then dresses his guard to the 
left; the field music of the new guard is 3 paces to the right of its 
front rank. 

The new guard being dressed, the commander of each guard, 
in front of and facing its center, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, 
resumes his front, salutes, carries saber, faces his guard and com- 
mands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. Should a guard be commanded by a 
non-commissioned officer, he stands on the right or left of the 
front rank, according as he commands the old or new guard, and 
executes the rifle salute. 

After the new guard arrives at its post, and has saluted the 
old guard, each guard is presented by its commander to its officer 
of the day; if there be but one officer of the day present, or if 
one officer acts in the capacity of old and new officer of the day 
each guard is presented to him by its commander. 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 215 

If other persons entitled to a salute approach, each com- 
mander of the guard brings his own guard to attention if not 
already at attention. The senior commander of the two guards 
then commands " 1. Old and new guards, 2. Present, 3. ARMS." 

The junior salutes at the command " Present arms " given 
by the senior. After the salute has been acknowledged, the senior 
brings both guards to the order. 

After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers of 
the day, each guard is brought to an order by its commander; the 
commander of the new guard then directs the orderly or orderlies 
to fall out and report, and causes bayonets to be fixed if so ordered 
by the commanding officer; bayonets are not then unfixed during 
the tour except in route marches while the guard is actually march- 
ing, or when specially directed by the commanding officer. 

The commander of the new guard then falls out members 
of the guard for detached posts, placing them under charge of the 
proper non-commissioned officers, divides the guard into three 
reliefs, first second, and third, from right to left, and directs a list 
of the guard to be made by reliefs. When the guard consists of 
troops of different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs 
so as to insure a fair division of duty, under rules prescribed by 
the commanding officer. 

The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at once 
relieved by members of the new guard; the two guards standing 
at ease or at rest while these changes are being made. The com- 
mander of the old transmits to the commander of the new guard 
all his orders, instructions, and information concerning the guard 
and its duties. The commander of the new guard then takes 
possession of the guardhouse and verifies the articles in charge 
of the guard. 

If considerable time is required to bring in that portion of 
the old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that 
as soon as the orders and property are turned over to the new 
guard, the portion of the old guard at the guardhouse may be 
marched off and dismissed. In such a case, the remaining detach- 
ments of the old guard are inspected by the commander of the 
new guard when they reach the guardhouse. He directs the senior 
non-commissioned officer present to march these detachments off 
and dismiss them in the prescribed manner. 

In bad weather, at night, after long marches, or when the 
guard is very small, the field music may be dispensed with. 

When the guard for the day is supplied by more than one 
organization, the details due from the several companies are de- 
termined as follows: Take the number of privates for duty in each 
company from its morning report for the day next preceding 
that on which the tour of duty is to commence, deducting de- 



216 MILITARY TRAINING 

tails for detached service of over 24 hours, made after the morn- 
ing report has been received; the total of these gives the total 
number of privates available. Then: The total strength is to the 
strength of a company as the total detail is to the detail from 
the company. Multiply the total detail by the strength of the 
company, and divide the result by total strength; carry out to two 
places of decimals, disregarding all smaller fractions. This rule is 
applied for each company. 

The whole numbers in the results thus obtained are added 
together, and if the total is less than the total detail required add 
one to the whole number in the result that has the largest frac- 
tion, and so on for each company till the required total is ob- 
tained. There will thus be a difference between the exact propor- 
tion and the number detailed from each company; this difference 
is entered in the credit column and the next day is carried forward 
and added or subtracted from the first proportion. The number 
of sergeants, corporals, and musicians will be determined in like 
manner. 

MILITARY POLICE 

The duty of military police is to enforce all the police regu- 
lations in the theater of operations and in the mobilization and 
concentration camps. They protect the inhabitants of the country 
from pillage and violence and prevent excesses of all kinds; keep 
all roads clear; arrest all soldiers and civilian employees absent 
without proper authority from their organizations; arrest all 
marauders, and collect all stragglers and hand them over to their 
organizations. They keep a list and description of all camp re- 
tainers and followers and watch their conduct. They are charged 
with relieving organizations from the care of prisoners of war 
and with their safe conduct to places where they are ordered as- 
sembled. They police all railroad stations, public houses, depots, 
and public buildings, protect telegraph and telephone lines and rail- 
ways from damage; keep hostile inhabitants in order, carry out 
their disarmament, and prevent spying. 

With the division, the commander of trains and the force 
under his orders, exercise these functions of military police. On 
the line of communications the commanders of defense districts 
exercise these functions, following up closely the advance of the j 
division, taking over all prisoners of war,, and performing the 
military police duties in rear of the zone policed by the commander 
of trains. 

The defense commander of the area in and about the base 
of a line of communications is assigned as provost marshal. The 
functions of a provost marshal, in addition to those of general 



GUARD DUTY AND MILITARY POLICE 217 

military police, are to receive and hold all classes of prisoners. He 
makes records of the prisoners of war, and collects and records 
the tags taken from the enemy's dead, as required by the laws and 
usages of war. The records of prisoners of war and of the enemy's 
dead are transmitted quarterly to the War Department. 

In mobilization and concentration camps the powers of 
military police are ordinarily exercised by the commander of trains, 
though if conditions require, an officer may be assigned as com- 
mander of military police. 

In cases of emergency the military police may call on any 
troop to assist them. All persons belonging to the military service 
are required to give every assistance to the military police in the 
execution of their duties. 

Officers and enlisted men when actually performing the 
duty of military police wear a blue brassard on the left arm half 
way between the elbow and shoulder bearing the letters " M. P." 
in white. 

As a rule, military police on duty are not reprimanded or 
placed in arrest except by the superiors under whose command 
they happen to be. In exceptional cases field officers and officers 
of higher grades are authorized to order their arrest. Members of 
the military police when not on duty — that is, when not wearing 
the blue brassard — have no special privileges. 

During an engagement or a retreat the military police will: 

(1) Maintain order in rear of the troops in action. 

(2) Prevent congestion on roads leading to the front, par- 
ticularly at road junctions, bridges, etc., collect stragglers and men 
wandering around without a satisfactory explanation. 

(3) Direct wounded to dressing stations or stations for 
slightly wounded, if case warrants it. 

(4) Ascertain the position of various units in the neighbor- 
hood, so as to be able to direct officers and orderlies. 

(5) Patrol evacuated villages in rear of the firing line and 
arrest all pillagers. 

(6) In case of retreat, they will clear the roads to facilitate 
the march of troops. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR AND THE 
THEATER OF OPERATIONS 

In time of war the activities of the military establishment 
embrace the service of the interior and the service of the theater of 
operations. The service of the interior is carried on by depart- 
ment commanders and bureau chiefs, having for this purpose 
general depots of supply, general hospitals, arsenals, etc. The 
service of the theater of operations is carried on by the com- 
mander of the field forces, and is divided into the zone of the 
line of communications and the zone of the advance. The service 
of the interior functions both in peace and in war; that of the the- 
ater of operations, in war only. In general the functions of the 
bureau chiefs and the department commander are as follows: 

Bureau Chiefs. — They are the advisers of the Secretary of 
War and the Chief of Staff on all matters connected with the 
operations of their respective departments or corps throughout 
the entire military establishment. 

They are kept informed of the plans of the field forces and 
recommend the steps to be taken to insure the successful execution 
of these plans, as far as their respective corps or departments are 
concerned. 

They control directly and are responsible for the efficient 
operation of the general depots of supply, general hospitals, arse- 
nals, and other military establishments placed under their orders. 

They are charged with the accumulation of the necessary 
supplies and materiel and with forwarding the same, in accordance 
with regulations, to the point where they come under the control of 
the department commander, the commander of the field forces, the 
commander of the port of embarkation, and in certain instances the 
commander of a concentration camp. 

They formulate estimates for the necessary appropriations 
to carry on the operations of their respective departments or 
corps. 

Department Commander. — He is responsible for the recruit- 
ment, training, and equipment of all military forces not specially 
excepted within the limits of his department, and for their mobili- 
zation and dispatch to concentration camps. 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 219 

He is advised by the War Department where troops of his 
command are to be sent, the time at which they should arrive, and 
the commander to whom they should report. He is responsible 
for their movement, transportation, and supply while en route. 

He is responsible that adequate records of physical examina- 
tions are prepared and that all men going forward to the theater 
of operations are protected by the prescribed prophylactic treat- 
ments. 

He keeps the War Department informed of the state of 
preparedness of the troops under his command. 

He is responsible for the defense of all portions of his de- 
partment except where an independent commander has been as- 
signed by War Department orders. In this latter case the respon- 
sibility of the department commander does not extend to the area 
of operations of the independent commander. 

MOBILIZATION AND CONCENTRATION 

Mobilization Camps. — A mobilization camp is a place, in the 
territory from which the troops are drawn, where they are assem- 
bled to be raised to war strength, equipped, and prepared for 
service. 

The mobilization of the Regular Army is effected at their 
permanent stations. Recruits, after being armed, equipped, and 
trained at the recruit depots, are forwarded to their respective 
organizations. The mobilization of the organized militia and vol- 
unteers is effected at the mobilization camps. 

Department commanders are responsible that all military 
organizations leave mobilization points: (1) with the full equip- 
ment required by existing orders; (2) with sufficient rations and 
grain to fully supply them while en route; and (3) with two days' 
rations and grain for use after their arrival at the concentration 
camps. 

Concentration Camps. — A concentration camp is a place near 
the scene of intended operations or near an embarkation point, 
where troops are assembled for immediate use against the enemy 
or for transport to an oversea theater of operations. 

The command of troops at a concentration camp lies with 
the department commander in whose territory the camp is situated, 
unless these troops pertain or are assigned to a commander not 
under the department commander's orders prior to the concentra- 
tion. The commander of the concentration camp deals directly with 
the War Department. In cases where it is desired to make an ex- 
ception to the foregoing rule, or where doubt may exist, the author- 
ity ordering the concentration should define in orders upon whom 
the command falls and to whom the commander reports. 



220 MILITARY TRAINING 

Concentration Camp at a Port of Embarkation. — In case the 
concentration is ordered at a port of embarkation already provided 
by higher authority with a staff for receiving and forwarding 
troops, the responsibility for camp sites and facilities and the 
necessary supplies devolves upon the commanding officer of the 
port of embarkation. Under these circumstances the necessary 
staff officers will be sent in advance by the commander of the 
troops ordered to the camp to co-operate in making the detailed 
arrangements. But in case no such permanent staff is provided 
at the port of embarkation, the staff of the command concerned 
must make all provisions for receiving, camping, and supplying the 
troops. 

Concentration at a Point Near the Scene of Intended Opera- 
tions. — In case the concentration is ordered at a point near the 
scene of intended operations when troops are assembled for imme- 
diate use against the enemy, the necessary line of communications 
personnel will, if practicable, be ordered by the War Department 
to report to the commander of these troops and will be sent in ad- 
vance by him to the camp to make all preliminary arrangements 
for receiving, camping, and supplying the troops. If, however, no 
additional personnel for the line of communications is provided by 
the War Department, the commander of the troops concerned 
designates the necessary personnel from his own command and 
sends them ahead to make the preliminary arrangements. 

Duties of the Commander of the Port of Embarkation. — The 
duties of the commander of the port of embarkation are as follows: 

1. To arrange camps for the troops at or near the port of 
embarkation. 

2. To accumulate supplies for the maintenance of the expe- 
ditionary force while at the port of embarkation and until its 
arrival at the port of debarkation. 

3. To accumulate and ship the necessary supplies for the 
maintenance of the troops at the oversea base pending the organi- 
zation of the supply services in the theater of operations. 

4. To make all detailed arrangements for the prompt de- 
training of troops and material and for their subsequent embarka- 
tion. 

5. To see that the ships furnished him by the Quartermaster 
Corps are properly fitted out for use as transports. 

6. To operate and maintain the military shipping and traffic 
between his port and the oversea base through a superintendent 
of transport service, who is a member of his staff. 

7. To command all administrative groups assigned to the 
port of embarkation and to be directly responsible to the War De- 
partment for the efficient and economical direction of their opera- 
tions. 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 221 

The commander of the port of embarkation prepares the 
schedules for the embarkation of troops, materiel and supplies on 
transports, and has charge of such embarkation. The commander 
of the camp issues the orders necessary to carry out these 
schedules and details a staff officer to assist the commander of the 
port of embarkation during the loading. Under all conditions these 
schedules will be made only after consultation with the superior 
commander of the troops to be embarked. 

When a landing or disembarkation in the face of opposition 
is anticipated, the distribution and plan of embarkation will be 
made to suit the tactical requirements of the situation, and in case 
of a difference of opinion the final decision will rest with the com- 
mander of the troops. When no opposition to landing is ex- 
pected, the final decision will rest with the commander of the 
port of embarkation. 

Oversea Departments. — The department commander, in addi- 
tion to his functions above stated, is also charged with the defense 
of the oversea department, and directs all military operations with- 
in its limits. Such regulations as are applicable relating to the con- 
trol and command of the commander of the field forces in the 
theater of operations are, in time of war, vested in the commander 
of an oversea department. 

THE SERVICE OF THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS 

In the theater of operations the functions of the War De- 
partment and those of the various commanders are, in general, as 
follows: 

The War Department designates the commander of the field 
forces, assigns him a definite mission, prescribes the zone under his 
command, and supplies him' with the means necessary to the ac- 
complishment of his mission. 

The commander of the field forces exercises supreme author- 
ity over all military and administrative matters within the zone 
assigned him, organizing the means placed at his disposal so as to 
insure efficiency, and directing and controlling all operations 
necessary to the accomplishment of his mission. 

The commander of the line of communications is responsible 
to the commander of the field forces for the efficient operation 
and defense of the line of communications and directs and controls 
all administrative and staff services attached thereto. 

HEADQUARTERS AND STAFFS 

All military units larger than a company have headauarters 
and staffs. The headquarters of squadrons, battalions, and brigades 



222 MILITARY TRAINING 

have no administrative functions. The headquarters of an inde- 
pendent detachment has for the time being administrative func- 
tions and during such periods is temporarily assigned an adminis- 
trative staff. 

The commander of an army concerns himself with only the 
broad questions of strategy and military policy. He assigns gen- 
eral missions to his subordinate commanders and leaves them to 
work out the necessary details. On this account he is assigned 
only such administrative and technical staff as he may require for 
these broad functions. 

The staff functions of the headquarters of units larger than 
a brigade may be separated into two groups, (1) general staff 
group; and (2) a technical and administrative group — record, in- 
spection, law, supply, sanitary, engineer, ordnance, and signal. 

The General Staff.— The Chief of Staff is the mouthpiece of 
his commander and should enjoy his complete confidence and a 
considerable degree of independence in the performance of his 
duties. He controls and co-ordinates the operations of the troops 
and all administrative and technical services under the orders of 
his commander. He is provided with such assistants as are neces- 
sary. To each such assistant is particularly assigned the work of 
one or more of the three, general divisions of general staff 
work, viz.: 

* The first or combat section concerns itself with orders, 

movements, and dispositions of the forces; combats, detachments, 
war diaries. 

The second or administrative section concerns itself with 
organization, losses, reinforcements, police and discipline; ques- 
tions of supplies of all kinds; signal and telegraph service; evacua- 
tion and care of sick and wounded; relations with the line of 
communications and all general correspondence. 

The third or intelligence section concerns itself with the 
movements and dispositions of the enemy, including exploration, 
reconnaissance, and the gathering and distribution of information; 
interpreters, newspaper correspondents, and various agents; rela- 
tions with the enemy, flags of truce, deserters, and prisoners of 
war; relations with the civil authorities of the occupied territory, 
requisitions, etc. 

Technical and Administrative Staff. — This includes the repre- 
sentative of the various staff corps and departments who may be 
assigned to the headquarters. These officers perform the duties 
appropriate to their office under the instructions of their com- 
mander. During the period of grand tactical operations with com- 
mands larger than a division and when a line of communication is 
in operation, their functions are advisory. Upon completion of the 
grand tactical operations and upon the discontinuance of an 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 223 

organized line of communications, or if no line of communications 
has been organized, these staff officers assume a more immediate 
control of their respective staff personnel, depots, hospitals, etc. 

The functions of the technical and administrative staff of a 
division are so intimately connected with the maintenance of the 
division as to preclude the separation of any of its personnel for 
any extended period of time from its headquarters. These staff 
officers are the technical advisers of the division commander, and 
control directly the operation of such portions of their respective 
corps personnel as may be placed under their immediate orders. 

The Commander of the Line of Communications. — This com- 
mander reports directly to the commander of the field forces. 

The mission of the tactical units and administrative groups 
assigned to a line of communications is to relieve the combatant 
field force, as far as possible, from every consideration except that 
of defeating the enemy. 

It is necessary that the commander of the field forces be 
relieved from the consideration of details and thus be free to con- 
sider the broad lines of action to be followed by his command. 

A line of communications is not organized when a force can 
safely occupy a territory without military operations of an exten- 
sive character. In this case administration and supply naturally 
and properly follow the same general principles as with troops in 
the service of the interior. 

THE ZONE OF THE LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 

The zone of the line of communications embraces all ter- 
ritory from and including the base to the point or points where 
contact is made with the trains of the combatant field forces. The 
activities of the line of communications personnel are in general 
limited to this zone, except that lines of information are extended 
to contact with the headquarters of the field force, and that ammu- 
nition, supply, sanitary, and engineer columns are pushed forward 
beyond this zone when necessary. It is the duty of the commander 
of the line of communications to advance this line from time to 
time so as to maintain contact with the trains of the field forces. 

Command. — All troops, military establishments, and person- 
nel in the zone of the line of communications, are under control 
of its commander, except such as may be specially exempted by 
War Department orders. He is responsible for the defense of the 
line of communications and for the government of that portion of 
the zone placed under military control. 

Administration and Control. — For administration and control 
the line of communications is organized as follows: A service of 



224 MILITARY TRAINING 

defense; a supply, sanitary, and telegraph service; and a service of 
military railways. The senior staff officer of each group of the 
base section of the supply, sanitary, and telegraph service of the 
line of communications on all matters relating to the operation of 
his corps within the zone of the line of communications. 

Staff officers belonging to organizations assigned to the 
service of defense have no responsibilities in connection with the 
operations of the supply, sanitary, and telegraph service other 
than those directly connected with their organizations. 

Upon arrival at the base, all persons under the War Depart- 
ment orders or with authority to join the field forces come at once 
under the orders of the commander of the line of communications 
and report their arrival at headquarters. 

Suitable troops are assigned to duty under the commander 
of the line of communications and are charged under his orders 
with the defense of the line of communications and with the pro- 
tection of all columns pushed out by the advance section of the 
supply, sanitary,, and telegraph service. This territory is ordinarily 
divided into districts, each under a separate commander, who is 
responsible for the defense and military police of his own district. 
These commanders have no control over properly authorized 
movements along the line of communications, of personnel, ani- 
mals, or materiel, except in case of imminent danger from the 
enemy. They are then responsible that traffic is stopped until, in 
their opinion, it may be safely resumed, or until orders from supe- 
rior authority are received. The action taken is at once reported 
by telegraph to the chief of staff of the line of communications. 
Troops, ammunitions, or supplies going to the front are not to be 
diverted for the use of the line of communications troops, except 
by authority of the commander of the line of communications. 

When armored trains are used their crews form part of the 
line of communications troops and are under the direct orders of 
the commander of the district in which they are operating. Rail- 
way traffic is not to be interfered with by the use of armored 
trains, except in lace of imminent danger from the enemy. 

THE ZONE OF THE ADVANCE 

The division is the great administrative unit and forms the 
model for the organization of the administrative service of smaller 
units operating independently. To the division alone are regularly 
attached ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains. Field 
army troops may be assigned to divisions for the purpose of supply 
and for the care and evacuation of their sick and wounded. In this 
instance the divisional trains of the division to which they are 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 225 

assigned must be increased. When field army troops are organized 
into a separate brigade their administration and supply follows the 
principles laid down for a division. In this instance the necessary 
ammunition, supply, and sanitary trains are organized and assigned 
to the brigade. 

Military administration follows the fundamental principle 
that troops in action should not have their attention diverted from 
their task of defeating the enemy by anxiety concerning questions 
of supply or evacuation of sick or wounded. The impetus in all 
these matters should be given from rear to front, by the troops or 
services in the rear.. Normal routine requirements which can be 
foreseen are replaced automatically and without the preliminary of 
formal requisitions. This has particular application to furnishing 
rations, grain, ammunition, and sanitary supplies. 

It is the function of the line of communications to extend its 
lines so as to make contact with the divisions in advance, and not 
the latter's function to extend back. During certain periods of 
time the line of communications will be within a short distance 
of the division, whereas, during the other periods, for tactical and 
strategical reasons, this distance may be greatly increased, and 
often for short periods of time all connection between the line 
of communications and certain units of the division may be severed. 

In principle, the administrative services of a division must 
have the same degree of mobility as the division itself. They 
should not be charged with taking care of supplies which can not 
be transported in the ammunition, supply, and engineer trains. 
The equipment of the sanitary train provides only necessities for 
the sick and wounded pending their immediate evacuation to the 
rear. 

It is the function of the administrative services of the line 
of communications or of the administrative services attached to 
camps, as the case may be, to relieve the division from the care 
of its sick and wounded, and to take care of all material which 
the division is not normally equipped to carry. 

TRANSPORTATION 

The functions of combat, field, ammunition, supply, sanitary, 
and engineer trains is to keep the commands to which they are 
attached at all times ready for action without hampering their 
freedom of movement. 

To meet these requirements demands not only well-thought- 
out orders by the superior authority, but also the highest sense of 
responsibility on the part of those in command of these trains. 

These officers must be prepared to make any sacrifice in 



226 MILITARY TRAINING 

order that their trains shall arrive at the destinations appointed at 
the hours fixed. Baggage and other impedimenta must be reduced 
to a minimum, and as far as possible, all transport and material not 
actually required with the combatant field forces must be left in 
the zone of the line of communications, whence it may be sent 
forward as required. Trains are always halted on the right-hand 
side of the road, leaving the left-hand side clear for the passage 
of troops, ambulances, etc. 

SUPPLY SERVICE 

The zone of activity of a division operating, for an extended 
period of time, in a country devoid of local resources, is limited 
by the extreme radius of supply of the available transportation 
from the line of communications. As the amount of transporta- 
tion with a division is necessarily limited, contact of such force 
with the line of communications can be maintained for only a short 
distance to the rear. This distance is dependent on the character 
and amount of transportation and the condition of the roads. In 
territory not wholly devoid of local resources, the radius of supply 
can be increased to a greater or less extent, depending upon the 
use that can be made of these resources. 

Refilling Point. — A refilling point is the place where the 
empty vehicles of the supply train are refilled by the line of com- 
munications. It may be a rail, automobile, tractor, wagon, or 
water head, and it may be at or in advance of the advance supply 
depot of the line of communications. 

Distributing Point. — A distributing point is the place where 
the ration sections of the field trains are replenished either from 
the supply train or the line of communications; in the latter case 
either directly from its depots or by means of its supply columns. 
When troops are advancing distributing points will usually be 
pushed forward close behind the troops, if possible, even up to the 
camping area, so that the ration vehicles may be able to refill with- 
out marching too far. In a retreat it may be advisable to deposit 
supplies along the probable line of retreat. 

Rendezvous Point. — A rendezvous point is a place to which 
line of communications supply columns (usually auto-trucks or 
tractors with wagons) are dispatched and where they are met by 
an agent of the commander of the field forces and conducted to 
distributing points. When it is possible to do so rendezvous points 
may be fixed with advantage at the actual distributing points. 

Distributing points are fixed by division commanders. The 
commander of a force larger than a division may delegate to his 
division commander the duty of fixing the refilling or rendezvous 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 227 

points of their respective commands within certain prescribed 
limitations, or, on the other hand, he may himself fix these points. 

In the first instance the division commander is responsible 
for sending timely information of the point and hour selected to 
the assistant chief of staff of the advance section of the line of 
communications. 

In the second instance the commander of the field forces 
notifies the division commander and the commander of the line 
of communications of the 'refilling or rendezvous point and the 
hour at which contact is to be made. 

Source of Supply. — For troops in campaign there are two 
sources of supply — the theater of operations and the base. It is 
generally necessary to utilize to the fullest extent the food, espe- 
cially the forage, available in the theater of operations. This be- 
comes practically imperative when the line of communications 
runs through a country devoid of railroads and waterways. 

When the theater of operations is in the home country or 
that of an ally, supplies are obtained by purchase; when in hostile 
territory, by purchase or requisition. It is a fundamental principle 
that all supplies available in the theater of operations should be 
utilized to the utmost. 

Requisitions. — Requisitions are either (1) direct (foraging) 
or (2) by systematic collection into depots. Requisitions are re- 
sorted to only when authorized in orders of the commander of the 
field forces, and should be enforced by detachments commanded by 
a commissioned officer. Unathorized seizure of property is pun- 
ished as looting. The right to requisition food supplies in a hostile 
country covers the right to impress labor and means of transporta- 
tion to facilitate delivery, and to make use of buildings, flour mills, 
bakeries, blacksimth shops, etc. Property obtained by requisition 
is either paid for or restored with suitable indemnification. If no 
reason to the contrary exists, better results are obtained when cash 
payment is made for supplies taken. If the supplies are not paid for 
upon delivery, receipts are given, copies or stubs being retained. 
These receipts are redeemed by the proper officer in accordance 
with the instructions of the commander of the field forces. 

In the interests of the troops themselves, it is well, even in 
the enemy's country, to treat the inhabitants with the greatest con- 
sideration. At the same time, when the gravity of the situation 
demands it, due severity must be exercised toward hostile inhabi- 
tants. Leniency and negligence at the wrong time and place may 
lead to hardships for the troops. 

Food supplies gathered by independent cavalry or advance 
guards in excess of their needs, are turned over to troops in the 
rear, and, correspondingly, those in excess of the needs of these 
latter troops or which can not be used for current issues or carried 



228 MILITARY TRAINING 

in the field and supply trains, are taken over by the line of com- 
munications. 

While a well-organized system of requisition is of great 
service, exclusive reliance can not be placed thereon, even in the 
most productive countries. As soon as the army halts, or when 
it advances slowly, recourse must be had to shipments brought up 
by the line of communications. 

The Ration. — Upon arrival of troops at mobilization and 
concentration camps, the ration savings privilege is suspended and 
entirely replaced by issues of rations in kind. This same restric- 
tion holds during the period of hostilities. The garrison ration is 
intended to be issued in kind whenever possible. The approximate 
net weight of the garrison ration is 4.5 pounds. 



AMMUNITION SERVICE 

The system of replacing ammunition differs somewhat from 
that by which rations and grain are replenished. No ammunition 
is obtainable locally and, therefore, all the mobile ammunition 
reserves with the division must be replaced by the line of com- 
munications. The requirements of rations and grain are continu- 
ous, whereas the requirements of ammunition are spasmodic and 
neither the exact quantity nor the time of replenishment can be 
foreseen. 

The organization and operation of the ammunition service 
is the duty of the field artillery. The commander of the ammuni- 
tion train is the immediate subordinate of the divisional artillery 
commander after the ammunition train has been released from the 
control of the commander of trains. 

Ammunition carried on the man and on the caissons of the 
firing batteries is replaced by that carried in organization combat 
trains. These latter trains are ordinarily refilled from vehicles 
attached to the ammunition train, though in certain instances they 
may be refilled directly from the line of communications or from 
ammunition columns. 

It is the duty of commanders of all grades to see that due 
economy is exercised in the expenditure of ammunition and to 
make provision for its timely replenishment. No means should 
remain untried for bringing up ammunition to troops in action and 
for keeping up the fire, on the maintenance or cessation of which 
the success of the action may depend. 

It is the function of the organization commander to which 
a combat train is assigned to regulate the supply of ammunition 
from the combat train to the firing line, and to dispatch the empty 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 229 

vehicles of the combat train to the distributing station. Battalion 
commanders are charged with keeping their combat trains properly 
filled and equipped. 

SANITARY SERVICE 

In general, the functions of the sanitary service are as fol- 
lows: (a) The institution of all practicable sanitary measures, to 
the end that the fighting forces suffer no depletion in strength due 
to avoidable causes, (b) The temporary care and professional 
treatment of the sick and wounded and their transportation to 
accessible points where they are transferred with as little delay as 
possible to the line of communications, (c) The supply of the 
necessary sanitary equipment. In addition, the sanitary service 
is charged with the preparation and preservation of individual 
records of sickness and injury in order that claims may be ad- 
judicated with justice to the Government and the individual. 

The personnel of the sanitary service in the zone of the 
advance may be classified into two general groups, as follows: 
First, that attached to organizations smaller than a brigade, which 
functions under the immediate orders of the organization com- 
mander and accompanies its unit into combat; second, that at- 
tached to the sanitary train, which functions under the orders of the 
division surgeon in accordance with such general or specific in- 
structions as he may receive from the division commander. When 
necessary the sanitary personnel attached to organizations may be 
temporarily detached, in whole or part, and directed to operate 
with the sanitary train. 

Sanitation. — Officers and men of all arms must have a 
knowledge of sanitation and its importance, to the end that no 
depletion of the fighting force occurs through avoidable causes. 
The importance of adopting and carrying out proper sanitary 
measures can not be overestimated. | 

ENGINEER TRAIN 

To each division is attached an engineer train which carries 
heavy intrenching tools, sandbags, reserve explosives, and other 
engineer material which may be required by the division during 
certain periods of combat. 

The organization and operation of the engineer train is the 
duty of the engineer corps. The engineer train is commanded by 
the senior engineer officer present with it, who, upon its release 
from the control of the commander of trains, operates it in accord- 



230 MILITARY TRAINING 

ance with the instructions of the senior engineer officer of the 
division. 

The engineer column which is attached to the advance sec- 
tion of the line of communications includes in it such heavy engi- 
neer equipment as may be required, depending upon the character 
of operations reasonably probable, i. e., searchlights, pile drivers, 
map, reproduction equipment, and reserve of heavy intrenching 
tools, etc. 

The engineer column may be temporarily assigned in whole 
or part to divisions or to operate directly under the orders of field 
army headquarters in the zone of the advance. When so assigned, 
it is for the time being removed from the control of the commander 
of the line of communications. If assigned directly to field army 
headquarters it operates under the immediate orders of the chief 
engineer; if assigned to a division, it forms part of the engineer 
train. When no longer required in the zone of the advance, it 
reverts to the control of the commander of the line of communi- 
cations. 

LINE OF COMMUNICATIONS 

A line of communications is established for each important 
force about to engage in field operations involving a movement 
from a base. When two or more important forces are operating 
from a single base, they are under the control of a single superior 
commander, and only one line of communications is operated 
with a single base, and with such number of advance sections as 
may be required. 

A line of communications is not organized when a force can 
safely occupy a territory without military operations of an exten- 
sive character. In this case administration and supply naturally 
and properly follow the same general principles as with troops in 
the home country. The mission of the tactical units and adminis- 
trative groups assigned to a line of communications is to relieve 
the combatant field force as far as possible from every considera- 
tion except that of defeating the enemy. 

The point, at which the base of a line of communication is to 
t)e established is fixed in War Department orders, upon recom- 
mendation of the commander of the field forces. The personnel 
for the line of communications comprises groups from every branch 
of the army and is sent ahead by the commander of the force to 
secure the base, and to make all arrangements for receiving, supply- 
ing, and forwarding the troops. If no additional personnel for this 
purpose has been assigned to the commander by higher authority, 
he details the necessary officers and men from the force under his 
command. 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 231 

SERVICE OF MILITARY RAILWAYS 

A service of military railways is organized when extensive 
military operations of a field force are dependent on a line or lines 
of railway for its supply in advance of the base. The construction, 
operation, and maintenance of these railways is a duty of the Corps 
of Engineers. 

This service takes over from the field force all railways cap- 
tured, assuming charge of their reconstruction, operation, and main- 
tenance. It is also charged with the construction of new railway 
lines necessary for the supply of the field forces. It is controlled 
and directed by an officer detailed as director of railways, with a 
military controlling staff and an operating and constructing staff. 

The director of railways is a member of the staff of the 
commander of the line of communications and is responsible to 
that commander for the successful operation, maintenance, and 
construction of the military railways. He receives his orders from 
that commander and takes the necessary steps to have them exe- 
cuted by his subordinates. 

No military officer not attached to the service of military 
railways is allowed to give any orders to subordinates of the latter 
service ©r to interfere in any manner with the running of trains, 
except in the case of an impending attack. 

The military controlling staff is composed of such military 
assistants to the director of railways as the military conditions and 
the railway facilities require. Their duty is to represent the 
director of railways in the various departments or subdivisions of 
the railway to which they may be assigned, to facilitate and insure 
the execution of the approved plans for the working of the railways, 
and to supply the military knowledge not possessed by the civilian 
officials and operators. 

If two or more lines of military railway exist, a member of 
the military controlling staff, called an assistant director of rail- 
ways, may be assigned to each line and made responsible to the 
director of railways for its successful operation, maintenance, and 
construction. The director of railways in this case is responsible 
for the supervision of and co-operation between the several lines. 

If any single line becomes long enough to subdivide into 
divisions, military conditions may require that a member of the 
controlling staff be assigned to one or more of these divisions. In 
this case he is responsible to his next military railway superior for 
its successful operation and maintenance. 

CENSORSHIP 

Censorship within the theater of operations is controlled by 
the commander of the field forces. An officer is assigned as censor 



1 



232 MILITARY TRAINING 

and is provided with such assistants as necessary. He performs his 
duties under the immediate orders of the chief of staff of the com- 
mander of the field forces. 

Censorship includes (1) censorship over private communica- 
tions and (2) censorship over press publications and communica- 
tions. All private communications (post cards, letters, parcels, 
telegrams, etc.) of officers, soldiers, foreign attaches, newspaper 
correspondents, and all other individuals, dispatched from the 
theater of operations are liable to censorship and to such delay in 
transmission as may be deemed necessary by the military authori- 
ties. A censor is authorized to suppress any statement which might 
be of value to the enemy or prejudicial to the welfare of the forces 
in the field. All newspapers or journals in the theater of operations 
or in localities where martial law is in force are subject to censor- 
ship and, if necessary, their publications may be suppressed. 

The press has public functions to perform with respect to 
the collection and dissemination of news concerning the operations 
of the army in time of war. The dissemination of falsehoods or 
distortion of facts, no less than the premature disclosure of move- 
ments or plans, is so fraught with dangerous consequences that the 
greatest care should be observed in its prevention. The press 
occupies a dual and delicate position, being under the necessity of 
truthfully disclosing to the people the facts concerning the opera- 
tions of the army and, at the same time, of refraining from dis- 
closing those things which, though true, would be disastrous if 
known to the enemy. It is perfectly apparent that these important 
functions can not be trusted to irresponsible people and can only be 
properly performed under reasonable rules and regulations with 
respect thereto. 

CORRESPONDENTS 

Conditions of Acceptance. — Each applicant presents to the 
Secretary of War credentials from the owner or owners, managing 
editor, or responsible manager of the publication or publications 
he represents, giving a brief account of his career, stating exactly 
the nature of the work he is expected to do at the front, certifying 
to his trustworthiness as working member of his profession, and 
his personal fitness to accompany the army. His employer or 
employers gives a bond for his good conduct in the field, which, in 
case of the withdrawal of his pass for infraction of any of the 
regulations shall be forfeited to any charity which the Secretary of 
War may name. He takes an oath of loyalty of the usual military 
form and shall agree to abide in letter and spirit by all the regula- 
tions laid down for his guidance. If at any time the number of 
correspondents becomes so large as to be an encumbrance, the 
Secretary of War will refuse other passes until such time as he 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 233 

deems expedient; when other applicants who fulfill the conditions 
will be received in the order of their application. 

Not more than one correspondent is received for any one 
publication or syndicate of publications or press association with 
the same field army. Men who have evidently secured credentials 
with a view to adventure rather than serious work as corre- 
spondents are not received. Their employers must show that they 
have been working members of their profession. In addition to 
the requirements for home correspondents, a foreign correspondent 
must have served in other campaigns, present credentials as to 
his character from high officers of the army to which he was at- 
tached and accompanying the letter from his employers must 
present a letter from his ambassador in Washington, personally 
vouching for him. 

Photographs and Photographers. — An official photographer 
accompanies each field army or other important independent field 
force. His films and plates are sent promptly to Washington, 
where prints are issued at a nominal cost to the press. No pro- 
fessional photographers and moving-picture men are received. No 
news or professional photographers are received if representing 
themselves either as news or mail correspondents. The regular 
correspondents may carry small hand film cameras. The films are 
sent by the censor at the headquarters of the field force to the 
chief censor's office in Washington, where they are developed and 
such of them as pass the censorship sent to any given address 
promptly. 

Censorship of Press Matter. — A commissioned officer of 
journalistic experience acts as chief censor in Washington and one 
is attached as censor to the headquarters of each field army or other 
important independent field force. All correspondent's news, or 
private dispatches, mail letters for publication, private letters, draw- 
ings and photographs must be submitted to this censor and receive 
his stamp before being sent. After censorship he shows the cor- 
respondent what, if anything, he has elided from correspondent's 
MSS. He permits the use of no code words in any private or 
public communication. He may request a correspondent to rewrite 
any portion of a dispatch that he may suspect of double meaning 
without accompanying his request with his reason for it. The 
correspondent is not allowed to send information concerning the 
occupation or relinquishment of a position, the news of any victory 
or defeat, the names of organizations or commanders, the disposi- 
tions of troops, the state of supply or transport, the number of 
sick, the extent of losses, or any other matters of information un- 
less the dispatch or report, containing such information, is passed 
on and authorized by the censor. Any relaxation in the regulations 
rests with the commanding general of the field force. 



234 MILITARY TRAINING 

. Facilities for Work. — Immediately on receiving his pass the 
correspondent proceeds to the headquarters of the field force to 
which he is assigned and there reports himself to the censor. His 
pass gives him transport over all military railways, with the privi- 
leges of a commissioned officer. All correspondents are officially 
attached to headquarters of field armies or other important field 
forces. Their transport has a place with that of the baggage 
section of the field train of the headquarters staff. No one except 
the censor at headquarters has the authority of censorship. Corre- 
spondents have the freedom of the lines of information of the army 
within such limitations as the censor may, from time to time, indi- 
cate. The official army wires are open to the correspondents' 
dispatches when not occupied by official dispatches. Correspon- 
dents' dispatches are sent in the order of filing. The censor may 
limit the number of words or otherwise make an equitable adjust- 
ment of the use of the wire among the different correspondents 
when the wire is unequal to carrying all the dispatches submitted. 
Within the censor's discretion, correspondents may send mes- 
sengers to carry censored dispatches to better wire facilities than 
those at the immediate front. 

Messengers. — Any correspondent who chooses may have a 
mounted messenger, who may send neither correspondence nor 
photographs of his own. Any infraction of the regulations by the 
messenger is equivalent to an infraction by the correspondent him- 
self. He must have credentials acceptable to the army and a pass 
in the correspondents' form, with the privilege of an enlisted man. 
A similar bond is required for him as for the correspondent. Ex- 
cept where permission is given by the headquarters censor, he must 
remain with the correspondents' transport. 

Passes. — Every correspondent is supplied with an official 
pass, bearing his photograph and his own signature and the signa- 
ture of the Secretary of War and the commander of the field forces 
to which he is attached. He shows this upon the demand of any 
field officer, company commander, or member of the military police, 
and respects their requests under the penalty of being sent back 
to army headquarters under guard. 

Garb. — Every correspondent provides himself with olive-drab 
garb for the field. He wears no accouterments not of a neutral tint/ 
He is supplied with a white brassard 2 l / 2 inches in width, bearing 
the letter C in red, to be worn on the left arm, in order that his 
status with the army may be known at a glance by both officers and 
privates. Messengers observe the same regulations about garb, 
with the exception that their brassard bears the letter M. 

Discipline. — No correspondent leaves the army to which he is 
attached, either to go home or for any other purpose, except by 
permission of the War Department. A correspondent is suspended 



SERVICE OF THE INTERIOR 235 

from all privileges for the distortion of his dispatches in the office 
of the publication which he represents, and also for the use of 
language or expressions conveying a hidden meaning which would 
tend to mislead or deceive the censor or permit the approval by him 
of otherwise objectionable dispatches or for any other infraction 
of regulations in letter or in spirit. In extreme cases of offense, 
where the commanding general thinks it justified, the correspond- 
ent may be sent to the rear and held under arrest until such time 
as the War Department may restore his privileges or give him a 
pass to leave the army. 

Press Regulations for Officers, Enlisted Men, and Civilian 
Employees of the Army. — No officer, enlisted man, or civilian em- 
ployee of the army is permitted to correspond for any publication 
without the consent of the Secretary of War and the majority of 
the correspondents attached to the field army in which he serves. 
No censor or censor's assistant may write anything about the cam- 
paign for publication while he holds a commission in the army. 

FIELD POST OFFICE 

Arrangements are made with the Post Office Department for 
establishing and maintaining a postal service in the theater of 
operations. 

This service is directed by an official of the Post Office De- 
partment who is stationed at the base of the line of communica- 
tions. He co-operates with the assistant chief of staff of the supply, 
sanitary, and telegraph service of the line of communications, main- 
taining post offices, agents, etc., with its advance section, and so 
far as practicable, throughout the zone of the line of communica- 
tions. In addition to the foregoing a post-office agent accompanies 
each division, being supplied by the quartermaster's corps with 
the necessary vehicles and animals for the prompt dispatch and 
distribution of mails. 

The commander of trains is responsible for the protection of 
the postal personnel with divisions and controls their movements. 
The necessary instructions relative to the distribution and receipt 
of mail are issued by the division commander. 



CHAPTER IX 

FIELD MANEUVERS AND THE MILITARY OPER- 
ATIONS OF THE COMBINED ARMS 

Field maneuvers complete the course of instruction begun 
with garrison drills and continued in minor field exercises. They 
simulate the conditions of war and acquaint troops with the pos- 
sibilities and difficulties of actual campaign. They afford almost 
the only opportunity in peace for the exercise of the functions 
of the higher commanders in the field, and furnish officers of all 
grades, and enlisted men as well, opportunities to study the mili- 
tary operations of the arms combined. In maneuvers alone can 
the importance of time, space and weather conditions be fully 
realized, and a satisfactory knowledge gained of the labor attending 
the movement, transportation and supply of troops. 

To secure the maximum benefit from maneuvers, troops 
should be familiar, not only with the usual extended order and 
battle exercises, but with the elementary principles and practice of 
security and information, and the ordinary duties required of offi- 
cers and men in the field. This knowledge is gained in exercises at 
their stations, on practice marches and during the annual target 
practice. When practicable, maneuvers in warm climates are held 
in September or later. At this season troops suffer less from heat, 
the greater part of the crops is harvested, less damage results and 
the country is more open. 

The region selected for maneuvers should fulfill the follow- 
ing conditions: 

1. It should be large enough to permit the troops to operate 
as in war. 2. Its location should be central with reference to the 
stations of participating troops. 3. It should be readily accessible 
by railroad or water transportation, and there should be good 
wagon roads to the proposed camp sites. 4. The terrain should be 
diversified, most of it practicable for troops of all arms, and with 
large open spaces for camps, etc. Undulating grazing country with 
scattered woods is most suitable. 5. It should be naturally free 
from contagious diseases, and have an ample supply of pure water. 

The commanding general of the department in which man- 
euvers are to be held, causes a timely examination to be made 



FIELD MANEUVERS 237 

of the available sites, and submits to the War Department a gen- 
eral scheme for the proposed maneuvers, including a list of the or- 
ganizations to participate, a plan of concentration, and an esti- 
mate of the cost. After approval thereof by the War Department, 
the commander of maneuvers, chief umpire, and staff officers are 
designated in ample time to work out the details of encampment, 
transportation, supply, and sanitation. Request is made for the 
necessary engineer, signal and sanitary troops, when not available 
in the department. Suitable maps are prepared by officers detailed 
for that purpose. The commander of maneuvers prepares the pro- 
gram of instruction. \ 

For the general use of officers, maps of maneuver grounds 
are prepared on a scale of 3 inches to 1 mile, with 20-foot contours. 
In addition, for-the preparation of problems and for the use of the 
higher commanders, guide maps of the maneuver ground and sur- 
rounding country, about 1 inch to the mile, are necessary. These 
can generally be obtained from the United States Geological Sur- 
vey. For the chief umpire and for use at the discussions, one or 
two detailed maps, 12 inches to the mile, are prepared on canvas 
or heavy paper. Reproductions of the 3-inch map, reduced to a 
scale of 1 inch to the mile, are prepared for general distribution 
to the troops. 

During maneuvers and other field exercises, the commander 
from time to time may require the troops to take the field and live 
as in actual campaign. 

The opposing forces are designated Blue and Red. All 
troops at maneuvers wear the prescribed field service uniform, ex- 
cept that in the Red forces a broad red band is worn around the 
hat. At the discretion of the commander of maneuvers, the ser- 
vice coat may be omitted, but in this case the rank of officers and 
non-commissioned officers is indicated on the shirt. 

The headquarters of the opposing forces are marked by blue 
and red banners, respectively. Headquarters of organizations may 
be marked, according to the force to which they belong, by 
blue or red flags or pennants with appropriate insignia. In man- 
euver combats the national, regimental, or battalion colors or 
standards are not carried. When desirable the troops may be lo- 
cated in two camps some miles apart. 

The program of instruction, showing in general terms, the 
daily work contemplated, is distributed to the troops upon arrival. 
When the troops have not had suitable preliminary preparation, 
the program includes instruction by practical demonstrations, regi- 
mental and brigade drills, exercises in security and information, 
deployments, small maneuvers, etc. These minor maneuvers 
should be progressive, beginning with the company and ending 
with all arms combined. If practicable, there should also be a re- 



238 MILITARY TRAINING 

view of the entire command. Instruction is also imparted by lec- 
tures and conferences. 

Under the direction of the commander of maneuvers, the 
problems are prepared as outlined in the program of instructions. 
These problems are framed under the assumption of a state of war 
involving hostile operations, and are usually expressed in general 
and special situations. 

The general situation is given to both parties and contains 
the information supposed to be generally known. A special situa- 
tion is given to each commander and contains full information in 
regard to his own command, and such information of the enemy 
as might have been obtained in actual warfare. 

Simple situations generally admit of a number of solutions 
and are more useful than those based upon numerous and remote 
suppositions. Unnatural assumptions are avoided. 

With large opposing forces the same general situation may 
serve for several days, or even for the whole maneuver period; 
with smaller commands changes are usually necessary. Unreal 
conditions, permitting a force to discover the actual strength and 
location of its adversary through means which could not be em- 
ployed in war, are avoided. 

The technical work of engineer, signal, and sanitary troops 
is carried out as far as practicable. First-aid and dressing stations 
are established, and field hospitals set up as in war. 

Combat, field, and supply trains are represented by all the 
wagons available. 

UMPIRES 

The commander of maneuvers, when not performing the 
duties of chief umpire, is assisted by an officer bearing that title. 
This officer has charge of the details of the preparation and con- 
duct of the problems, and is assisted during the exercises by ad- 
ditional umpires, sufficient in number to secure proper control. 

Umpires are selected from grades above that of first lieu- 
tenant. They are staff officers of the commander of maneuvers, 
and their orders, signals, and decisions are considered as emanat- 
ing from him. They are therefore promptly obeyed without ques- 
tion. That they may be readily recognized they wear a broad 
white band around the hat. Their orderlies or messengers wear 
a broad white band on the left arm above the elbow. 

Though umpires may accompany particular units, they are 
not ordinarily assigned thereto, but are distributed by the chief 
umpire so as to cover all ground involved in the exercise. Know- 
ing the plans of the commanders, umpires can be at points of con- 
tact, or where decisions will probably be required, at the proper 
time. 



FIELD MANEUVERS 239 

So far as possible, umpires furnish commanders the informa- 
tion derived in war from the actual flight of the bullets and pro- 
jectiles themselves; for instance, that the troops are under fire 
of a certain kind and volume. With this information the command- 
ers decide upon their own line of action, namely, to deploy, ad- 
vance, seek cover, fall back, open fire, etc. Umpires, however, are 
careful to give no information that troops could not obtain in ac- 
tual warfare. At important epochs during a maneuver, umpires 
note on their maps the positions of the troops under their obser- 
vation. 

When a commander receives information from an umpire 
which, in the opinion of the latter, should cause a change of for- 
mation, position, or action of the troops, and the commander does 
not voluntarily make a change, the umpire renders a decision 
which causes the troops to do what the umpire thinks they ac- 
tually would do in war under the circumstances. 

The work of umpires is intended to supply, as far as prac- 
ticable, the impressions and effects of actual war. Their decisions 
take the place of bullets and other projectiles, and prevent un- 
natural or impossible situations. As a rule, maneuver exercises 
tend to develop too rapidly. This tendency is counteracted by the 
decisions which produce the delays incident to war. In this man- 
ner exercises are logically developed and the creation of false im- 
pressions is prevented. 

In addition, umpires note the leadership and conduct of 
troops, and thereby enable the chief umpire to call attention to 
the same at the subsequent discussion and in his final report. 

Umpires give prompt and definite decisions and see that they 
are carried out. When several umpires meet, the senior announces 
the decision. If an umpire concludes from further information 
that he has made an erroneous decision, he so reports to the chief 
umpire at the earliest practicable moment. 

The orders of an umpire to troops are given, when prac- 
ticable, through their commander. 

The chief umpire usually assembles the umpires on the aft- 
ernoon or evening preceding an exercise, furnishes them copies 
of the problem, and gives the necessary instructions. At the close 
of an exercise he may assemble them to compare data, receive 
criticisms, and decide disputed points, or he may require them to 
submit written reports of their observations and the actions. 

In maneuvers of considerable magnitude the position of the 
chief umpire is usually indicated by a white flag with a diagonal 
red cross. 

When practicable, signals to troops and umpires are com- 
municated by means of a balloon. Notice to commence, suspend, or 
16 



240 MILITARY TRAINING 

cease operations, etc., may be given by the use of bombs or rockets; 
in the absence of other means the trumpet is used. 

When the chief umpire makes use of the trumpet the signal 
Attention is sounded by his order only, and is used as follows: 

"Attention, cease firing, attention" — all firing ceases and all 
troops halt in their places. "Attention, commence firing, atten- 
tion" — operations are resumed. "Attention, recall, attention"-— 
troops return to their respective camps or bivouacs. 

Officers commanding troops cause the chief umpire's calls 
to be repeated, but no trumpeter repeats these calls without an 
order from an officer. 

To control the exercise in particular localities, umpires may 
make use of whistle signals. Such signals are obeyed by the 
troops in hearing, but are not repeated in other parts of the 
field. 

At the close of an exercise the chief umpire prepares data 
for the subsequent discussion. At the close of the maneuvers he 
prepares such report as the commander may require. 

DISCUSSIONS 

After the conclusion of an exercise in which the whole or 
a large part of the command has participated, the officers con- 
cerned are assembled, weather permitting, for the purpose of dis- 
cussing the tactical and other military features involved. At such 
discussions the commander of maneuvers, or some officer desig- 
nated by him, presides. The discussion is opened by the chief 
umpire, who reads the general and special situations, gives an 
outline of the exercise as it actually developed, and offers such 
criticisms and comments as he deems desirable. The commanders 
of the opposing forces are then called upon to read or state 
the orders issued by them, and to give their reason therefor. 
The discussion is then made general. 

During the discussion assistant umpires, when called upon 
by the commander of maneuvers or the chief umpire, describe 
the movements and action of the troops that came under their 
observation, but make no criticism in regard thereto. 

When the troops are located in two camps and it is not 
practicable, after a combined maneuver, to assemble the officers 
at one place, a discussion is held in each camp, an umpire detailed 
to perform the duties of chief umpire in the latter's absence, the 
camp commander presiding when the commander of maneuvers is 
not present. 

Criticisms must be entirely free from remarks having a 
personal bearing, individuals being referred to by their official 



FIELD MANEUVERS 241 

titles and not by name. When errors are pointed out by the 
chief umpire, he indicates the course of action which, in his 
opinion, would have been proper under the circumstances. 

Discussions are regarded as confidential, and no person not 
on duty with the troops, or serving as umpire, is allowed to attend 
unless invited by the commander of maneuvers. 

Where, for purposes of instruction, smaller exercises are 
held, an officer is assigned as chief umpire of each, and the dis- 
cussion is held, when practicable, on the ground at the conclusion 
of the exercise, the officers concerned being assembled for that 
purpose. The senior officer presides, and the discussion follows 
the lines indicated above. 



EFFECT OF FIRE— UMPIRES' DECISIONS 

The effect of fire is influenced by so many considerations 
that it is impossible to predict the result with accuracy. 

There are many factors whose effects can not be computed. 
However, by practice in calculating losses in hypothetical cases, 
a knowledge of the principal factors governing the effect of fire 
is obtained, and a faculty acquired of quickly estimating their 
influence or effect upon troops. This faculty umpires are supposed 
to have acquired by previous study and experience. At maneuvers 
there is no time to make complicated calculations or to consult 
a table of losses; the umpires, therefore, decide promptly accord- 
ing to their best judgment. Such decisions are ordinarily as 
follows: 

1. That troops can not continue their march. For instance, 
when in close order they come under a fire which, in war, would 
compel a deployment or change of direction. 

2. That they can not advance for a certain period of time. 
For instance, when advancing more rapidly than they would in 
actual warfare. 

3. That they can not advance at all unless reinforced. 
For instance, when the enemy's fire is so effective that troops 
would probably not advance against it in actual warfare. 

4. That they must retire to a designated point affording 
cover. For instance, when they have been surprised and are 
more or less demoralized, or have been driven from a position, 
or have failed in an attack. 

5. That they can not take the offensive for a stated period. 
For instance, when they have just made an unsuccessful attack, 
suffered heavy losses, or have made an exhausting march at 
double time. 

6. That they must retire from the field for a stated period. 



242 MILITARY TRAINING 

For instance, when a patrol in actual warfare would have been 
annihilated or captured. Umpires seldom rule whole commands 
entirely out of action. 

The decision of umpires are based upon the actual strength 
©f the troops engaged. 

RULES TO ASSIST UMPIRES 

Small Arms. — The efficacy of infantry fire is influenced by 
many circumstances, such as distance and form of the target, 
degree of accuracy in estimating the range, adjustment of sights, 
fire discipline, physical condition of the soldier, etc. 

At ranges from 1,600 to 1,200 yards the well directed and 
controlled fire of a considerable force is very effective against 
stationary targets as large as two companies of infantry in close 
order. 

Under 1,200 yards skirmish lines without cover and under 
effective fire can not continue the advance unless supported by a 
fire superior to that of the enemy. 

Between 1,200 and 900 yards supports or reserves in close 
order without cover can advance, make short halts standing, or 
move* by a flank, only when supported by a fire superior to that 
of the enemy. 

Under 900 yards troops without cover, even though preceded 
by a strong firing line, can move only to the front or rear over 
fire-swept ground. 

Under 600 yards a fire fight without cover must terminate in 
a short time in an assault or a retreat. 

In open country without cover, cavalry mounted should not 
appear in front of unshaken infantry nearer than 1,200 yards, 
unless advancing to the attack in proper formation. 

Mounted patrols should not be ordered to the rear or out of 
action on account of being exposed to long range fire, if they 
adopt suitable formations and gaits to lessen the chances of 
being hit. 

The result of an infantry charge depends upon the effect 
of the preceding infantry and artillery fire, the relative strength 
of the contending forces, nature of. the ground, direction and 
execution of the attack, conduct of the defenders, etc. As the 
losses would probably be severe, the attackers or defenders are 
generally ordered to the rear for a stated period. 

Enfilading fire, or a well directed fire at close range deliv- 
ered as a surprise, is given greatly increased weight. 

The fire of dismounted cavalry is considered as effective as 
that of infantry, but the strength of the unit is reduced at least 



FIELD MANEUVERS 243 

one-fourth on account of the horse holders and guard for the 
led horses. 

Frontal fire of infantry against artillery provided with 
shields has little effect, but a battalion of infantry firing at a 
single battery from a position thirty or more degrees removed 
from the line of fire of the battery, and at a range not exceeding 
1,200 yards, is sufficient to silence the battery. 

At a distance of 1,200 yards or less, favorable conditions, 
such as actual cover, are necessary to enable artillery to limbei 
or unlimber. At less than 1,200 yards it soon loses its mobility. 
If it accompanies infantry in the advance it suffers corresponding 
losses. 

Machine Guns. — The fire of machine guns is affected by the 
following considerations: the suddenness with which it is opened, 
the size and density of the target, the correctness of the sighting 
and the facilities for observing its effects. The well-directed fire 
of machine guns is very effective against bodies of troops in close 
order at ranges under 1,800 yards; it is also effective against 
skirmishers standing — making a continuous advance impracticable. 
With good facilities for observation it is effective against skirmish- 
ers lying down at ranges up to 1,200 yards, but when the facilities 
for observation are not good, skirmishers lying down do not con- 
stitute a favorable target beyond 700 yards. 

Machine gun fire is mechanical infantry fire, of the same 
range as ordinary infantry fire, but capable, in battle, of supplying 
a greater power of resistance and producing a greater ultimate 
effect. 

It has greater moral effect than ordinary infantry fire, 
because of its nerve-racking rattle and quick action upon exposed 
targets. 

Machine guns are untrustworthy and comparatively ineffec- 
tive weapons in the hands of untrained men. 

For all ranges less than 600 yards, 1 machine gun = 16 men; 
for ranges from 600 to 1,200 yards, 1 machine gun = 22 men; for 
ranges above 1,200 yards, long and distance, 1 machine gun = 39 
men. 

At targets and ranges when the lateral dispersion of the 
machine gun is less than the width of the intervals between the 
elements composing the targets, as would be the case if firing 
at a skirmish line with intervals, machine gun fire is much less 
profitable than infantry. 

At targets and ranges when the dispersion of the machine 
gun covers a number of the elements composing the target, the 
fire of one machine gun is superior to the fire of the number of 
rifles it displaces. 

In firing at ranges where it is a question of covering certain 



244 MILITARY TRAINING 

points or defined areas with a beaten zone as in fire of position, 
machine gun fire is greatly superior to infantry fire. 

Artillery. — In judging the effect of artillery fire, the follow- 
ing circumstances must be considered: Whether the artillery has 
opened a sudden and effective fire from a concealed position; 
the number of guns firing upon the same object; the rapidity 
and duration of the fire; the range; the size and formation of the 
objective; whether moving or not; and finally, whether the artil- 
lery itself is under fire. 

A battery opening fire with a knowledge of the range gained 
from another battery already in action, is assumed to begin effec- 
tive fire with the first shot; otherwise the time for finding the 
range must be considered. This time varies with the range, the 
difficulties of observation, and the degree of training of the 
battery, but in ordinary cases, at ranges above 2,000 yards, is not 
less than two minutes, reckoned from the first shot. 

At a distance of about 3,500 yards, artillery which has found 
the range can make it difficult, and in some cases impossible, for 
even a superior opposing force of artillery to unlimber. Artillery, 
unless it is much superior in strength, can rarely produce an 
effect on opposing artillery at distances over 3,500 yards without 
the co-operation of other arms. 

At ranges less than 3,000 yards a slight superiority makes 
itself felt. Enfilade fire from artillery is much more effective than 
frontal fire. 

In the face of a well sustained and properly directed artil- 
lery fire at distances of 3,500 yards or less, infantry must deploy 
and move at a rapid gait. At ranges less than 2,500 yards infantry 
can move only in line of skirmishers and then only to the front 
and rear. This rule is modified according to the cover afforded 
by the ground and the relative size of the forces. 

Indirect fire is generally not effective against bodies of 
cavalry smaller than a squadron and moving at a trot. 

Attack by Cavalry Mounted. — The rapid course of a cav- 
alry attack renders correct decisions difficult. The umpire should 
be on hand to observe the advance, the deploying, the execution 
of the attack, and the strength of the opposing forces. 

Mounted cavalry receiving a charge at a halt is declared 
defeated. 

A cavalry force charged while in the act of deployment, 
or struck in flank, is declared defeated even if numerically some- 
what superior. 

In the attack on cavalry it is of less importance to pass over 
long distances rapidly than to deliver the shock with cohesion and 
force. Envelopment of a flank greatly increases the efficacy of the 
attack. 



FIELD MANEUVERS 245 

When two cavalry forces of equal strength and proper 
formation meet in mounted action, the victory would probably 
fall to the side bringing up the last formed reserve. 

In the combat of cavalry against cavalry the defeated force 
is required to retire 300 yards before the victor is allowed to 
pursue. The latter may then assemble his forces or continue the 
pursuit with the force available, preserving a distance of at least 
100 yards. The defeated force continues to retreat before an 
effective pursuit without assembling, unless support is received. 
The umpire prevents a long pursuit and may rule the defeated 
force out of action for a stated period. 

Against demoralized or badly shaken infantry, a cavalry 
attack can dispense with deep formations, and comparatively 
small bodies may do effective work. 

Against unshaken infantry favorable conditions are neces- 
sary to give a probability of success; for example, cover while 
approaching, favorable ground, surprise, attack against a flank 
or while the infantry is changing formation. The cavalry must be 
in deep formation and cross the fire swept zone at a rapid gait. 
Great losses to the cavalry are to be expected in such attacks. 

Artillery in motion is considered helpless against a cavalry 
attack, unless protected by other troops. Artillery in action is 
most vulnerable on an unsupported flank. Frontal attack against 
artillery and machine guns requires favorable ground, skillful 
handling, and an adequate force; the losses would probably be 
heavy. 

Should the cavalry succeed in reaching the artillery, the 
result would still depend upon their ability to disable or carry 
off the pieces, or to secure the victory in some other way. 

CONDUCT OF TACTICAL EXERCISES 

Maps of the maneuver district are issued to troops on or 
before their arrival at the maneuver grounds. 

The commander of maneuvers issues the necessary orders to 
secure compliance with the program of instruction. Problems 
are given out in time to enable commanders to estimate the 
situation and prepare their initial orders. This time should vary 
so as to introduce the feature of sudden encounters, and compel 
commanders to render quick decisions. 

The commanders of the opposing forces are guided by the 
general and special situations and instructions received by them. 
They issue orders as in campaign, and furnish the chief umpire, 
before each exercise, a copy of their initial orders. They also 
furnish the umpire accompanying them a copy or statement of all 



246 MILITARY TRAINING 

orders and instructions subsequently issued by them. Com- 
manders explain their intentions to umpires when requested by 
the latter. 

It is the duty of commanders of units to take cognizance 
of the fire of their opponents and govern themselves accordingly. 
It is especially necessary to counteract the tendency to disregard 
long range artillery and infantry fire, so difficult to appreciate at 
maneuvers. 

When not actually constructed, intrenchments, gun pits, 
obstacles, and the demolition of bridges, loopholing of walls, etc., 
are outlined or indicated. The position of intrenchments is indi- 
cated by small flags — blue for the Blue army and red for the 
Red army. The destruction of bridges, etc., is indicated by 
suitable inscriptions, the time of destruction being stated. When 
the construction of works or demolitions is assumed, the com- 
mander informs the nearest umpire, who decides how much of the 
work could have been done with the means and in the time avail- 
able, and causes proper notice to be taken by the opponent. 
Claims for the construction of works or for demolitions are not 
allowed unless the necessary tools, material, and troops have 
actually been available for such work. 

Officers under no circumstances dispute with an umpire at 
the time a decision is given. Should a decision be deemed errone- 
ous, officers may, after the close of the exercise, make an appeal 
in writing, setting forth the facts as they appear to them. It 
must be remembered, however, that the decision of an umpire is 
rendered in accordance with his best judgment, and though the 
decision may appear wrong, the outcome in actual combat, due to 
the element of chance in war, might have been as he decided. 

During pauses ordered by the commander of maneuvers or 
the umpires, a complete standstill in the operations is required; 
messages must not be sent, orders issued, or the positions of 
troops changed. 

When important decisions are rendered, commanders at 
once notify their superiors and the commanders of adjoining 
troops. 

Umpiring. — In a combat exercise the problem is drawn so 
as to cause the exercise to develop within the limits represented 
on the chief umpire's map. The chief umpire assigns or distributes 
his assistants as he deems advisable, and causes them to make as 
careful a study of the ground and map as time permits. One 
umpire is assigned to accompany each of the supreme command- 
ers. For convenience these two umpires are referred to respec- 
tively as the senior umpire, Blues, and the senior umpire, Reds. 

At the proper time the chief umpire establishes his head- 
quarters at some central or convenient point (central station) and 



FIELD MANEUVERS 247 

opens communication with the senior umpires. The latter estab- 
lish communication with their assistants who report the progress 
of events in their parts of the field. By this means the plans of 
commanders, locations and movements of troops, targets and 
character of fire, etc., can be forwarded to the central station, 
and, when necessary, passed on to the opposite side to enable the 
local umpires to impart proper information to the troops and to 
render logical decisions. 

In extensive maneuvers where signal troops are available, 
information between the umpires may be transmitted as follows: 

A line is established connecting the central station with the 
senior umpires on each side; communication between the senior 
umpires and their assistants is maintained by messenger service 
and by using the signal lines established between the supreme 
commanders and the principal fractions of their commands (for 
instance, in case of attack, connecting headquarters with the 
artillery, the main and secondary attacks and with the reserve); 
the umpires use the nearest signal stations, or send information 
by messenger. Messengers are used to supplement the wire 
service. For short distances or where long orders or messages are 
sent, information is generally carried by messenger. For instance, 
at urgent speed and for distances up to about half a mile, a 
mounted messenger can deliver a message of ten words in less 
time than it can be delivered by wire. 

If an assistant umpire can send a message more easily to 
the central station than to his senior umpire, he does so. As the 
troops approach more closely, assistant umpires may be able to 
"cross over," or communicate more easily with the opposing side 
than through the central stations, but important decisions made 
under such circumstances must be promptly reported to the 
central station. 

At the central station the chief umpire is assisted by a 
typewriter and three officers, one to keep a record of events, the 
others to assist in receiving and sending messages, and in follow- 
ing the progress of events on the map, which is done by means of 
"troop signs." The chief umpire is not necessarily confined to 
the central station, but goes wherever he deems his presence 
necessary, the work at the central station being carried on by his 
assistants. 

Due to the fact that umpires are required to use the lines 
of information established by the opposing forces, troops are 
forbidden to cut signal wires unless authorized to do so by the 
commander of maneuvers. Umpires, however, make the proper 
rulings in regard to lines captured or "destroyed." All umpires' 
messages are confidential. 

When signal troops are used, the central station should be 



248 MILITARY TRAINING 

provided with two mounted or cyclist orderlies, and each senior 
and assistant umpire with one mounted orderly. Without signal 
troops these numbers should be doubled. The central station is 
also provided with a light wagon for use in case a change of posi- 
tion becomes necessary. 

By this method of umpiring, troops are informed of the kind, 
volume and direction of fire to which they are subjected (informa- 
tion acquired in war from the projectiles themselves), their com- 
manders given an opportunity to make the necessary dispositions, 
and the umpire enabled to render intelligent decisions. 

Ammunition. — The supply of ammunition is usually limited, 
and it often happens that firing ceases because the supply is 
exhausted. In such cases the troops simulate firing, and the 
opposing troops are notified through the umpires that firing of a 
certain character and volume continues. When ammunition is 
limited the time of actual firing may be prolonged by permitting 
only a fraction of the troops engaged to fire at a time, for instance, 
one man in four. In such cases it is assumed that all of the 
troops concerned are engaged. 

Unless contrary orders are given by the commander of 
maneuvers, all troops march fully armed and equipped — except 
as to ammunition. Blank ammunition only is carried, the number 
of rounds being regulated in orders. It is of such great import- 
ance, however, to accustom troops to the amount of ammunition 
used in war, to instruct officers in regulating its expenditure, and 
to solve practically the problem of ammunition supply, some, 
at least, of the tactical exercises should be conducted with the full 
service allowance of cartridges. 

Before leaving the camp or bivouac, an inspection is made 
to ascertain that no ball cartridges are carried. These inspections 
are made by officers and reports thereof are made to the senior 
umpires on each side. All members, of a command taking part 
in, or attending a field exercise, are forbidden to carry on their 
persons, or horses, or with field pieces, caissons, or other means 
of transportation, fixed ammunition or ball cartridges of any 
kind whatever. No weapons, other than those constituting part 
of the regulation equipment of officers and men, are carried. 

Contact. — The actual collision of opposing forces must be 
prevented, commanders of units being held responsible. When the 
combat reaches the stage just preceding the crisis, the commander 
of maneuvers or the chief umpire gives the signal for suspension 
of operation, and the relative numbers and positions of the con- 
tending forces are carefully noted. The chief umpire or com- 
mander of maneuvers then decides whether to continue the exer- 
cise or not. If continued one or both of the opposing forces may 
be required to withdraw to a suitable distance before hostilities 



FIELD MANEUVERS 249 

are resumed. Local combats are similarly controlled by the local 
umpires. 

Firing by opposing parties is discontinued when they arrive 
within 100 yards of each other, and the umpires then make a 
decision. Usually a definite decision is reached before the troops 
come to such close contact. When, as a result of close contact 
in wooded country, the opposing forces are intermingled or the 
troops out of hand, it may be advisable for the umpires to order 
a suspension of operations until the lines are reestablished. 

Should a force succeed in approaching within 100 yards of 
another without being discovered, captures may be made by 
giving the command "Halt, surrender." The umpire considers the 
strength of the opposing forces, the nature of the ground, and 
other circumstances, and decides whether actual capture was 
possible. 

Commanders of opposing dismounted forces approaching 
within 100 yards of each other, in the absence of umpires, order 
firing to cease, halt their men and direct them to hold their rifles 
vertically, butt uppermost, as a signal that the decision of an 
umpire is awaited. Troops in this situation must not be attacked. 

Cavalry charges against dismounted troops must be brought 
to a full stop at 100 yards from the troops attacked. Against 
mounted troops the charge stops at 50 yards; in the charge as 
foragers cavalry is permitted to ride up to and through wagon 
trains and batteries not firing, but no revolver firing is permitted 
at less than 50 yards. 

When patrols of equal strength meet, the umpire decides 
which has the advantage and causes the other to withdraw. If a 
patrol meets a stronger force, it retires unless the umpire decides 
that superior leading entitles it to advance,, in which case the 
other force retires to the distance prescribed by the umpire. 

An individual, mounted or dismounted, when halted and 
called upon to surrender, or when fired upon, by two or more 
dismounted men at a distance of 100 yards or less, gives himself 
up. The same rule applies up to 150 yards for an individual fired 
upon while at a halt and in good view. In the case of moving 
individuals, mounted or dismounted, at a distance greater than 
100 yards, the umpire decides according to the amount of fire 
and other circumstances. 

Mounted men who find their retreat cut off by superior 
numbers of mounted opponents, surrender when it is evident that 
they can not escape without being closely pursued. 

In all exercises the greatest attention is given to fire dis- 
cipline. Violation of the rules and a waste of ammunition is the 
subject of unfavorable report by the umpires. 

An effective method of conducting a maneuver or combat 



250 MILITARY TRAINING 

exercise is to outline the enemy with a few men equipped with 
flags. The umpire or inspector states the situation, and the com- 
mander leads his troops with due regard to the assumptions made. 
Changes in situation, the results of reconnaissance, the character 
of artillery fire, etc., are made known to the commander when 
necessary by the umpire or inspector, who, in order to observe 
and influence the conduct of the exercise, remains in rear of the 
firing line. From this position he indicates, with the aid of pre- 
arranged signals, the character of the fire and movements of the 
hostile infantry. These signals are intended for the men outlining 
the enemy. These men repeat the signals; all the officers and men 
engaged in the exercise and in sight of the outlined enemy are 
thus informed of the enemy's action, and the exercise is con- 
ducted accordingly. An outlined enemy may be made to attack 
or defend. 

Recall. — Exercises are terminated by the proper signal from 
the commander of maneuvers or the chief umpire. The troops 
then return to their camps or bivouacs. At the conclusion of an 
exercise the commanders of the opposing forces submit such 
data to the chief umpire as the latter may require for the subse- 
quent discussion and for his final report. 

PRIVATE PROPERTY 

There must be no firing in the immediate vicinity of houses, 
barns, haystacks, ricks of fodder, etc. No camps or bivouacs are 
established in orchards, parks, or fields under cultivation, without 
the owner's consent. 

Troops at maneuvers confine themselves to the maneuver 
grounds; they do not enter houses or other buildings, yards, 
gardens, lawns, tobacco fields, vineyards, nurseries, or orchards in 
fruit season, without the owner's consent. Other fields or grounds 
from which troops are excluded are marked by white flags. 
Marching troops not engaged in tactical exercises confine them- 
selves to the public roads. 

Officers and non-commissioned officers on duty with troops 
and umpires prevent unnecessary injury to property. 

They are held responsible for wanton damage committed in 
their presence. Offenders are immediately placed under guard and 
brought to trial. In all cases of depredation or wanton damage, 
boards of officers are appointed by the commanding officer to 
assess damages. 

MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS 

The chief surgeon, under the direction of the commander of 
maneuvers, supervises the hygiene of the maneuver camps. Under 



FIELD MANEUVERS 251 

nis charge daily sanitary inspections are made; if faults are found 
the attention of regimental commanders is called to them, and 
the necessary steps are taken by the latter for their correction. 
Any failure to remedy unsanitary conditions is reported to tho 
commander of maneuvers. All drinking water on the maneuver 
ground is examined and marked "good" or "bad" before the 
exercises begin. 

When necessary a provost marshal with a suitable mounted 
force is detailed to act as police during the exercises. It is the 
duty of the marshal to see that spectators are directed to points 
affording good view, and that they do not interfere with the 
exercise or damage property. Spectators are requested not to 
precede the advance guard of either force, nor gather in positions 
liable to mislead the combatants. 

Military attaches, duly accredited military and naval observ- 
ers from foreign countries, and from the organized militia, and 
officers of the Regular Army attending the maneuvers in an 
official capacity, either accompany the commander of maneuvers 
or are otherwise suitably disposed of. Such persons wear a broad 
white band on the right arm above the elbow. 

Military attaches and duly accredited military or naval 
observers are provided with suitable mounts and orderlies and 
an officer is detailed to see that they are properly cared for. They 
are furnished with such shelter, messing facilities, transportation 
and information as the commander of maneuvers directs, and are 
saluted and accorded the honors due their rank. 

Properly accredited correspondents of newspapers and other 
publications accompanying United States troops in the field or 
attending maneuvers, are afforded information and other facilities 
not inconsistent with the success of the operations. Such corre- 
spondents wear a red band on the right arm above the elbow. 



CHAPTER X 

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS AS 

APPLIED TO INFANTRY AND TO 

SPECIAL UNITS 

Modern combat demands the highest order of training, dis- 
cipline, leadership and morale on the part of the infantry. Com- 
plicated maneuvers are impracticable; efficient leadership and a 
determination to win by simple and direct methods must be de- 
pended upon for success. 

The duties of infantry are many and difficult. All infantry 
must be fit to cope with all conditions that may arise. Modern 
war requires but one kind of infantry — good infantry. 

The infantry must take the offensive to gain decisive results. 
Both sides are therefore likely to attempt it, though not necessarily 
at the same time or in the same part of a long battle line. 

In the local combats which make up the general battle the 
better endurance, use of ground, fire efficiency, discipline and 
training will win. It is the duty of the infantry to win the local 
successes which enable the commanding general to win the battle. 

The infantry must have the tenacity to hold every advantage 
gained, the individual and collective discipline and skill needed to 
master the enemy's fire, the determination to close with the enemy 
in attack, and to meet him with the bayonet in defense. Infantry 
must be trained to bear the heaviest burdens and losses, both of 
combat and march. Good infantry can defeat an enemy greatly 
superior in numbers, but lacking in training, discipline, leadership 
and morale. 

It is impossible to establish fixed forms or to give general 
instructions that will cover all cases. Officers and non-commis- 
sioned officers must be so trained that they can apply suitable 
means and methods to each case as it arises. Study and practice 
are necessary to acquire proper facility in this respect. Theoreti- 
cal instruction can not replace practical instruction; the former 
supplies correct ideas and gives to practical work an interest, pur- 
pose and definiteness not otherwise obtainable. 

After the mechanism of extended order drill has been learned 
with precision in the company, every exercise should be, as far 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 253 

as practicable, in the nature of a maneuver (combat exercise) 
against an imaginary; outlined or represented enemy. Company 
extended order drill may be conducted without reference to a 
tactical situation, but a combat exercise, whatever may be the size 
of the unit employed, should be conducted under an assumed 
tactical situation. 

An effective method of conducting a combat exercise is to 
outline the enemy with a few men equipped with flags. The 
umpire or inspector states the situation and the commander leads 
his troops with due regard to the assumptions made. 

Changes in the situation, the results of reconnaissance, the 
character of artillery fire, etc., are made known to the commander 
when necessary by the umpire or inspector, who, in order to ob- 
serve and influence the conduct of the exercise, remains in rear of 
the firing line. From this position he indicates, with the aid of 
prearranged signals, the character of the fire and movements of 
the hostile infantry. These signals are intended for the men out- 
lining the enemy. These men repeat the signals; all officers and 
men engaged in the exercise and in sight of the outlined enemy are 
thus informed of the enemy's action and the exercise is conducted 
accordingly. 

Assistant umpires, about one for each company in the firing 
line, may assist in indicating hostile fire and movements and in ob- 
serving the conduct of the exercise. An outlined enemy may be 
made to attack or defend. 

Situations should be simple and natural. During or after the 
exercise the umpire or inspector should call attention to any im- 
proper movements or incorrect methods of execution. He pro- 
hibits all movements of troops or individuals that would be im- 
possible if the enemy were real. The slow progress of events to 
be expected on the battle field can hardly be simulated, but the 
umpire or inspector prevents undue haste and attempts to enforce 
a reasonably slow rate of progress. 

The same exercise should not be repeated over the same 
ground and under the same situation. Such repetitions lead to the 
adoption of a fixed mode of attack or defense and develop mere 
drill masters. Fixed or prearranged systems are prohibited. 

LEADERSHIP 

The art of leadership consists of applying sound tactical 
principles to concrete cases on the battle field. Self-reliance, ini- 
tiative, aggressiveness and a conception of teamwork are the funda- 
mental characteristics of successful leadership. 

A correct grasp of the situation and a definite plan of action 



254 MILITARY TRAINING 

form the soundest basis for a successful combat. A good plan 
once adopted and put into execution should not be abandoned 
unless it becomes clear that it can not succeed. Afterthoughts are 
dangerous, except as they aid in the execution of details in the 
original plan. 

Combats that do not promise success or some real ad- 
vantage to the general issue should be avoided; they cause un- 
necessary losses, impair the morale of one's own troops and raise 
that of the enemy. 

Complicated maneuvers are not likely to succeed in war. 
All plans artd the methods adopted for carrying them into effect 
must be simple and direct. 

Order and cohesion must be maintained within the units if 
success is to be expected. 

Officers must show themselves to be true leaders. They 
must act in accordance with the spirit of their orders and must 
require of their troops the strictest discipline on the field of battle. 

The best results are obtained when leaders know the ca- 
pacity and traits of those whom they command; hence in making 
detachments units should not be broken up, and a deployment that 
would cause an intermingling of the larger units in the firing line 
should be avoided. 

Leading is difficult whejn troops are deployed. A high de- 
gree of training and discipline and the use of close order forma- 
tions to the fullest extent possible are therefore required. 

In order to lighten the severe physical strain inseparable 
from infantry service in campaign, constant efforts must be made 
to spare the troops unnecessary hardship and fatigue; but when 
necessity arises, the limit of endurance must be exacted. 

When officers or men belonging to fighting troops leave 
their proper places to carry back, or to care for, wounded during 
the progress of the action, they are guilty of skulking. This of- 
fense must be repressed with the utmost vigor. 

The complete equipment of the soldier is carried into ac- 
tion unless the weather or physical condition of the men renders 
such measure a severe hardship. In any event, only the pack will 
be laid aside. The determination of this question rests with the 
regimental commander. The complete equipment affords to men 
lying prone considerable protection against shrapnel. 

The post of the commander must be such as will enable him 
to observe the progress of events and to communicate his orders. 
Subordinate commanders, in addition, must be in position to trans- 
mit the orders of superiors. Before entering an action the com- 
mander should be as far to the front as possible in order that he 
personally may see the situation, order the deployment and begin 
the action strictly in accordance with his own wishes. During the 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 255 

action, he must, as a rule, leave to the local leaders the detailed 
conduct of the firing line, posting himself either with his own 
reserve or in such a position that he is in constant, direct and easy 
communication with it. A commander takes ^ull and direct 
charge of his firing line only when the line has absorbed his whole 
command. When their troops are victorious all commanders 
should press forward in order to clinch the advantage gained and 
to use their reserves to the best advantage. 

The latitude allowed to officers is in direct proportion to the 
size of their commands. Each should see to the general execution 
of his task, leaving to the proper subordinates the supervision of 
details and interfering only when mistakes are made that threaten 
to seriously prejudice the general plan. 

TEAMWORK 

The comparatively wide fronts of deployed units increase 
the difficulties of control. Subordinates must therefore be given 
great latitdude in the execution of their tasks. The success of the 
whole depends largely upon how well each subordinate co- 
ordinates his work with the general plan. A great responsibility 
is necessarily thrown upon subordinates, but responsibility stimu- 
lates the right kind of an officer. 

In a given situation it is far better to do any intelligent thing 
consistent with the aggressive execution of the general plan than 
to search hesitatingly for the ideal. This is the true rule of con- 
duct for subordinates who are required to act upon their own 
initiative. A subordinate who is reasonably sure that his intended 
action is such as would be ordered by the commander, were the 
latter present and in possession of the facts, has enough encour- 
agement to go ahead confidently. He must possess the loyalty to 
carry out the plans of his superior and the keenness to recognize 
and to seize opportunities to further the general plan. 

Independence must not become license. Regardless of the 
number of subordinates who are apparently supreme in their own 
restricted spheres, there is but one battle and but one supreme 
will to which all must conform. Every subordinate must therefore 
work for the general result. He does all in his power to insure 
co-operation between the subdivisions under his command. He 
transmits important information to adjoining units or to superiors 
in rear and, with the assistance of information received, keeps 
himself and his subordinates duly posted as to the situation. 

When circumstances render it impracticable to consult the 
authority issuing an order, officers should not hesitate to vary 
from such order when it is clearly based upon an incorrect view of 
the situation, is impossible of execution or has been rendered im- 



256 MILITARY TRAINING 

practicable on account of changes which have occurred since its 
promulgation. In the application of this rule the responsibility for 
mistakes rests upon the subordinate, but unwillingness to assume 
responsibility on proper occasions is indicative of weakness. Su- 
periors should be careful not to censure an apparent disobedience 
where the act was done in the proper spirit and to advance the 
general plan. 

When the men of two or more units intermingle in the firing 
line, all officers and men submit at once to the senior. Officers and 
platoon guides seek to fill vacancies caused by casualties. Each 
seizes any opportunity to exercise the functions consistent with 
his grade, and all assist in the maintenance of order and control. 
Every lull in the action should be utilized for as complete restora- 
tion of order in the firing line as the ground or other conditions 
permit. 

Any officer or non-commissioned officer who becomes sepa- 
rated from his proper unit and can not rejoin must at once place 
himself and his command at the disposal of the nearest higher 
commander. Anyone having completed an assigned task must 
seek to rejoin his proper command. Failing in this, he should join 
the nearest troops engaged with the enemy. 

Soldiers are taught the necessity of remaining with their 
companies, but those who become detached must join the nearest 
company and serve with it until the battle is over or reorganization 
is ordered. 

COMMUNICATION 

Communication is maintained by means of staff officers, 
messengers, relay systems, connecting files, visual signals, tele- 
graph or telephone. 

The signal corps troops of the division establish lines of in- 
formation from division to brigade headquarters. The further ex- 
tension of lines of information in combat by signal troops is ex- 
ceptional. 

Each regiment, employing its own personnel, is responsible 
for the maintenance of communication from the colonel back to 
the brigade and forward to the battalions. For this purpose the 
regiment uses the various means which may be furnished it. The 
staff and orderlies, regimental and battalion, are practiced in the 
use of these means and in messenger service. Orderlies carry 
signal flags. 

Connection between the firing line and the major or colonel 
is practically limited to the prescribed flag, arm and bugle signals. 
Other means can only be supplemental. Company musicians carry 
company flags and are practiced in signaling. 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 257 

The artillery generally communicates with the firing line by 
means of its own staff officers or through an agent who accom- 
panies some unit in or near the front. The infantry keeps him 
informed as to the situation and affords him any reasonable as- 
sistance. When the infantry is dependent upon the artillery for 
fire support, perfect co-ordination through this representative 
is of great importance. 

COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE 

Combat reconnaissance is of vital importance and must not 
be neglected. By proper preliminary reconnaissance, deployments 
on wrong lines, or in a wrong direction, and surpises may gener- 
ally be prevented. 

Troops deployed and under fire can not change front and 
thus they suffer greatly when enfiladed. Troops in close order 
formation may suffer heavy losses in a short time if subjected to 
hostile fire. In both formations troops must be protected by 
proper reconnaissance and warning. 

The difficulty of reconnaissance increases in proportion to 
the measures adopted by the enemy to screen himself. The 
strength of the reconnoitering party is determined by the char- 
acter of the information desired and the nature of the hostile 
screen. In exceptional cases as much as a battalion may be nec- 
essary in order to break through the hostile screen and enable the 
commander or officer in charge to reconnoiter in person. A large 
reconnoitering party is conducted so as to open the way for small 
patrols, to serve as a supporting force or rallying point for them, 
and to receive and transmit information. Such parties maintain 
signal communication with the main body if practicable. 

Each separate column moving forward to deploy must recon- 
noiter to its front and flank and keep in touch with adjoining 
columns. The extent of the reconnaissance to the flank depends 
upon the isolation of the columns. 

Before an attack a reconnaissance must be made to deter- 
mine the enemy's position, the location of his flanks, the character 
of the terrain, the nature of the hostile field works, etc., in order 
to prevent premature deployment and the resulting fatigue and loss 
of time. It will frequently be necessary to send forward a thin 
skirmish line in order to induce the enemy to open fire and reveal 
his position. 

It will frequently be impossible to obtain satisfactory infor- 
mation until after the action has begun. The delay that may be 
warranted for the purpose of reconnaissance depends upon the 
nature of the attack and the necessity for promptness. For ex- 
ample, in a meeting engagement, and sometimes in a holding at- 



258 MILITARY TRAINING 

tack, the reconnaissance may have to be hasty and superficial, 
whereas in an attack against an enemy carefully prepared for de- 
fense there will generally be both time and necessity for thorough 
reconnaissance. 

In defense, reconnaissance must be kept up to determine 
the enemy's line of advance, to ascertain his dispositions, to pre- 
vent his reconnaissance, etc. Patrols or parties posted to prevent 
hostile reconnaissance should relieve the main body of the neces- 
sity of betraying its position by firing on small bodies of the 
enemy. 

Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. A firing 
or skirmish line can take care of its front, but its flanks are es- 
pecially vulnerable to modern firearms. The moral effect of flank- 
ing fire is as great as the physical effect. Hence, combat patrols 
to give warning or covering detachments to give security are in- 
dispensable on exposed flanks. This is equally true in attack or 
defense. 

The fact that cavalry patrols are known to be posted in 
a certain direction does not relieve infantry commanders of the 
responsibility for reconnaissance and security. To be surprised 
by an enemy at short range is an unpardonable offense. 

The commander of a battalion on a flank of a general line 
invariably provides for the necessary reconnaissance and security 
on that flank unless higher authority has specifically ordered it. 
In any event, he sends out combat patrols as needed. Where his 
battalion is on a flank of one section of the line and a considerable 
interval lies between his battalion and the next section, he makes 
similar provision. 

Battalion commanders in the first line establish patrols to 
observe and report the progress or conduct of adjoining troops 
when these can not be seen. 

FIRE SUPERIORITY 

In a decisive battle success depends on gaining and main- 
taining fire superiority. Every effort must be made to gain it 
«arly and then to keep it. Attacking troops must first gain fire 
superiority in order to reach the hostile position. Over open 
ground attack is possible only when the attacking force has a de- 
cided fire superiority. With such superiority the attack is not only 
possible, but success is probable and without ruinous losses. De- 
fending troops can prevent a charge only when they can master 
the enemy's fire and inflict heavy losses upon him. 

To obtain fire superiority it is necessary to produce a heavy 
volume of accurate fire. Every increase in the effectiveness of 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 259 

the fire means a corresponding decrease in the effectiveness of 
the enemy's fire. 

The volume and accuracy of fire depends upon several con- 
siderations: 

1. The number of rifles employed. On a given front the 
greatest volume of fire is produced by a firing line having only 
sufficient intervals between men to permit the free use of their 
rifles. The maximum density of a firing line is therefore about 
one man per yard of front. 

2. The rate of fire affects its volume; an excessive rate 
reduces its accuracy. 

3. The character of the target influences both volume and 
accuracy. Larger dimensions, greater visibility, and shorter range 
increase the rate of fire; greater density increases the effect. 

4. Training and discipline have an important bearing on 
the rate or volume of fire, but their greatest influence is upon 
accuracy. The firing efficiency of troops is reduced by fatigue and 
adverse psychological influences. 

5. Fire direction and control improve collective accuracy. 
The importance of fire direction increases rapidly with the range 
Control exerts a powerful influence at all ranges. 

FIRE DIRECTION AND CONTROL 

Beyond effective ranges important results can be expected 
only when the target is large and distinct and much ammuni- 
tion is used. Long-range fire is permissible in pursuit on account 
of the moral effect of any fire under the circumstances. At other 
times such fire is of doubtful value. 

In attack, the desire to open fire when losses are first felt 
must be repressed. Considerations of time, target, ammunition 
and morale make it imperative that the attack withhold its fire 
and press forward to a first firing position close to the enemy. 
The attacker's target is smaller and fainter than the one he 
presents to the enemy. 

In defense, more ammunition is available, ranges are more 
easily determined, and the enemy usually presents a larger target. 
The defender may therefore open fire and expect results at longer 
ranges than the attacker, and particularly if the defenders intend 
a delaying action only. 

If the enemy has a powerful artillery, it will often be best 
for the defending infantry to withhold its fire until the enemy 
offers a specially favorable target. Vigorous and well-directed 
bursts of fire are then employed. The troops should therefore be 
given as much artificial protection as time and means permit, and at 



260 MILITARY TRAINING 

an agreed signal expose themselves as much as necessary and 
open fire. 

In unexpected,, close encounters a great advantage accrues 
to the side which first opens rapid and accurate fire with battle 
sight. 

USE OF GROUND 

The position of the firers must afford a suitable field of fire. 
The ground should permit constant observation of the enemy, and 
yet enable the men to secure some cover when not actually 
firing. Troops whose target is for the moment hidden by un- 
favorable ground, either move forward to better the ground or 
seek to execute cross fire on another target. 

The likelihood of a target being hit depends to a great ex- 
tent upon its visibility. By skillful use of ground, a firing line 
may reduce its visibility without loss of fire power. Sky lines 
are particularly to be avoided. 

CHOICE OF TARGET 

The target chosen should be the hostile troops most dan- 
gerous to the firers. These will usually be the nearest hostile 
infantry. When no target is specially dangerous, that one should 
be chosen which promises the most hits. 

Frequent changes of target impair the fire effect. Random 
changes to small, unimportant targets impair fire discipline and 
accomplish nothing. Attention should be confined to the main 
target until substantial reason for change is apparent. 

An opportunity to deliver flanking fire, especially against 
artillery protected in front by. shields, is an example warranting 
change of target and should never be overlooked. Such fire 
demoralizes the troops subjected to it, even if the losses inflicted 
are small. In this manner a relatively small number of rifles 
can produce important results. 

THE RANGE 

Beyond close range, the correct setting of the rear sight 
is of primary importance, provided the troops are trained and 
well in hand. The necessity for correct sight setting increases 
rapidly with the range. Its importance decreases as the quality 
of the troops decrease, for the error in sight setting, except pos- 
sibly at very long ranges,, becomes unimportant when compared 
with the error in holding and aiming. 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 261 

In attack, distances must usually be estimated and cor- 
rections made as errors are observed. Mechanical range finders 
and ranging volleys are practicable at times. In defense, it is 
generally practicable to measure more accurately the distances 
to visible objects and to keep a record of them for future use. 

DISTRIBUTION OF FIRE AND TARGET 

The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever 
possible, but at all events to keep down the enemy's fire and 
render it harmless. To accomplish this the target must be cov- 
ered with fire throughout its whole extent. Troops who are not 
fired upon will fire with nearly peace-time accuracy. 

The target is roughly divided and a part is assigned to each 
unit. No part of the target is neglected. In attack, by a system 
of overlapping in assigning targets to platoons, the entire hostile 
line can be kept under fire even during a rush. 

OBSERVATION 

The correctness of the sight setting and the distribution of 
fire over the target can be verified only by careful observation 
of the target, the adjacent ground, and the effect upon the enemy. 

Observation only can determine whether the fire fight is 
being properly conducted. If the enemy's fire is losing in ac- 
curacy and effect, the observer realizes that his side is gaining 
superiority. If the enemy's fire remains or becomes effective and 
persistent, he realizes that corrective measures are necessary to 
increase either volume or accuracy, or both. 

DISCIPLINE 

Discipline makes good direction and control possible and is 
the distinguishing mark of trained troops. 

The discipline necessary in the firing line will be absent 
unless officers and non-commissioned officers can make their will 
known to the men. In the company, therefore,, communication 
must be by simple signals which, in the roar of musketry, will at- 
tract the attention and convey the correct meaning. 

EXPENDITURE OF AMMUNITION 

In attack the supply is more limited than in defense. Better 
judgment must be exercised in expenditure. Ordinarily, troops 
in the firing line of an attack can not expect to have that day 



262 MILITARY TRAINING 

more ammunition than they carry into the combat, except such 
additions as come from the distribution of ammunition of dead 
and wounded and the surplus brought by reenforcements. 

When a certain fire is required, the necessary ammunition 
must be expended without hesitation. Several hours of firing 
may be necessary to gain fire superiority. True economy can be 
practiced only by closing on the enemy before first opening fire 
and thereafter suspending fire when there is nothing to shoot at. 

SUPPORTING ARTILLERY 

Artillery fire is the principal aid to the infantry in gain- 
ing and keeping fire superiority, not only by its hits, but by the 
moral effect it produces on the enemy. 

In attack, artillery assists the forward movement of the 
infantry. It keeps down the fire of the hostile artillery and seeks 
to neutralize the hostile infantry by inflicting losses upon it, de- 
stroying its morale, driving it to cover, and preventing it from 
using its weapons effectively. In defense, it ignores the hostile 
artillery when the enemy's attack reaches a decisive stage and 
assists in checking the attack, joining its fire power to that of the 
defending infantry. 

Troops should be accustomed to be fired over by friendly 
artillery and impressed with the fact that the artillery should 
continue firing upon the enemy until the last possible moment. 
The few casualties resulting from shrapnel bursting short are 
trifling compared with those that would result from the increased 
effectiveness of the enemy's infantry fire were the friendly artil- 
lery to cease firing. Casualties inflicted by supporting artillery are 
not probable until the opposing infantry lines are less than 200 
yards apart. 

When the distance between the hostile infantry lines be- 
comes so short as to render further use of friendly artillery inad- 
visable, the commander of the infantry firing line, using a pre- 
concerted signal, informs the artillery commander. The latter 
usualiy increases the range in order to impede the strengthening 
of the enemy's foremost line. 

FIRE OF POSITION 

Infantry is said to execute fire of position when it is posted 
so as to assist an attack by firing over the heads, or off the flank, 
of the attacking troops and is not itself to engage in the advance; 
or when, in defense, it is similarly posted to augment the fire of 
the main firing line. Machine guns serve a like purpose. In a 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 263 

decisive action, fire of position should be employed whenever the 
terrain permits and reserve infantry is available. 

DEPLOYMENT 

Troops are massed preparatory to deployment when the 
nature of their deployment can not be foreseen or it is desirable 
to shorten the column or to clear the road. Otherwise,, in the 
deployment of large commands, whether in march column, in 
bivouac, or massed, and whether forming for attack or for defense, 
they are ordinarily first formed into a line of columns to facilitate 
the extension of the front prior to deploying. The rough line or 
lines of columns thus formed enable troops to take advantage of 
the terrain in advance and shorten the time occupied in forming 
the firing line. 

In deploying the division each brigade is assigned to a defi- 
nite task or objective. On receipt of his orders, the brigade 
commander conducts his brigade in column or in line of regiments 
until it is advisable that it be broken into smaller columns. He 
then issues his order, assigning to each regiment its task, if prac- 
ticable. In a similar manner the regimental commanders lead 
their regiments forward in column, or in line of columns, until 
the time arrives for issuing the regimental order. It is seldom 
advisable to break up the battalion before issuing orders for its 
deployment. 

Each subordinate commander, after receiving his order for 
the action, should precede his command as far as possible, in 
order to reconnoiter the ground personally, and should prepare 
to issue his orders promptly. 

Each commander of a column directs the necessary recon- 
naissance to front and flank; by this means and by a judicious 
choice of ground he guards against surprise. 

The premature formation of the firing line causes unneces- 
sary fatigue and loss of time, and may result in a faulty direction 
being taken. Troops once deployed make even minor changes of 
direction with difficulty, and this difficulty increases with the 
length of the firing line. 

In the larger units, when the original deployment is found 
to be in the wrong direction, it is usually necessary to deploy 
the reserve on the correct front and withdraw and assemble 
the first line. 

To gain decisive results, it is generally necessary to use 
all the troops at some stage of the combat. But in the beginning, 
while the situation is uncertain, care should be taken not to 
engage too large a proportion of the command. On the other 



264 MILITARY TRAINING 

hand, there is no greater error than to employ too few and to 
sacrifice them by driblets. 

When it is intended to fight to a decision, fire superiority is 
essential. To gain this two things are necessary: A heavy fire 
and a fire well directed and controlled. Both of these are best 
obtained when the ring line is as dense as practicable,, while leav- 
ing the men room for the free use of their rifles. If the men 
are too widely separated, direction and control are very difficult, 
often impossible, and the intensity of fire is slight in proportion 
to the front occupied. 

In an attack or stubborn defense the firing line should have 
a density of one man per yard of front occupied. Where the 
tactical situation demands the holding of a line too long to be 
occupied throughout at this density, it is generally better to deploy 
companies or platoons at one man per yard,, leaving gaps in the 
line between them, than to distribute the men uniformly at in- 
creased intervals. 

A relatively thin firing line may be employed when merely 
covering the movements of other forces; when on the defensive 
against poor troops; when the final action to be taken has not 
yet been determined, and, in general, when fire superiority is not 
necessary. 

The length of the firing line that the whole force may 
employ depends upon the density of the line and the strength 
in rear required by the situation. Supports and reserves con- 
stitute the strength in rear. In a decisive attack they should be 
at least strong enough to replace a heavy loss in the original 
firing line and to increase the charging line to a density of at 
least one and one-half men per yard and still have troops in rear 
for protection and for the other purposes mentioned above. 

In the original deployment the strength of the reserve held 
out by each commander comprises from one-sixth to two-thirds 
of his unit, depending upon the nature of the service expected of 
the reserve. A small force in a covering or delaying action re- 
quires very little strength in rear, while a large force fighting a 
decisive battle requires much. Therefore, depending upon cir- 
cumstances, the original deployment, including the strength in rear, 
may vary from 1 to 10 men per yard. Against an enemy poorly 
disciplined and trained, or lacking in morale, a thinner deploy- 
ment is permissible. 

The density of the whole deployment increases with the 
size of the command, because the larger the command the greater 
the necessity for reserves. Thus, a battalion acting alone may 
attack with two men per yard of front, but a regiment, with three 
battalions, may only double the front of the one battalion. 

Bit the assignment of divisions or larger units to parts of 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 265 

a line of battle several miles long, a series of semi-independent 
battle, or local combat, districts are created. The density of de- 
ployment in these districts may vary greatly, depending upon the 
activity expected in each. Within these battle districts, as well 
as in smaller forces acting alone, parts of the line temporarily of 
less importance may be held weakly, in order to economize troops 
and to have more at the decisive point. 

The front that a unit may occupy when deployed depends 
also upon whether its flanks are secured. If both flanks are 
secured by other troops, the unit may increase its front materially 
by reducing its reserve or supports. If only one flank is so 
secured, the front may still be somewhat increased, but the ex- 
posed flank must be guarded by posting the supports or reserve 
toward that flank. Natural obstacles that secure the flanks have 
practically the same effect upon deployment. 

Except when assigned as supports or reserve, regiments in 
the brigade, battalions in the regiment, and companies in the 
battalion are, when practicable, deployed side by side. 

In the deployment, battalions establish the firing line, each 
furnishing its own support. In each unit larger than the battalion 
a reserve is held out, its strength depending upon circumstances. 
In general, the reserve is employed by the commander to meet 
or improve conditions brought about by the action of the firing 
line. It must not be too weak or too split up. It must be posted 
where the commander believes it will be needed for decisive action, 
or where he desires to bring about such action. When necessary, 
parts of it re-enforce or prolong the firing line. 

ATTACK 

An attack is bound to succeed if fire superiority is gained and 
properly used. To gain this superiority generally requires that 
the attack employ more rifles than the defense; this in turn means 
a longer line, as both sides will probably hold a strong firing 
line. 

With large forces, a direct frontal attack gives the attacker 
little opportunity to bring more rifles to bear. However, if the 
enemy is unduly extended, a frontal attack may give very decisive 
results. 

Owing to the difficulty of control and the danger of the 
parts being defeated in detail, wide turning movements are seldom 
allowable except in large forces. 

If the attack can be so directed that, while the front is 
covered, another fraction of the command strikes a flank more 
or less obliquely (an enveloping attack) the advantages gained 



266 MILITARY TRAINING 

are a longer line and more rifles in action; also a converging fire 
opposed to the enemy's diverging Are. 

An envelopment of both flanks should never be attempted 
without a very decided superiority in numbers. 

The enveloping attack will nearly always result locally in a 
frontal attack, for it will be met by the enemy's reserve. The 
advantage of envelopment lies in the longer concentric line, with 
its. preponderance of rifles and its converging fire. 

Co-operation between the frontal and enveloping attacks is 
essential to success. Both should be pushed vigorously and 
simultaneously, and ordinarily both should move simultaneously 
to the charge; but at the final stage of the attack conditions may 
sometimes warrant one in charging while the other supports it 
with fire. 

The envelopment of a flank is brought about with difficulty 
when made by troops already deployed in another direction or by 
their reserves. The two attacks should be deployed at a suitable 
distance apart, with the lines of attack converging in rear of the 
hostile position. The troops that are to make the enveloping attack 
should deploy in the proper direction at the start and should 
be given orders which enable them to gain their point of deploy- 
ment in the most direct and practical manner. The enveloping 
attack is generally made the stronger, especially in small forces. 

DEPLOYMENT FOR ATTACK 

Where open terrain exposes troops to hostile artillery fire 
it may be necessary to make the deployment 2 miles or more 
from the hostile position. The foreground should be temporarily 
occupied by covering troops. If the enemy occupies the fore- 
ground with detachments, the covering troops must drive them 
back. 

To enable large forces to gain ground toward the enemy, it 
may sometimes be cheaper and quicker in the end to move well 
forward and to deploy at night. In such case the area in which the 
deployment is to be made should, if practicable, be occupied by 
covering troops before dark. The deployment will be made 
with great difficulty unless the ground has been studied by 
daylight. The deployment gains little unless it establishes the 
firing line well within effective range of the enemy's main position. 

Each unit assigned a task deploys when on its direction line, 
or opposite its objective, and when it has no longer sufficient cover 
for advancing in close order. In the firing line, intervals of 25 to 50 
yards should be maintained as long as possible between battalions. 
In the larger units it may be necessary to indicate on the map the 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 267 

direction or objective, but to battalion commanders it should be 
pointed out on the ground. 

The reserve is kept near enough to the firing line to be on 
hand at the decisive stage. It is posted with reference to the at- 
tack, or to that part of the attacking line, from which the greater 
results are expected; it is also charged with flank protection, but 
should be kept intact. 

ADVANCING THE ATTACK 

The firing line must ordinarily advance a long distance before 
it is justified in opening fire. It can not combat the enemy's artil- 
lery, and it is at a disadvantage if it combats the defender's long- 
range-rifle fire. Hence it ignores both and, by taking full advant- 
age of cover and of the discipline of the troops, advances to a 
first firing position at the shortest range possible. 

The best protection against loss while advancing is to escape 
the enemy's view. 

Each battalion finds its own firing position, conforming to 
the general advance as long as practicable and taking advantage 
of the more advanced position of an adjacent battalion in order to 
gain ground. 

It frequently becomes necessary for infantry moving to the 
attack to pass through deployed artillery. This should be done 
so as to interfere as little as possible with the latter's fire, and 
never so as to cause that fire to cease entirely. As far as practi- 
cable, advantage should be taken of intervals in the line, if any. 
An understanding between artillery and infantry commanders 
should be had, so as to effect the movement to the best advantage. 

In advancing the attack, advanced elements of the firing 
line or detachments in front of it should not open fire except in 
defense or to clear the foreground of the enemy. Fire on the hos- 
tile main position should not be opened until all or nearly all of the 
firing line can join in the fire. 

THE FIRE ATTACK 

At the first firing position the attack seeks to gain fire su- 
periority. This may necessitate a steady, accurate fire for a long 
time. The object is to subdue the enemy's fire and keep it subdued 
so that the attacking troops may advance from this point to a 
favorable place near the enemy from which the charge may be 
made. Hence, in the advance by rushes, sufficient rifles must be 
kept constantly in action to keep down the enemy's fire; this deter- 
mines the size of the fraction rushing. 



268 MILITARY TRAINING 

To advance without fire superiority against a determined 
defense would result in such losses as to bring the attack to a 
standstill or to make the apparent success barren of results. 

Diminution of the enemy's fire and a pronounced loss in ef- 
fectiveness are the surest signs that the superiority has been gained 
and that a part of the firing line can advance. 

The men must be impressed with the fact that, having made 
a considerable advance under fire and having been checked, it is 
suicidal to turn back in daylight. If they can advance no further, 
they must intrench and hold on until the fall of darkness or a 
favorable turn in the situation develops. Intrenching is resorted 
to only when necessary. Troops who have intrenched themselves 
under fire are moved forward again with difficulty. 

Supports and reserves occupying intrenchments vacated by 
the firing line should improve them, but they must not be held back 
or diverted from their true missions on this account. 



THE CHARGE 

Fire superiority beats down the enemy's fire, destroys his 
resistance and morale, and enables the attacking troops to close 
on him, but an actual or threatened occupation of his position is 
needed to drive him out and defeat him. The psychological mo- 
ment for the charge can not be determined far in advance. The 
tactical instinct of the responsible officer must decide. 

The defenders, if subjugated by the fire attack, will frequent- 
ly leave before the charge begins. On the other hand, it may be 
necessary to carry the fire attack close to the position and follow 
it up with a short dash and a bayonet combat. Hence the distance 
over which the charge may be made will vary between wide limits. 
It may be from 25 to 400 yards. The charge should be made at the 
earliest moment that promises success; otherwise the full advant- 
age of victory will be lost. 

The commander of the attacking line should indicate his 
approval, or give the order, before the charge is made. Subordinate 
commanders, usually battalion commanders, whose troops are ready 
to charge signal that fact to the commander. It may be necessary 
for them to wait until other battalions or other parts of the line 
are ready or until the necessary reserves arrive. At the signal for 
the charge the firing line and near-by supports and reserves rush 
forward. The charge is made simultaneously, if possible, by all 
the units participating therein, but, once committed to the assault, 
battalions should be pushed with the utmost vigor and no restraint 
placed on the ardor of charging troops bv an attempt to maintain 
alignment. 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 269 

Before ordering the charge the commander should see that 
enough troops are on hand to make it a success. Local reserves 
joining the firing line in time to participate in the charge give it 
a strong impetus. Too dense a mass should be avoided. 

The line should be strengthened by prolongation, if practi- 
cable, and remaining troops kept in formation for future use; but 
rather than that the attack should fail, the last formed body is 
sent in, unless it is very apparent that it can do no good. 

To arrive in the hostile position with a very compact firing 
line and a few formed supports is sufficient for a victory, but an 
additional force kept well in hand for pursuit is of inestimable value. 

A premature charge by a part of the line should be avoided, 
but if begun, the other parts of the line should join at once if there 
is any prospect of success. Under exceptional conditions a part 
of the line may be compelled to charge without authority from the 
rear. The intention to do so should be signaled to the rear. 

Confidence in their ability to use the bayonet gives the as- 
saulting troops the promise of success. 

If the enemy has left the position when the charging troops 
reach it, the latter should open a rapid fire upon the retreating 
enemy, if he is in sight. It is not advisable for the mixed and dis- 
ordered units to follow him, except to advance to a favorable fir- 
ing position or to cover the reorganization of others. 

The nearest formed bodies accompanying or following the 
charge are sent instantly in pursuit. Under cover of these troops 
order is restored in the charging line. If the captured position is 
part of a general line or is an advanced post, it should be in- 
trenched and occupied at once. The exhaustion of officers and 
men must not cause the neglect of measures to meet a counter- 
attack. 

If the attack receives a temporary setback and it is intended 
to strengthen and continue it, officers will make every effort to 
stop the rearward movement and will reestablish the firing line in 
a covered position as close as possible to the enemy. 

If the attack must be abandoned, the rearward movement 
should continue with promptness until the troops reach a feature 
of the terrain that facilitates the task of checking and reorganizing 
them. The point selected should be so far to the rear as to prevent 
interference by the enemy before the troops are ready to resist. The 
withdrawal of the attacking troops should be covered by the ar- 
tillery and by reserves, if any are available. 

PURSUIT 

To reap the full fruits of victory a vigorous pursuit must be 
made. The natural inclination to be satisfied with a successful 



270 MILITARY TRAINING 

charge must be overcome. The enemy must be allowed no more 
time to reorganize than is positively unavoidable. 

The part of the reserve that is still formed or is best under 
control is sent forward in pursuit and vigorously attacks the 
enemy's main body or covering detachments wherever found. The 
artillery delivers a heavy fire upon the retreating enemy; the dis- 
ordered attacking troops secure the position, promptly re-form, 
and become a new reserve. 

If the captured position is a section of the general line, the 
breach should be heavily occupied, made wider, and strongly se- 
cured by drawing on all reserves in the vicinity. 

After the pursuit from the immediate battle field, pursuit 
by parallel roads is especially effective where large commands are 
concerned. Artillery and cavalry are very effective in pursuit. 

ATTACK OF FORTIFICATIONS 

Few modifications enter into the problem of attacking for- 
tifications. Such as are to be considered relate chiefly to the 
greater time and labor of advancing, the more frequent use of 
darkness and the use of hand grenades to augment the fire. 

If the enemy is strongly fortified and time permits, it may 
be advisable to wait and approach the charging point under cover 
of darkness. The necessary reconnaissance and arrangements 
should be made before dark. If the charge is not be made at once, 
the troops intrench the advanced position, using sand bags if nec- 
essary. Before daylight the foreground should be cleared of ob- 
stacles. 

If the distance is short and other conditions are favorable, 
the charge may be made without fire preparation. If made, it 
should be launched with spirit and suddenness at the break of day. 

In siege operations troops are usually advanced to the charg- 
ing point by sapping. This method, however, presupposes that an 
early victory is not necessary or that it is clearly inadvisable to at- 
tempt more direct methods. 

HOLDING ATTACK 

The holding attack must be vigorous enough to hold the 
enemy in position and must present a front strong enough to 
conceal the secondary nature of the attack. The holding attack 
need have comparatively little strength in rear, but conceals the 
fact by a firing line not distinguishable from that of a decisive at- 
tack. 

Supports and reserves are kept at short distances. Their 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 271 

strength is less if the object is merely to hold the enemy fast than 
if the object is, in addition, to compel him to use up reserves. 

Holding attacks which may later develop into decisive at- 
tacks should be correspondingly strong in rear. 

All feint attacks should employ dense firing lines. Their 
weakness is in rear and is concealed. 

POSITIONS AND INTRENCHMENTS 

The first requirement of a good position is a clear field of 
fire and view to the front and exposed flanks to a distance of 600 
to 800 yards or more. The length of front should be suitable to the 
size of the command and the flanks should be secure. The position 
should have lateral communication and cover for supports and re- 
serves. It should be one which the enemy can not avoid, but must 
attack or give up his mission. A position having all these advant- 
ages will rarely, if ever, be found. The one should be taken which 
conforms closest to the description. 

The natural cover of the position should be fully utilized. 
In addition, it should be strengthened by fieldworks and obstacles. 
The best protection is afforded by deep, narrow, inconspicuous 
trenches. If little time is available, as much as practicable must 
be done. That the fieldworks may not be needed should not cause 
their construction to be omitted, and the fact that they have been 
constructed should not influence the action of a commander, if con- 
ditions are found to be other than expected. 

When time and troops are available the preparations include 
the necessary communicating and cover trenches, head cover, 
bombproofs, etc. The fire trenches should be well supplied with 
ammunition. The supports are placed close at hand in cover 
trenches when natural cover is not available. 

Dummy trenches frequently cause the hostile artillery to 
waste time and ammunition and to divert its fire. 

The location, extent, profile, garrison, etc., of fieldworks are 
matters to be decided by the infantry commanders. Officers must 
be able to choose ground and properly intrench it. 

In combat exercises, when it is impracticable to construct 
the trenches appropriate to the exercise, their trace may be out- 
lined by bayonets, sticks, or other markers, and the responsible 
officers required to indicate the profile selected, method and time 
of construction, garrisons, etc. 

DEPLOYMENT FOR DEFENSE 

The density of the whole deployment depends upon the ex- 
pected severity of the action, the character of the enemy, the con- 
18 



A 



272 MILITARY TRAINING 

dition of the flanks, the field of fire, the terrain, and the available 
artificial or natural protection for the troops. 

If exposed, the firing line should be as dense in defense as 
in attack. If the ring line is well intrenched and has a good field 
of fire, it may be made thinner. Weaker supports are permissible. 
For the same number of troops the front occupied on the defensive 
may therefore be longer than on the offensive, the battalions 
placing more companies in the firing line. 

If it is intended only to delay the enemy, a fairly strong de- 
ployment is sufficient, but if decisive results are desired, a change 
to the offensive must be contemplated and the corresponding 
strength in rear provided. This strength is in the reserve, which 
should be as large as the demands of the firing line and supports 
permit. Even in a passive defense the reserve should be as strong 
as in the attack unless the flanks are protected by other means. 

Supports are posted as close to the firing line as practicable 
and reenforce the latter according to the principles explained in 
the attack. When natural cover is not sufficient for the purpose, 
communicating and cover trenches are constructed. If time does 
not permit their construction, it is better to begin the action with a 
very dense firing line and no immediate supports than to have sup- 
ports greatly exposed in rear. 

The reserve should be posted so as to be entirely free to act 
as a whole, according to the developments. The distance from fir- 
ing line to reserve is generally greater than in the attack. By reason 
of such a location the reserve is best able to meet a hostile envel- 
oping attack; it has a better position from which to make a counter- 
attack; it is in a better position to cover a withdrawal and permit 
an orderly retreat. The distance from firing line to reserve in- 
creases with the size of the reserve. 

When the situation is no longer in doubt, the reserve should 
be held in rear of the flank which is most in danger or offers the 
best opportunity for counter-attack. Usually the same flank best 
suits both purposes. 

In exceptional cases, on broad fronts, it may be necessary to 
detach a part of the reserve to protect the opposite flank. This 
detachment should be the smallest consistent with its purely pro- 
tective mission. 

The commander assigns to subordinates the front to be oc- 
cupied by them. These, in turn, subdivide the front among their 
next lower units in the firing line. 

An extended position is so divided into sections that each 
has, if practicable, a field of fire naturally made distinct by the 
terrain. Unfavorable and unimportant ground ordinarily causes 
gaps to exist in the line. 

The size of the unit occupying each section depends upon 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 27$ 

the latter's natural strength, front, and importance. If practica- 
ble, battalions should be kept intact and assigned as units to sec- 
tions or parts of sections. 

Where important dead space lies in front of one section, an 
adjoining section should be instructed to cover it with fire when 
necessary, or machine guns should be concealed for the like pur- 
pose. 

Advanced posts, or any other form of unnecessary disper- 
sion, should be avoided. 

Unless the difficulty of moving the troops into the position 
be great, most of the troops of the firing line are held in rear of 
it until the infantry attack begins. The position itself is occupied' 
by a small garrison only, with the necessary outguards or patrols; 
in front. 

Fire alone cannot be depended upon to stop the attack. The 
troops must be determined to resort, to the bayonet, if necessary. 

If a night attack or close approach by the enemy is expected, 
troops in a prepared position should strengthen the outguards and 
firing line and construct as numerous and effective obstacles as 
possible. Supports and local reserves should move close to the 
firing line and should, with the firing line, keep bayonets fixed. 
If practicable, the front should be illuminated, preferably from the. 
the flanks of the section. 

Only short range fire is of any value in resisting night at- 
tacks. The bayonet is the chief reliance. 

COUNTER-ATTACK 

The passive defense should be assumed only when circum- 
stances force it. Only the offensive wins. 

An active defense seeks a favorable decision. A favorable 
decision can not be expected without counter-attack. 

A passive defense in a position whose flanks are not pro- 
tected by natural obstacles is generally out of the question. 

Where the defense is assumed with a view to making a coun- 
ter-attack, the troops for the counter-attack should be held in re- 
serve until the time arrives for such attack. The defensive line 
should be held by as few troops as possible in order that the force 
for the offensive may be as large as possible. The force for the 
counter-attack should be held echeloned in rear of the flank which 
offers it the greatest advantage for the proposed attack. 

The counter-attack should be made vigorously and at the 
proper time. It will usually be made: By launching the reserve 
against the enemy's flank when his attack is in full progress. This 
is the most effective form of counter-attack. Straight to the front 
by the firing line and supports after repulsing the enemy's attack 



274 MILITARY TRAINING 

and demoralizing him with pursuing fire. Or, by the troops in 
rear of the firing line when the enemy has reached the defensive 
position and is in disorder. 

Minor counter-attacks are sometimes necessary in order to 
drive the enemy from important positions gained by him. 

DELAYING ACTION 

When a position is taken merely to delay the enemy and to 
withdraw before becoming closely engaged, the important consid- 
erations are: The enemy should be forced to deploy early. The 
field of fire should therefore be good at distances from 500 to 1,200 
yards or more; a good field of fire at close range is not necessary. 
The ground in rear of the position should favor the withdrawal 
of the firing line by screening the troops from the enemy's view 
and fire as soon as the position is vacated. 

A thin firing line using much ammunition generally answers 
the purpose. Supports are needed chiefly to protect the flanks. 
The reserve should be posted well in rear to assist in the with- 
drawal of the firing line. Artillery is especially valuable to a delay- 
ing force. 

MEETING ENGAGEMENTS 

Meeting engagements are characterized by the necessity for 
hasty reconnaissance, or the almost total absence of reconnais- 
sance; by the necessity for rapid deployment, frequently under fire; 
and usualy by the absence of trenches or other artificial cover. 
These conditions give further advantages to the offensive. 

The whole situation will usually indicate beforehand the 
proper general action to be taken on meeting the enemy. 

Little fresh information can be expected. The boldness, ini- 
tiative and determination of the commander must be relied upon. 

A meeting engagement affords an ideal opportunity to the 
commander who has intuition and quick decision and who is will- 
ing to take long chances. His opponent is likely to be overcau- 
tious. 

The amount of information that the commander is warranted 
in awaiting before taking final action depends entirely upon his 
mission. One situation may demand a blind attack; another may 
demand rapid, partial deployment for attack but careful and time- 
consuming reconnaissance before the attack is launched. 

A great advantage accrues to the side which can deploy the 
faster. The advantage of a close-order formation, favoring rapid 
deployment, becomes more pronounced with the size of the force. 



BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT TACTICS 27 S 

The first troops to deploy will be able to attack with longer 
firing lines and weaker supports than are required in the ordinary 
case. But if the enemy succeeds in deploying a strong defensive 
line, at attack must be strengthened accordingly before it is 
wasted. 

If the situation warrants the advance, the leading troops 
seek to deploy faster than the enemy, to reach his flanks, check his 
deployment, and get information. In any event, they seek to 
cover the deployment of their own troops in rear — especially the 
artillery — and to seize important ground. 

The commander of a long column which meets the enemy 
should be with the advance guard to receive information promptly 
and to reconnoiter. If he decides to fight, the advance guard must 
hold the enemy while the commander formulates a plan of action, 
issues the necessary orders and deploys the main body. Meantime 
the column should be closing up, either in mass or to form line of 
columns, so that the deployment, when determined upon, may be 
made more promptly. 

The action of the advance guard, prior to the receipt of 
orders, depends upon the situation. Whether to attack determin- 
edly or only as a feint, or to assume the defensive, depends upon 
the strength of the advance guard, the terrain, the character of 
the hostile force encountered, and the mission and intentions of the 
commander of the whole. 

If the enemy is beforehand or more aggressive, or if the 
advance guard is too weak, it may be necessary to put elements of 
the main body in4o action as fast as they arrive, in order to check 
him. This method should be avoided; it prevents the formation 
and execution of a definite plan and compels piecemeal action. 
The best results are obtained when the main body is used as a 
whole. 

WITHDRAWAL FROM ACTION 

The withdrawal of a defeated force can generally be effected 
only at a heavy cost. When it is no longer possible to give the 
action a favorable turn and the necessity for withdrawal arises, 
every effort must be made to place distance and a rear guard be- 
tween the enemy and the defeated troops. 

Artillery gives especially valuable assistance in the with- 
drawal. The long-range fire of machine guns should also be em- 
ployed. Cavalry assists the withdrawal by charging the pursuing 
troops or by taking flank positions and using fire action. 

If an intact reserve remains it should be placed in a covering 
position, preferably on a flank, to check the pursuit and thus 
enable the defeated troops to withdraw beyond reach of hostile 



276 MILITARY TRAINING 

fire. The covering position of the reserve should be at some dis- 
tance from the main action, but close enough to bring the with- 
drawing troops quickly under the protection of its fire. It should 
have a good field of fire at effective and long ranges and should 
facilitate its own safe and timely withdrawal. 

If the general line is divided, by terrain or by organization, 
into two or more parts, the firing line of the part in the least 
danger from pursuit should be withdrawn first. A continuous 
firing line, whose parts are dependent upon one another for fire 
support, should be withdrawn as a whole, retiring by echelon at 
the beginning of the withdrawal. Every effort must be made to 
restore the organization, regain control and form column of march 
as soon as the troops are beyond the reach of hostile fire. As fast 
as possible, without delaying the march, companies and the larger 
units should be re-formed, so that the command will again be well 
in hand. 

The commander of the whole, having given orders for with- 
drawal, should go to the rear, select a rendezvous point, and de- 
vote himself to the reorganization of his command. The rendez- 
vous point is selected with regard to the natural channels of move- 
ment approximately straight to the rear. It should be distant from 
the battle field and should facilitate the gathering and protection 
of the command. 

SUMMARY 

1. Avoid combats that offer no chance of victory or other 
valuable results. 2. Make every effort for the success of the 
general plan and avoid spectacular plays that have no bearing on 
the general result. 3. Have a definite plan and carry it out vigor- 
ously 4. Do not attempt complicated maneuvers. 5. Keep the 
command in hand; avoid undue extension and dispersion. 6. 
Study the ground and direct the advance in such a way as to take 
advantage of all available cover and thereby diminish losses. 
7. Never deploy until the purpose and the proper direction are 
known. 8. Deploy enough men for the immediate task in hand; 
hold out the rest and avoid undue haste in committing them to the 
action. 9. Flanks must be protected either by reserves, fortifica- 
tions, or the terrain. 10. In a decisive action, gain and keep fire 
superiority. 11. Keep up reconnoissance. 12. Use the reserve, 
but not until needed or a very favorable opportunity for its use 
presents itself. Keep some reserves as long as practicable. 13 Do 
not hesitate to sacrifice the command if the result is worth the cost. 
14. Spare the command all unnecessary hardship and exertion. 



CHAPTER XI 

OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT AND THE 
INFANTRY ATTACK OF A POSITION 

Aggressiveness wins battles. Decisive results are obtained 
only by the offensive. The purely passive defense is adopted only 
when the mission can be fully accomplished by this method of 
warfare t . In all other cases, if a force be obliged by uncontrollable 
circumstances to adopt the defensive, it must be considered as a 
temporary expedient, and a change to the offensive with all or 
part of the forces will be made as soon as conditions warrant such 
change. 

COMBAT PRINCIPLES 

Unity of command is essential to success. The regiment 
united in combat has greater force and fighting power than have 
three separate battalions. A battalion acting as a unit is stronger 
than four companies acting independently. All the troops assigned 
to the execution of a distinct tactical task must be placed under 
one command. 

The task assigned any unit must not involve a complicated 
maneuver. Simple and direct plans and methods are productive 
of the best results in warfare. All the troops that are necessary 
to execute a definite task must be assigned to it from the begin- 
ning. Avoid putting troops into action in driblets. 

Detachments during combat are justifiable only when the 
execution of the tasks assigned them contributes directly to suc- 
cess in the main battle or when they keep a force of the enemy 
larger than themselves out of the main battle. When combat is 
imminent all troops must be called to the probable field of battle. 
A force is never so strong that it can needlessly dispense with the 
support of any of its parts during combat. Too many troops must 
not, however, be committed to the action in the early stages, no 
matter what be the nature of the deployment or the extent of line 
held. Some reserves must be kept in hand. 

Use the reserve only when needed or when a favorable op- 
portunity for its use presents itself. Keep some reserve as long 



278 MILITARY TRAINING 



e must 



as practicable, but every man that can be used to advantage 
participate in the decisive stage of the combat. Flanks must be 
protected either by reserves, fortifications, or the terrain. Flank 
protection is the duty of the commanders of all flank units down 
to the lowest, whether specifically enjoined in orders or not. 
This applies to units on both sides of gaps that may exist in the 
combat lines. Reconnaissance continues throughout the action. 

USE OF THE COMBINED ARMS 

Infantry. — The infantry is the principal and most important 
arm, which is charged with the main work on the field of battle 
and decides the final issue of combat. The role of the infantry, 
whether offensive or defensive, is the role of the entire force, and 
the utilization of that arm gives the entire battle its character. The 
success of the infantry is essential to the success of the combined 
arms. 

Artillery. — The artillery is the close supporting arm of the 
infantry and its duties are inseparably connected with those of the 
infantry. Its targets are those units of the enemy which, from the 
infantry point of view, are most dangerous to its infantry or that 
hinder infantry success. The greater the difficulties of the infantry 
the more powerful must be the artillery support. 

In order to insure close co-operation of the artillery with the 
infantry in combat, the leader of each infantry unit to which artil- 
lery support has been assigned, in both the attack and defense, 
makes known to the artillery commander his plans and their ex- 
pected development and, throughout the action, keeps the artillery 
representative accompanying him fully informed of the needs of 
the infantry in the matter of artillery support. 

The security of the artillery in combat must be provided for 
either by the distribution of the other arms or specifically in orders. 
But when such is not the case the necessary protection must be 
afforded by the nearest unit of infantry or cavalry whose mission 
will permit it to give such protection. 

Cavalry. — The cavalry, preceding contact of the opposing 
troops of the other arms, is engaged in reconnaissance of the 
enemy and of the terrain and in accomplishing such mission as 
may be assigned it. During combat it directs its activities to the 
support of the other arms and particularly toward insuring the 
success of the infantry as soon as that arm is fully committed to 
action. It must not be given a task, nor voluntarily assume one, 
that will prevent its fullest co-operation with the other arms in the 
decisive action. The cavalry leader is given wide initiative in the 
tactical employment of his command during the decisive combat. 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 279 

The cavalry of a field army is divided into two classes, that 
attached to the infantry divisions and called divisional cavalry, and 
that forming a separate strategical unit called the cavalry division. 
The divisional cavalry is an auxiliary arm of the infantry division 
and is used as the division commander directs, either as inde- 
pendent cavalry or as advance cavalry. 

The cavalry division is pushed, as independent cavalry, far to 
the front, often several days' march in advance of the remainder of 
the field army, to drive back the covering forces of the enemy and 
to gain accurate information of his dispositions, strength, and 
movements. This is the most valuable use of the cavalry division 
in the opening stages of a campaign. The use of the cavalry divi- 
sion as a screen is justified only in exceptional cases, as it is seldom 
effective in absolutely preventing hostile reconnaissance. Better 
results can be obtained by using the cavalry as a mass to engage 
and defeat the enemy's cavalry. 

Engineer Troops. — The engineer troops, when not engaged 
in the special duties of their arm, may be used as infantry, but 
only in exceptional cases, as part of the attacking line. On the 
offensive, when used as infantry they form part of the reserve, part 
of a holding force, or are used for flank protection. On the defen- 
sive, they may be used as infantry wherever the development of 
the action warrants such use. 

Heavy Field Artillery. — The limited mobility of heavy field 
artillery renders its use inadvisable in any position from which the 
conditions of combat may require its hasty withdrawal. For that 
reason it has no place in an advance guard; in an outpost, unless 
occupying a position in which the action is to be fought to a deci- 
sion; in advanced positions or posts; in the rencontre; or in delay- 
ing actions, unless its loss is justifiable. 

On the offensive, heavy field artillery finds its functions in 
firing upon supporting points in the hostile line; upon covered posi- 
tions occupied by large bodies of the enemy, particularly his re- 
serves; in the destruction of material objects, as buildings, bridges, 
etc.; and, in general, against a position that has been deliberately 
taken up and strengthened by the enemy. 

On the defensive, heavy field artillery finds its use in com- 
pelling the deployment of the enemy's columns at long distances 
from the defensive line, against any large formed bodies of the 
enemy, and against those parts of his materiel or material objects 
within lines that offer an important target. Due to its long range, 
it is profitably used in both offensive and defensive combat in re- 
stricting the field of activity of the enemy's shorter range artillery. 
It can also be used to advantage in the destruction of the enemy's 
field artillery materiel. 

The use of the heavier types of field artillery presupposes an 



280 MILITARY TRAINING 

offensive, where reconnaissance of the enemy's position has been 
thorough and where the attack has been carefully planned; or a 
defensive, where there has been time to deliberately select and 
strengthen a position. Until the use of the heavier field artil- 
lery under the conditions given can be clearly foreseen, its position 
is well to the rear of all the combatant units. 



FIRE SUPERIORITY 

Fire superiority must be obtained in the early stages of 
combat and maintained to the end. Without it, success can not be 
expected either on the offensive or the defensive. It affords the 
best protection that can be given troops advancing to the attack, 
as also the best means of diminishing losses. The artillery must 
co-operate with the infantry in obtaining and maintaining fire 
superiority. Deficiency in the volume of fire on the defensive 
should be offset by the selection of a position naturally strong, or 
that can be made strong, in the time available for that purpose. 

FRONTAGE OF UNITS IN COMBAT 

Depth in formation for combat, rather than extension of 
front, is all important in the initial deployment, even where the 
position and the strength of the enemy have been fully developed. 
Sufficient depth makes available means to meet the contingencies 
of combat and the unforeseen developments in the situation as they 
arise. Troops once deployed and committed to action are no 
longer available to enable the leader to exercise a constant in- 
fluence over the course of the entire combat. The progress of the 
combat calls for an extension of the front occupied in the initial 
deployment that can not be foreseen. Troops must be held avail- 
able for the purpose of such extension. 

Frontages for deployment are based upon the infantry 
strength of the division and higher units. Artillery has no place 
in the front line of the initial deployment and, at the time such 
deployment is made, the place of the cavalry is out in front of 
the line or in contact with the enemy on the flanks. The infantry 
strength alone, therefore, is considered in fixing the frontages for 
the initial deployment. 

The frontages occupied by the different battle units are not 
in proportion to the number of their component units. The dura- 
tion of the combat and the needs for the security of the flanks in- 
crease with the size of the force employed. Each higher leader 
must keep out a reserve. A division, therefore, makes its initial 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 281 

deployment on a front only twice that justified for the brigade, and 
a field army of three divisions, when one division is held as a 
reserve, is assigned for deployment a front twice that of the divi- 
sion. 

A unit whose flanks are secured by other troops or by im- 
passable obstacles, or one that occupies a position naturally strong, 
or made so by adequate preparation, may be given a frontage 
limited only by the requirements of fire efficiency throughout the 
combat. The same is true of reserves deployed to bring about a 
decision already prepared by other troops. A force whose flanks 
are exposed must protect them by a maximum distribution in 
depth. 

Division and Field Armies. — A division, when operating 
against an enemy of nearly equal training and morale, and on open 
and unprepared ground, can not make its initial deployment on a 
front greater than \y 2 to 2 miles and, at the same time, have the 
capacity to hold its position strongly throughout the action. In 
the same way a field army of three divisions would be limited in 
its initial deployment to the frontage of 4 to 5 miles. Where, for 
uncontrollable reasons, deployment over a more extended front 
is necessary, strong reserves are the only means available to meet 
the dangers to such over-extension. 

INTRENCHMENTS 

On the defensive the artificial strengthening of the position 
taken up is limited only by the time and the facilities available. On 
the offensive intrenchments are used on all lines that are to be 
held for any length of time. Troops advancing to the attack must 
understand that the best protection against losses is afforded by 
an uninterrupted and vigorous advance toward the enemy's posi- 
tion, and by the use of such natural cover as the ground offers. In 
the attack intrenchments are used only when further advance is 
for some time impossible, and to hold ground already gained. 

USE OF MACHINE GUNS 

Machine guns are emergency weapons. They are best used 
when their fire is in the nature of a surprise to the enemy at trie 
crisis of combat. Their effective use is for short periods of time — 
at most but a few minutes — until silenced by the enemy. When 
engaged they must be used to the limit of their effective capacity. 
On the offensive they find their use in assisting the attack to 
obtain fire superiority temporarily lost and against lines of 



282 MILITARY TRAINING 

trenches which are to be assaulted. In the defensive they are used 
against large targets visible for a short time only, and on ad- 
vancing lines of the enemy's infantry within the close and effective 
ranges. The effect of the enemy's fire, particularly his artillery fire, 
on machine guns, is lessened by their employment in small groups. 

POST OF THE LEADER 

On the march when there is a probability of contact with the 
enemy, the leader of each column is at the front, usually well for- 
ward with the advance guard. During action, in forces no larger 
than a brigade, the leader places himself far enough to the front 
to personally direct the movements of his command. In divisions, 
it is, at times, possible to find a point of observation from which 
the division commander can personally supervise the course of the 
action or, at least, overlook the most important part of the field 
assigned to his division. In forces not larger than a division, the 
post of the leader during combat is usually near the position of 
the reserve. In forces larger than the division, and in the division 
where the terrain does not permit of personal observation, it is 
best for the leader, during the action, to be well in rear, removed 
as far as possible from the sights and sounds of the battlefield, in 
order that his decisions may not be unduly influenced by local 
conditions. In this case communications with all parts of the 
battlefield must be direct, rapid, and continuous. 

RESERVES 

The preponderating influence of rifle fire in deciding an 
action seems to call for the deployment in the early stages of all 
the troops that can be used on the firing line. But rifle fire, even 
with the maximum possible support of artillery fire, will not alone 
force a favorable decision. Infantry, properly trained and properly 
led, can not be driven from position by fire action alone. For that 
purpose an assault actually delivered, or one that shows a determi- 
nation to close with the enemy, is necessary. The firing line pre- 
pares the way for this assault, but is not in itself sufficient for its 
completion. Fresh troops must be at hand to give the firing line 
the impetus necessary to drive it forward, and fresh troops must 
be at hand to actually penetrate the enemy's position, to fill in gaps 
that develop in the line, to cover the reorganization of troops dis- 
organized in the assault, and to meet counter attacks. On the 
defensive, troops must be at hand to meet the play of the oppo- 
nent who holds the initiative. In both offensive and defensive 
combat, flanks that are vulnerable must be secured. For all such 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 283 

purposes some troops must be kept out of the firing line until the 
very last stages of the action. Reserves are thus a necessity and 
they must be strong enough to answer the demands made upon 
them during the entire combat. 

The knowledge of the situation that the leader possesses 
must guide him in fixing the strength of the reserves. On the 
offensive one-fourth to one-third of the entire force is held out at 
first as a reserve in all units down to and including the regiment. 
In the passive defense, after the requirements of the firing line 
are fully provided for, the governing consideration in fixing the 
strength of the reserve is the vulnerability of the flanks. Where 
the flanks are secured by other means, a reserve as low as one- 
eighth of the entire force may suffice. In the defense seeking an 
opportunity to attack, the change from the defensive to the offen- 
sive, together with the requirements of flank protection, requires 
strong reserves. Here it may be necessary to hold out at first, for 
this purpose, as much as two-thirds of the entire force. 

In an attack involving forces of the size of a division, or 
larger, the brigade reserves protect the flanks of the attacking lines, 
support such lines if they be repulsed, meet counterattacks, secure 
the captured position, thus giving the disordered attacking line's 
time to re-form, and initiate the pursuit of the retreating enemy. 
In the brigade on the outer flank of an enveloping movement the 
reserve may be used at the last to extend the line. In the defense, 
the brigade reserve is used to protect the flanks of its firing lines, 
to support such lines if driven back, to make local counterattacks, 
and to cover the retreat of its firing lines, if the latter be compelled 
to withdraw from action. 

In Divisions. — In divisions, the division reserve is used to 
meet enveloping or turning movements; to make an enveloping 
movement where the situation of the division permits; to fill in 
gaps that may develop between its own divisions and others on its 
flanks during the course of the action; and to make counterattacks. 
A decisive engagement will call for the use of all or nearly all 
of the reserves before a decision is reached, but if any part of the 
reserve remains in hand when a retreat becomes necessary, it is 
used to cover the withdrawal from action and re-formation of the 
deployed lines. 

In Field Armies. — In field armies the general reserve may be 
smaller proportionally than in the division acting alone. Its func- 
tion is not to reinforce divisions in action, or to be used piecemeal 
in any part of the field. It finds its best use as a mass of maneuver 
to envelop or turn the enemy's position, to meet similar moves on 
his part, or to change the character of the action, as from defensive 
to offensive. 

Artillery. — Artillery that can find active employment any- 



284 MILITARY TRAINING 

where in an action is out of place as a reserve. When the unit 
of which it forms a part is held as a reserve, it remains a com- 
ponent part of such reserve unless detached for active use in some 
part of the field under the orders or directions of the superior 
leader. 

Cavalry. — The value of cavalry as a reserve lies mainly in 
its mobility. The cavalry division gives the leader of the field 
army a valuable and powerful weapon with which to meet any 
crises in combat which demand the employment of troops possess- 
ing the highest mobility. But to rely wholly upon cavalry for a 
reserve is to restrict the sphere of activity of that arm. Reserves 
other than those composed of cavalry must be provided for. 

PLAN OF ACTION 

Upon the information of the enemy and of the terrain ob- 
tained by reconnaissance and, as far as time will permit, upon the 
study of the terrain in the field of probable operations made by 
the leader, the plan of action is based. After contact is gained the 
decision will be to attack, to take up a defensive position, to with- 
draw, or to change the direction of march. The offensive must be 
the rule, to be departed from only for uncontrollable reasons. 

The following factors must be considered in arriving at the 
decision: The mission, relative numerical strength of the opposing 
force, relative efficiency of the troops on both sides, the terrain, 
and the probable results of victory or defeat. In doubtful cases 
aggressiveness and initiative will usually win. To take up a de- 
fensive position, to withdraw, or to change the direction of march 
so as to avoid contact with the enemy may be a conservative or 
prudent course to follow in doubtful cases, but such a course will 
not bring victory nor shorten the campaign. The mission of an 
army in war is to win battles. Every step taken must be with that 
end in view. 

COMBAT ORDERS 

The initial combat orders of the division and of all units 
higher than the division are almost invariably written. Troops 
may be put in motion in the desired direction, especially in a ren- 
contre engagement, by verbal orders, but such verbal orders must 
be followed as soon as possible by written orders. After the 
action has begun the greater number of the orders given by the 
higher commanders are fragmentary and verbal. In units higher 
than the regiment all such orders are, as far as practicable, written 
out by a staff officer at the time they are issued, and a copy thereof 
given to the officer charged with the execution of the order, if 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 285 

possible at the time the order is delivered, otherwise as soon there- 
after as it is possible to furnish it. 

Combat orders are the expression of a fixed decision and 
must definitely state the end in view, such as " To attack," or " To 
take up and defend " a position. Vague or ambiguous orders indi- 
cate vacillation and the absence of any definite decision on the part 
of the officer responsible for them. Troops should be told, in 
terms that are direct and unmistakable, exactly what it is their 
leader wants them to do. 

Armies. — In armies, combat orders are often in the form of 
or a part of, letters of instruction to the commanding generals of 
the field armies composing the army. But where the field armies 
are within supporting distance of each other and can mutually 
co-operate in the task assigned them, formal combat orders may be 
issued. Such orders are necessarily general in their character and 
consist of a statement of the objective sought by the army com- 
mander, and of the part he expects each field army to play in at- 
taining this objective. The army commander, either by means of 
letters of instruction or by personal conferences with his field 
army commanders, fully acquaints them not only with the imme- 
diate end in view, but also with so much of his further plans as 
may be necessary to insure thorough co-operation on their parts. 

Field Armies. — In field armies, combat orders recite the 
decision of the commanding general and assign the tasks that each 
division is to perform in carrying out such decision. Details as 
to the movements of any part of a division, including the trains, 
have no proper place in combat orders of field armies. 

Divisions. — In divisions, or in forces smaller than a division 
but made up of two or more arms, the combat orders recite the 
purpose of the commanding general, which is either the expression 
of his own decision, or is the task allotted him by the higher com- 
mander, and then state definitely the task that each subordinate 
unit is to perform in the execution of this purpose. The order 
states definitely what each subordinate unit is to do. How the task 
allotted is to be performed is the function of the commanders of 
the subordinate units. 

Personal conferences between the higher commanders and 
the subordinates who are to execute their orders may at times be 
advisable, in order that the latter may arrive at a correct under- 
standing of the plans and intentions of their superiors and may 
correctly interpret the orders issued. But such conferences are not 
for the purpose of criticising the orders or plans of the higher 
commander, nor to influence the latter's action. The officer issuing 
the order can not share the responsibility therefore with any of his 
subordinates. The decision, no matter how arrived at, is his 
alone. 



286 MILITARY TRAINING 

In assigning combat tasks, divisions in field armies and 
brigades in divisions are given certain well-defined parts of the 
enemy's line to attack, or certain sections of a line to defend, or are 
held as general reserves. Combat orders of divisions fix the posi- 
tion of ammunition distributing stations, dressing stations, and 
stations for the slightly wounded. If no previous arrangements 
have been made for the disposition of the trains, the combat order 
provides for grouping all trains not needed on the battle field far 
enough to the rear so as not to interfere with the movements of the 
combatant troops, should withdrawal become necessary. 

Combats of armies or of field armies are made up of a num- 
ber of local combats conducted by divisions or parts of divisions. 
In divisions, each brigade is given a definite objective or is held in 
reserve. After the combat is on, the division commander can 
retain but little direct control over the troops actually engaged. 
His control over the course of the entire action must rest in his 
use of the artillery and of the reserves he has at hand. The artil- 
lery is the only arm that can immediately respond to demands for 
support made by troops already engaged. The division com- 
mander uses this arm to meet local crises in the battle that must 
be met at once. The reserves are so placed and maneuvered as 
to meet the demands of the larger crises of the action. 

With the entry into action of the infantry, the cavalry with- 
draws from the front. From that time on the position of the 
cavalry should be one of readiness for use in the crises of the 
combat. If inferior to the enemy's cavalry, it may be forced to 
conform to the movements of the latter. In such a case it will 
have little or no voice in the selection of the position toward which 
it falls back. In armies the cavalry divisions usually remain under 
the orders of their own field army commanders. 

In field armies and in divisions, the selection of the flank 
toward which their cavalry will fall back when obliged to uncover 
the front is the function of the commanders of those units. The 
flank selected is the one most exposed, and where the active sup- 
port of the cavalry may be most necessary to the infantry, or, ff 
that factor can not be determined, the flank that affords the best 
field of activity for the cavalry in assisting in the main combat or 
in operating against the enemy's flanks or rear. Throughout the 
entire action contact must be maintained with the hostile cavalry, 
and the latter prevented from hindering the success of the infantry. 
To best effect this purpose the cavalry of field armies and divisions 
must be kept concentrated on one flank. 

THE SURPRISE 

To be surprised is never justifiable in warfare. If, however, 
due to the insufficient reconnaissance, troops are forced into action 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 287 

directly from a formation unsuitable for combat or come unex- 
pectedly under effective fire of the erfemy before development and 
deployment, boldness in decision and in action is usually the best 
line of conduct. If the enemy is still beyond close range, quick 
development of fire is important. Here the artillery must be put 
into action at once, to deliver a heavy fire upon the most threaten- 
ing bodies of the enemy. If the enemy is so near that a charge is 
practicable, recourse to the bayonet must be unhesitating. This 
principle applies particularly well where troops suddenly encounter 
the enemy in the local phases of a battle. To attempt to retire 
at once when surprised is to risk annihilation. 

When troops are on the march or at rest, reconnaissance by 
the cavalry, the omission of which is never justifiable, is the best 
means to guard against being surprised. In action cavalry recon- 
naissance is the best protection against surprise on the flanks or 
from the rear. 

THE RENCONTRE 

In the rencontre, where there is no surprise, success depends 
mainly upon efficient troop leading. To well-trained and well-led 
troops the attack in the rencontre is natural, and presents fewer 
difficulties than under any other condition of warfare. Quick deci- 
sion on the part of the leader is possible, if he has thought out 
before hand and keeps constantly in mind what he will do when 
the enemy is encountered. On the march he must take care to 
change the details of his mental plan to fit the changing conditions 
of terrain. This principle applies to all leaders, from the superior 
commander down to the commander of the advance party on the 
march or of the outguards when in camp. 

In rencontre combat there are but two courses open to the 
commander of the advance guard, viz., to attack, or to hold his 
position. The action of the advance guard will usually shape, and 
in every instance decidedly influence, that of the entire force. It 
must, therefore, be such as will accord with the preconceived plans 
and intentions of the supreme commander. The advance guard 
commander must know in advance whether the general plan is 
aggressive or defensive, and what the ideas of his superior are as 
to the development of such plan. This is the only guide to action 
the advance guard commander can have, but it will ordinarily 
suffice to determine him whether to act boldly or cautiously. 

OFFENSIVE COMBAT 

In combat, where the force involved is as large as or larger 
than a division, a simultaneous effective advance against the entire 



288 MILITARY TRAINING 

hostile front is out of the question. Modern battles are made up 
of a number of local combats, where success or failure in any one 
instance may decide the issue of the entire battle. Fronts occupied 
by field armies are but seldom continuous, even in comparatively 
flat and open country. Some parts of the line are held much more 
strongly than others, and the natural defensive features of por- 
tions of the front may render part of the line naturally impreg- 
nable. 

It is necessary, therefore, to select in the enemy's position 
limited sections, against which the decisive attacks will be made; 
but to insure success, the attention of the enemy must be held 
along his entire front. The attack thus develops into two parts; 
one whose task is to actually assault the hostile position at selected 
points, if assault be necessary to drive the enemy out; the other 
whose task it is to threaten or to actually attack all other parts of 
the enemy's line, in order to hold the hostile troops to their posi- 
tion and to prevent the strengthening of the points to be assaulted. 

As fire superiority is the first and most important requisite to 
success, it must be obtained at the start and maintained throughout 
the action. Fire superiority depends mainly upon the volume of 
the fire. A frontal attack alone against the hostile position may 
give no opportunity to obtain a greater volume of fire than that of 
the enemy, unless the latter's lines be unduly extended. Where 
that condition exists, a combination of a frontal with a flank attack 
promises the best results. The enemy is attacked in front by part 
of the force, while the remainder is directed against one of his 
flanks with a view to enveloping it. A successful envelopment of 
both flanks of the enemy, simultaneously with the frontal attack, is 
made possible only by a decided numerical superiority on the part 
of the attack. An attempt to envelop or to attack both hostile 
flanks, without an attack in front, entails a dispersion of force so 
rarely justifiable as to deserve no consideration. 

The terms " frontal " and " enveloping " attacks have no 
significance so far as the ultimate relative positions of the con- 
tending forces are concerned. Unless the enemy blunders or is 
decidedly numerically inferior, the enveloping attack finally be* 
comes a frontal attack, so far as the brigade and smaller units in- 
volved are concerned. It must be expected, therefore, that all at- 
tacks, no matter how initiated, will unltimately be made in a direc- 
tion normal to the position of the troops opposing them. 

Preconcerted plans covering all phases of an attack are ob- 
jectionable since it is impossible to determine, until the develop- 
ment of the action makes it manifest, what part or parts of the 
enemy's line will prove the most attractive for the assault. Both 
frontal and enveloping attacks are equally energetic at first, and 
when the time comes for the decisive attack, the part of the at- 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 289 

tacking line designated for that purpose is given, by means of the 
supports or reserves, the added momentum and strength that may 
be found necessary to a successful assault, while the remainder of 
the force holds the enemy in its front to his positions. 

DEFENSIVE COMBAT 

A force may at times fully accomplish its mission by retain- 
ing its position for a specified time with or without combat. Here 
the object is to avoid giving the enemy the decision, either by 
avoiding combat altogether or, if he attacks, by preventing him 
from carrying the position held by the defensive troops. The posi- 
tion taken up is selected, as far as the mission will permit, with 
reference to its natural defensive features. Since the idea of offen- 
sive combat is absent, every advantage is taken of obstacles, 
natural or artificial, that hinder or altogether prevent the advance 
of the enemy. Negative rather than positive measures are relied 
upon to prevent the enemy from seizing the position. In this form 
of defense the firing line is made as strong as possible from the 
first. If the flanks are not secured by other means, reserves strong 
enough for that purpose must be provided, but no reserves need be 
held for a decisive counter attack. Supports and local reserves 
need be held only strong enough to replace losses, to strengthen or 
re-enforce the firing line where the enemy's attack is most threat- 
ening, and to repair breaches in the line. The purely passive de- 
fense is justified where the sole object is to gain time, or to hold 
certain positions pending the issue of events in other parts of the 
field. Its results, when it accomplishes its mission, can never be 
other than negative. 

THE DEFENSE SEEKING A FAVORABLE DECISION 

This is the only form of the defense that can secure positive 
results. A force whose intentions are offensive may at times be 
forced to assume the defensive either voluntarily in order to gain 
time or secure some advantage over the enemy, or involuntarily, 
as where, in the rencontre, the enemy gets a start in deployment 
for action, or where the enemy's attack is impetuous and without 
sufficient preparation. In either case the defensive force contents 
itself with parrying the blows of the enemy, while gathering its 
strength and looking for the opening to strike a decisive blow. 

The crisis of this form of the defensive comes with the coun- 
ter attack, which marks the change from the defensive to the 
offensive. Upon the superior leader falls the responsibility of per- 
ceiving the right moment at which this change should be made and 



290 MILITARY TRAINING 

of having at hand the means necessary to effect it. The general 
reserve affords him the weapon necessary for his purpose. In this 
class of defensive, therefore, strong supports and reserves are 
essential. The firing line is made as short as possible at first, in 
order to permit of the holding out of local supports and reserves 
strong enough to meet all movements of the enemy and to hold 
the line throughout up to the time of the decisive counter attack, 
and the retention until that time of a reserve strong enough to 
make the counter attack a success. An open field of fire for effec- 
tive and close ranges is essential. Obstacles immediately in front 
of the position that might impede the counter attack are objec- 
tionable. 

THE COUNTER-ATTACK 

The part of the enemy's line at which the counter-attack will 
be launched can not be determined definitely until the time comes 
to make it. The enemy's attack will usually disclose weakness in 
some parts of his lines, and supports and local reserves may be 
used to accentuate this weakness or even to develop it in that 
part of the enemy's line where the terrain or the position of the 
general reserve may give the best opportunities for the counter- 
attack. 

The counter-attack may become necessary where the enemy 
shows the greatest strength, in order to keep him from penetrating 
the defensive position. The decision as to the time and the place 
for making the counter-attack rests with the superior leader. All, or 
the greater part, of the general reserve is used to effect this change 
from the defensive to the offensive. Local counter-attacks by 
small units are a means of defense and will often be necessary and 
advisable, but have no direct bearing on the main counter-attack, 
which is controlled by the superior leader. Local counter-attacks 
must not, therefore, be pushed to the extent of committing other 
than local supports or reserves to the offensive before, in the 
opinion of the superior leader, the time has come to strike the 
decisive blow. 

The counter-attack may be made by launching the reserve 
against the enemy's flank after he is fully committed to the attack, 
or straight to the front where weakness in his attacking lines is 
apparent. The impulse for the counter-attack may at times be 
given by the advance of the fighting line after a repulse of the 
enemy and the consequent demoralization of his attacking lines. 

When the time comes for the counter-attack, all the artillery 
and machine gun fire available is suddenly turned on that part of 
the enemy's line selected for the attack. This must not be done 
until the troops are ready for the attack. Otherwise, the enemy 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 291 

may discern the intention in time to make preparations to meet it 
either by re-enforcing that part of his line or by pushing the as- 
sault in another part of the field. 

CAVALRY IN DEFENSIVE COMBAT 

In all defensive combat cavalry has even a more important 
role than it holds in the offensive. It must always be ready to 
come immediately to the assistance of the infantry and to make 
any sacrifice necessary to ward off the defeat of that arm. It must 
be kept near at hand and ready for action, mounted or dismounted, 
in any part of the field. Its opportunities for mounted action to 
check the enemy's advancing lines, especially those that threaten 
the flanks of the infantry, will probably be many. Its co-operation 
can not be limited to any part of the battle. It may be able to 
hasten by its action the time for the counter attack or to create 
the opportunity for such attack. The superior leader must be in 
immediate communication with the cavalry commander through- 
out the action, and the work of the cavalry must be so co-ordinated 
with that of the general reserves that each will be prepared to 
seize any opportunity created by the other. The general reserve 
and the cavalry, together with all the artillery not fully occupied 
elsewhere, are the means available to the superior leader to change 
from the defensive to the offensive and to make such change suc- 
cessfully. 

NIGHT COMBAT 

With the increase in range and accuracy of fire, particularly 
that of the artillery, and the facilities for observation that are 
afforded by the use of aerocraft, night operations increase in im- 
portance. Troops must often make use of darkness to minimize 
losses from fire and to escape observation, to prepare for an assault 
to be made at daybreak, or to approach a point from which a day- 
light assault is to be made. Night operations may be necessary 
also for the purpose of gaining time. 

Even with well-trained and easily led troops, a night attack 
involves risks that should be assumed only for the most weighty 
reasons, and when the results of success are such as will justify 
the action. With poor troops and inefficient leaders night attacks 
are out of the question. As control is difficult, artillery support of 
the assault impossible, and confusion almost inevitable, chance is 
a factor that must be given maximum weight in estimating the 
probabilities of success. 

A night attack may appear advisable where it is found im- 
possible to secure the fire superiority necessary to permit of an 



292 MILITARY TRAINING 

assault by day, or where, for other reasons, it is found imprac- 
ticable to push the attack to within assaulting distance of the 
enemy's position; to avoid the heavy losses that would be incurred 
in an attack over open ground against a well-prepared position; 
to capture an advanced post or position, or an outpost as a pre- 
liminary to further operations; or to surprise poorly trained and 
poorly led troops. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFANTRY COMBAT 

Whether infantry fights in an offensive against lines which 
have been strengthened by the enemy for a considerable time, in 
each of the local combats of a general engagement, or in the ren- 
contre of open warfare, its action always takes the form of the 
" attack of a position." The artillery devastates; the infantry over- 
whelms. 

The principal effort of infantry is the assault. All of in- 
fantry tactics is comprised in the preparation for the assault, the 
execution of the assault, the exploitation of its success. 

Good assaulting distance results from a' consideration of the 
following points: It should not be more than 400 to 500 yards, in 
such a manner as to save our troops and their reinforcements as 
much as possible from the enemy's artillery barrage. It should not 
be less than 150 yards, as otherwise the bombardment by our artil- 
lery, on the hostile first line, will fall upon our own men. This re- 
quirement and that of being directly opposite the objectives de- 
cided upon may make it necessary to rectify the front and to open 
one or several parallels in advance of our own first line, and this 
is particularly true if the latter is too far from the hostile first line. 
The most advantageous location for the trench of departure for the 
assault is about 200 yards from the hostile first line. 

As a rule, such works as these and the gaining of ground to 
the front should be avoided as much as possible, as they give 
the enemy warning of our offensive plans. It is worth a good 
deal more, usually, to get the benefits of surprise, even though 
the assault must start at a greater distance from the hostile line. 

In the course of the combats which follow the assault, the 
approach may be pushed to the second hostile position, or perhaps 
even to another position in rear. The approach, likewise, will be 
one of the constant problems of a warfare of movement. 

The march in the approach will be executed in thin lines, or 
in lines of small columns, advancing by successive rushes, rapidly, 
and in good order, under the protection of the ""accompanying bat- 
teries " and of the " counter batteries." 

The combination to be brought into play is to have the 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 293 

infantry march as though behind a shield, on the very heels of the 
bursting shells of a well-regulated artillery fire, arrive in good 
order at the assaulting distance, deliver the assault without having 
to fire a shot, and thus continue until the last assigned objectivc 
has been reached and taken. Things work out well in trench war- 
fare when one has so disposed his time and necessary material as 
to severely crush all hostile organizations before the attack. In 
open warfare such complete preparation is not to be expected 

Theoretically, the object to be attained by the infantry is to 
reach assaulting distance in good order, under the protection of 
the artillery, without having opened fire. 

But more often, as soon as the enemy is approached, and 
in direct proportion to his proximity, the advance becomes slower 
and more painful. A simultaneous advance gives place to succes- 
sive rushes by groups (platoon, half platoon). Sometimes the 
firing line is carried forward by skirmishers, taking advantage of 
any cover that exists, and advancing individually. 

With well seasoned infantry, fire is not opened until short 
range is reached, where the skirmisher can see his objective and 
take aim. 

The officers and non-commissioned officers are the soul of 
the advance. By their determination and their military training 
they overcome the tendency to inertia and disinclination to leave 
cover. It is they who, by their influence on the groups of men 
that immediately surround them, keep alive the tendency 'to go 
forward. 

The Organization of the Zone of Departure for the Assault.— 
The zone of departure for the assault is formed by lines of trenches 
called parallels of departure. They should be close enough to- 
gether so that the one which is most distant from the enemy shall 
satisfy the condition that it will not be in the hostile barrage fire, 
delivered to prevent support and reserves being brought up. There 
should be enough of them to shelter all of the troops that are to 
make the assault. It is even advantageous sometimes to put the 
battalions of the second line, as well as the assaulting troops, in 
the parallels of departure, from the very beginning. It has been 
established that, in the course of the preparation for the attack by 
the artillery of our own side, the hostile artillery replies but little. 
It is therefore not necessary to construct bombproofs for all of the 
effectives in the zone of departure, nor to dig communicating 
trenches too far to the rear. Nevertheless, it is necessary to have 
recourse, to a great degree, to " camouflage," from the very com- 
mencement of work on the parallels of departure. 

The arrangement of the terrain for the attack comprises 
generally the following: 

The construction of observing stations; command posts; 



294 MILITARY TRAINING 

trench-artillery platforms; light shelters for ammunition, food, and 
material in the first line. 

The organization of the communications, trails and paths, 
and approach trenches both for bringing things forward and for 
evacuating the trenches. 

The organization of means of information (telephones with 
wires buried, visual signalling, messengers). 

The organization of the necessary parallels to shelter 
(lodge) the troops the day of the assault or the evening preceding 
the assault. 

In open warfare, the parallel of departure is improvised by 
the men of the first line. When they have been unable to approach 
during the day to within assaulting distance, the line of departure 
for the assault is carried forward, as soon as night falls, to the site 
selected for it, conforming as closely as possible to the rules which 
govern attacks organized at leisure. 

THE ASSAULT 

The intense effort demanded of the assaulting troops, and 
the successive attacks which they must make, necessitate a deep 
formation. The several echelons thus constituted have been given 
the name of " waves." But this term does not signify a uniform 
formation. The foremost waves, generally the first and the second, 
advance in line; those following are in various formations, for 
example, in lines of small columns. Moreover, to facilitate the 
leading of the echelons, the waves are formed by the simultaneous 
advance of tactical units not deployed in single line but themselves 
extended in the direction of depth, from which it results that a 
company or battalion will form a part of several successive waves. 

Formation for the assault does not consist of the deployment 
of rigid lines capable only of a movement straight to the front, 
but, on the contrary, of placing side by side tactical units which 
are capable of being led and even maneuvered. 

The waves are crowded into the first-line trench and the 
parallels in its immediate rear, sometimes in double rank. They 
dash forward, following each other at short distances, so as to 
rapidly cross the zone of hostile barrage fire. Theoretically an 
assaulting battalion leaves a single block of ■ its parallels of de- 
parture and then while marching takes the distances prescribed 
between waves. 

In no event should these waves close up automatically on the 
leading wave, as its only effect would be in thickening the skirmish 
line, increasing the losses, and mixing the units. To avoid such 
effects, when the first wave has crossed the advanced hostile trench 



OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE COMBAT 295 

it continues its advance toward the objective assigned it. The 
other waves follow in good order. They engage successively ac- 
cording to the necessities of the situation under orders from the 
commanders of the several units. 

COMBAT WITHIN THE HOSTILE POSITION 

The assault is now followed by a combat in the interior of 
the position. At certain points the enemy yields, at others he 
resists stubbornly. The assailants, rallying about the officers that 
remain, rush into the opening and surround the nuclei of resistance. 
As soon as the trench is carried the attack pauses only long 
enough to re-form, and the groups of assailants then dash into 
every opening that offers. Their audacity constitute their strength. 

These scattered combats bring the assailants in contact with 
a new line of defense. If it is occupied, they dig themselves in, in 
order to form a line of departure for an assault by the reinforce- 
ments. The attack of the new position is conducted in the same 
manner as the preceding, but with fresh troops. 

The operation of having the line of reserve battalions cross 
the line of battalions which have just delivered the assault is called 
the passing of lines and the reserve battalions then become the 
first line. The new attack is made against a line of intermediate 
objectives, if it is estimated that the final objective is too far away 
to admit of these same reserve battalions carrying it through to the 
bitter end; or it is made (immediately after the first attack) against 
the line of objectives which were last assigned, which is then 
crossed by the troops previously detailed for the tactical exploita- 
tion of success. Very detailed instructions are laid down for this 
in the plan of the engagement or in the plan of exploiting a 
success. 

This is a simple operation with well disciplined troops. It 
must be put into effect promptly, because upon the line where the 
passage of lines takes place the density of the troops is momen- 
tarily doubled, thus adding greatly to their vulnerability. The 
battalions which have been passed become part of the reserve or 
are left to guard the captured position. If the attack has for its 
only aim the taking of a certain definite position, the firing line 
occupies the position and digs itself in, pushing to the front only 
some advance elements (patrols). The reserves move up near at 
hand, in order to insure the occupation of the conquered terrain. 



CHAPTER XII 

SMALL ARMS, FIELD ARTILLERY AND 
AMMUNITION 

The United States Army magazine rifle (model of 1917), a 
combination of the United States model 1903 (rechambered for 
1906 ammunition) and the Enfield model 1914, possesses many- 
features of advantage and excellence. The safety is not a part of 
the bolt sleeve as in familiar models, but is pivoted in the right side 
of the receiver, abaft the bolt handle, and works parallel with the 
barrel. Pulling it back operates two plungers entering recesses 
cut, the one in the bolt handle, the other in the firing pin head. 
Because the former recess must be exactly in line with the plunger, 
the slightest upward motion of the bolt handle prevents the soldier 
from putting on the safety. 

There is no magazine cut-off and the magazine follower holds 
the bolt open when the magazine is empty. Accordingly drill with 
the empty rifle in the firing motions is made possible only by the 
issuing, with each rifle sent to the camps for drill purposes, a " de- 
pression follower " which, held under the edges of the bolt wall, 
allows the bolt to go forward without obstruction and permits use 
of the rifle as a single loader. The purpose of holding open the 
bolt when the magazine is empty is to prevent the excited soldier 
from continuing indefinitely the motions of firing on an empty 
chamber. The following are the principal dimensions and weights: 
Barrel: Inches 

Diameter of bore 0.30 

Exterior diameter at muzzle 619 

Exterior diameter at breech 1.14 

Length of chamber and bore 23.79 

Length of travel of bullet in bore 21.697 

Diameter of chamber, rear end 4716 

Diameter of chamber, front end 442 

Diameter of neck of chamber, rear end.... 3425 

Diameter of neck of chamber, front end « 3405 

Length of body of chamber 1.793 

Length of shoulder of chamber 16 

Length of neck of chamber 396 

Length of chamber, total 2.3716 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 297 

Rifling: Inches 

Number of grooves, 4. 

Twist, uniform, one turn in 10.00 

Width of grooves 1767 

Width of lands 0589 

Depth of grooves 004 

Height of front sight above axis of bore 1.05 

Distance from top of front sight to rear side of leaf, leaf 
raised 22.1254 

Stock: 

Length, with butt plate 40.166 

Crook, i. e., distance from axis of bore to heel of butt. . . . 2.089 

Distance from trigger to butt plate 12.74 

Length of gun complete 43.212 

Sight radius 22.1254 

Sight radius (battle sight) 21.5404 

Width of single division on windage scale 0267 

Weights Pounds 

Barrel 2.79 

Barrel, with rear-sight base and front-sight stud 3.00 

Butt plate 26 

Receiver 98 

Bolt mechanism 1.00 

Magazine and trigger guard 44 

Magazine mechanism, including floor plate 17 

Bayonet LOO 

Stock L58 

Hand guard 13 

Front and rear bands, including swivels 25 

Rear sight, not including base 20 

Total weight of metal parts 7.30 

Oiler and thong case 19 

Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with 

bayonet 9.69 

Total weight of arm, including oiler and thong case, with- 
out bayonet 8.69 

Weight to compress mainspring 16 to 18 

Trigger pull (measured at middle point of bow of trigger) 4 to 5 

Miscellaneous Data 

Initial velocity 2,700 feet per second 

Powder pressure in chamber. . .about 51,000 pounds per square inch 

Weight of ball cartridge about 395.5 grains 

Weight of bullet 150 grains 

Weight of powder charge about 50 grains 



298 MILITARY TRAINING 

THE ASSEMBLED PARTS OF THE SERVICE RIFLE AND 
THEIR OPERATIONS 

Most of the operating parts may be included under the bolt 
mechanism and magazine mechanism. The bolt mechanism con- 
sists of the bolt, sleeve, sleeve lock, extractor, extractor collar, 
safety lock, firing pin, firing pin sleeve, striker, and mainspring. 

The bolt moves backward and forward and rotates in the 
well of the receiver; it carries a cartridge, either from the magazine, 
or one placed by hand in front of it, into the chamber and supports 
its head when fired. 

The sleeve unites the parts of the bolt mechanism, and its 
rotation with the bolt is prevented by the lugs on its sides coming 
in contact with the receiver. 

The hook of the extractor engages in the groove of the 
cartridge case and retains the head of the latter in the countersink 
of the bolt until the case is ejected. 

The safety lock, when turned to the left, is inoperative; when 
turned to the right — which can only be done when the piece is 
cocked — the point of the spindle enters its notch in the bolt and 
locks the bolt; at the same time its cam forces the cocking piece 
slightly to the rear, out of contact with the sear, and locks the 
firing pin. 

The bolt mechanism operates as follows: To open the bolt, 
raise the handle until it comes in contact with the left side of the 
receiver and pull directly to the rear until the top locking lug 
strikes the cut-off. 

Raising the handle rotates the bolt and separates the locking 
lugs from their locking shoulders in the receiver, with which they 
have been brought into close contact by the powder pressure. 
This rotation causes the cocking cam of the bolt to force the firing 
pin to the rear, drawing the point of the striker into the bolt, 
rotation of the firing pin being prevented by the lug on the cocking 
piece projecting, through the slot in the sleeve, into its groove in 
the receiver. As the sleeve remains longitudinally stationary with 
reference to the bolt, this rearward motion of the firing pin, and 
consequently of the striker, will start the compression of the 
mainspring, since the rear end of the latter bears against the front 
end of the barrel of the sleeve and its front end against the rear 
end of the firing pin sleeve. 

When the bolt handle strikes the receiver, the locking lugs 
have been disengaged, the firing pin has been forced to the rear 
until the sear notch of the cocking piece has passed the sear nose, 
the cocking piece nose has entered the cock notch in the rear 
end of the bolt, the sleeve lock has engaged its notch in the bolt, 
and the mainspring has been almost entirely compressed. 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 299 

During the rotation of the bolt a rear motion has been im- 
parted to it by its extracting cam coming in contact with the 
extracting cam of the receiver, so that the cartridge case is started 
from the chamber. The bolt is then drawn directly to the rear, 
the parts being retained in position by the cocking piece nose 
remaining in the cock notch and locked by the sleeve lock engag- 
ing its notch in the bolt. 

To close the bolt, push the handle forward until the extract- 
ing cam on the bolt bears against the extracting cam on the re- 
ceiver, thereby unlocking the sleeve from the bolt, and turn the 
handle down. As the handle is turned down the cams of the 
locking lugs bear against the locking shoulders in the receiver, 
and the bolt is forced slightly forward into its closed position. 
As all movement of the firing pin is prevented by the sear nose 
engaging the sear notch of the cocking piece, this forward move- 
ment of the bolt completes the compression of the mainspring, 
seats the cartridge in the chamber, and, in single loading, forces 
the hook of the extractor into the grdbve of the cartridge case. 
In loading from the magazine the hook of the extractor, rounded 
at its lower edge, engages in the groove of the top cartridge as 
it rises from the magazine under the action of the follower, and 
magazine spring. 

To pull the trigger, the finger piece must be drawn to the 
rear until contact with the receiver is transferred from its bearing 
to the heel, which gives a creep to the trigger, and then until the 
6ear nose is withdrawn from in front of the cocking piece. 

Just before the bolt is drawn fully to the rear, the top lock- 
ing lug strikes the heel of the ejector, throwing its point suddenly 
to the right in the lug slot. As the bolt moves fully to the rear, 
the rear face of the cartridge case strikes against the ejector point 
and the case is ejected, slightly upward and to the right, from the 
receiver. 

Double loading from the magazine is prevented by the ex- 
tractor engaging the cartridge case as soon as it rises from the 
magazine and holding its head against the face of the bolt until 
ejected. 

It will be noted that in this system of bolt mechanism the 
compression of the mainspring, the seating of the cartridge in and 
the starting of the empty case from the chamber are entirely done 
by the action of cams. 

The piece may be cocked either by raising the bolt handle 
until it strikes the left side of the receiver and then immediately 
turning it down or by pulling the cocking piece directly to the 
rear. 

In firing, unless the bolt handle is turned fully down, the 
cam on the cocking piece will strike the cocking cam on the bolt, 



300 MILITARY TRAINING 

and the energy of the mainspring will be expended in closing the 
bolt, instead of on the primer; this prevents the possibility of a 
cartridge being fired until the bolt is fully closed. The opening 
and closing of the bolt should each be done by one continuous 
motion. 

The magazine mechanism includes the floor plate, follower, 
magazine spring, and cut-off. 

To charge the magazine, see that the cut-off is turned up 
showing " on," draw the bolt fully to the rear, insert the cartridges 
from a clip, or from the hand, and close the bolt. To charge the 
magazine from a clip, place either end of a loaded clip in its seat 
in the receiver and, with the thumb of the right hand, press the 
cartridges down into the magazine until the top cartridge is caught 
by the right edge of the receiver. The cartridge ramp guides the 
bullet and cartridge case into the chamber. The magazine can be 
filled, if partly filled, by inserting cartridges one by one. 

When the cut-off is turned down, the magazine is " off." 
The bolt can not be drawn fully back, and its front end projecting 
over the rear end of the upper cartridge holds it down in the maga- 
zine below the action of the bolt. The magazine mechanism then 
remains inoperative, and the arm can be used as a single-loader, 
the cartridges in the magazine being held in reserve. The arm 
can readily be used as a single-loader with the magazine empty. 

When the cut-off is turned up, the magazine is " on "; the 
bolt can be drawn fully to the rear, permitting the top cartridge 
to rise high enough to be caught by the bolt in its forward move- 
ment. As the bolt is closed this cartridge is pushed forward into 
the chamber, being held up during its passage by the pressure of 
those below. The last one in the magazine is held up by the fol- 
lower, the rib on which directs it into the chamber. 

In magazine fire, after the last cartridge has been fired and 
the bolt drawn fully to the rear, the follower rises and holds the 
bolt open to show that the magazine is empty, 

TO DISMOUNT THE BOLT MECHANISM 

Place the cut-off at the center notch; cock the arm and turn 
the safety lock to a vertical position, raise the bolt handle and 
draw out the bolt. 

Hold the bolt in the left hand, press the sleeve lock in with 
the thumb of the right hand to unlock the sleeve from the bolt, 
and unscrew the sleeve by turning to the left, as shown in the 
drawing. 

Hold the sleeve between the forefinger and the thumb of 
the left hand, draw the cocking piece back with the middle finger 
and the thumb of the right hand, turn the safety lock down to the 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 301 

left with the forefinger of the right hand, in order to allow the 
cocking piece to move forward in the sleeve, thus partially reliev- 
ing the tension of the mainspring; with the cocking piece against 
the breast, draw back the firing pin sleeve with the forefinger and 
thumb of the right hand and hold it in this position while removing 
the striker with the left hand; remove the firing pin sleeve and 
mainspring; pull the firing pin out of the sleeve; turn the extractor 
to the right, its tongue out of its groove in the front of the bolt, 
and force the extractor forward and off the bolt. 

TO ASSEMBLE THE BOLT MECHANISM 

Grasp with the left hand the rear of the bolt, handle up, and 
turn the extractor collar with the thumb and forefinger of the right 
hand until its lug is on a line with the safety lug on the bolt; take 
the extractor in the right hand and insert the lug on the collar 
in the undercuts in the extractor by pushing the extractor to the 
rear until its tongue comes in contact with the rim on the face of 
the bolt (a slight pressure with the left thumb on the top of the 
rear part of the extractor assists in this operation); turn the ex- 
tractor to the right until it is over the right lug; take the bolt in 
the right hand and press the hook of the extractor against the butt 
plate or some rigid object, until the tongue on the extractor enters 
its groove in the bolt. 

"With the safety lock turned down to the left to permit the 
firing pin to enter the sleeve as far as possible, assemble the sleeve 
and firing pin; place the cocking piece against the breast and put 
on the mainspring, firing pin sleeve, and striker. Hold the cocking 
piece between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and by 
pressing the striker point against some substance, not hard enough 
to injure it, force the cocking piece back until the safetv lock 
can be turned to the vertical position with the right hand; insert 
the firing pin in the bolt and screw up the sleeve (by turning it 
to the right) until the sleeve lock enters its notch on the bolt. 

See that the cut-off is at the center notch; hold the piece 
under the floor plate in the fingers of the left hand, the thumb 
extending over the left side of the receiver; take the bolt in the 
right hand with the safety lock in a vertical position and the safety 
lug up; press the rear end of the follower down with the left 
thumb and push the bolt into the receiver; lower the bolt handle; 
turn the safety lock and cut-off down to the left with the right hand. 

TO DISMOUNT THE MAGAZINE MECHANISM 

With the bullet end of a cartridge press on the floor plate 
catch (through the hole in the floor plate), at the same time draw- 
ing the bullet to the rear; this releases the floor plate. 



302 MILITARY TRAINING 

Raise the rear end of the first limb of the magazine spring 
high enough to clear the lug on the floor plate and draw it out of 
its mortise; proceed in the same manner to remove the follower. 

To assemble the magazine spring and follower to the floor 
plate, reverse the operation of dismounting. 

Insert the follower and magazine spring in the magazine, 
place the tenon on the front end of the floor plate in its recess in 
the magazine, then place the lug on the rear end of the floor 
plate in its slot in the guard, and press the rear end of the floor 
plate forward and inward at the same time, forcing the floor plate 
into its seat in the guard. 

In assembling the sleeve lock to the sleeve, be careful to 
compress the lock and spring while driving in the pin from the 
bottom of the sleeve. 

To assemble the safety lock and sleeve, insert the safety 
lock spindle in its hole in the sleeve as far as it will go; then, with 
the thumb piece vertical and pressed against some rigid object, 
introduce the point of the tool provided for this purpose between 
the safety lock spindle and the safety lock plunger, forcing the 
latter into the thumb piece until it slips over the edge of the sleeve. 
Further pressure on the safety lock thumb piece, together with 
the gradual withdrawal of the tool, will complete the assembling. 

The floor plate spring and the cut-off spring are alike, except 
in length. The latter being the longer, care should be taken not 
to substitute one for the other. 

ARM LOCKER FOR UNITED STATES RIFLE, CALIBER .30, 
MODEL OF 1903 

This chest is issued at the rate of one per company or troop 
for use in the safe-keeping of the surplus rifles of a company or 
troop. It is provided with reinforcing angle irons which secure 
the bottom of the chest to the sides; and with blind strap hinges, 
hasps, and staples for securing the cover to the body of the chest. 
Two padlocks with chains and keys are also issued with each arm 
locker. 

AMMUNITION FOR UNITED STATES RIFLE, CALIBER .30, 
MODEL OF 1903 

The caliber .30 ball cartridge consists of the case, primer, 
charge of smokeless powder, and bullet. The case is of cartridge 
brass. It has a conical body joined to the neck by a sharper cone, 
called the shoulder. The neck is the seat of the bullet and .is very 
nearly cylindrical. The front end of the case is called the mouth 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 3C3 

and the rear end the head. The mouth edge of the case is crimped 
on the bullet, when the cartridge is assembled, in order to keep the 
bullet secure in the case. The head of the case is grooved to 
provide for the extraction of cartridge from the chamber of the 
rifle and is provided with a primer pocket and vent. The initials 
of the place of manufacture, the number of the month, and the 
year of its fabrication are stamped on the head of case. 

The primer consists of the cup, precussion composition, 
disk of shellacked paper, and anvil. The cup is of gilding metal 
and contains 0.46 grain of nonfulminate composition composed of 
tersulphide of antimony, potassium chlorate, and sulphur. A disk 
of shellacked paper covers the composition to protect it from 
moisture and to prevent electrolytic action. The anvil is of brass 
and is assembled over the paper. After the primer is assembled 
to the case a drop of shellac is placed on the head of the primer 
to make the joint waterproof. 

The charge is of pyrocellulose composition very similar to 
the powders used as propelling charges in field and sea coast guns. 
The grains are cylindrical, single, perforated, and graphited. The 
normal charge weighs from 47 to 50 grains, varying with the lot 
of powder used. 

The bullet has a core of lead and tin composition inclosed 
in a jacket of cupro-nickel. It weighs 150 grains, and the point 
is much sharper and offers less resistance to the air than that of 
any previous model in the United States service. The bullet is 
cannelured to receive the crimp of the case, and the base of the 
bullet is flat. The neck of the case is shellacked before loading, 
and a pressure of at least 75 pounds is required to seat the bullet 
in the case; this, with the addition of the above-mentioned crimp, 
makes the case waterproof. 

The standard muzzle velocity of this ammunition in the rifle 
is 2,700 feet per second. The instrumental velocity measured at 
78 feet from the muzzle is 2,640 feet per second, with an 
allowed mean variation of 20 feet per second on either side of the 
standard. 

The cartridge complete weighs about 395.5 grains, its weight 
varying slightly with variation in the weight of the powder charge. 
Five cartridges are packed in a clip. 

The clip consists of the body and a spring, both of brass. 
On the exterior of the sides of the body are the stop lugs, which 
seat the clip in its slots in the receiver of the rifle. The top edges 
of the slides are folded inward, forming flanges, which, fitting 
into the grooves in the heads, hold the cartridges in place. The 
spring is secured to the bottom of the body by two sets of inter- 
locking lips. The spring is provided with narrow tongues which, 
when the clip is filled, are pressed into the grooves of the outside 
20 



304 MILITARY TRAINING 

cartridges, holding the cartridges securely in the clip. The clip 
body can be used a number of times, but the springs only once. 

The gallery practice and dummy clip is provided with a 
strong bronze spring without tongues. Sixty ball cartridges in 12 
clips are packed in a bandoleer. The bandoleer is made of olive- 
drab cloth and contains six pockets, each holding two clips. The 
clips can be readily taken out by forcing back the fold of the 
pocket. The bandoleer is provided with a shoulder strap of olive- 
drab webbing by which it is carried over the shoulder, and a safety 
pin is provided to afford an adjustment of its length to suit the 
convenience of the soldier. When packed, the bandoleer weighs 
about 3.88 pounds. In each bandoleer is placed an identification 
card showing the number of cartridges, the caliber and model 
of ammunition and rifle, place and date of manufacture, kind and 
lot of powder, and muzzle velocity. The shop symbols of loaders, 
inspectors, and packers are also given. In case of defective ammu- 
nition this card should be returned with the report. 

Twelve hundred cartridges are packed in a terneplate-lined 
packing box, hermetically sealed. Each box contains 20 bandoleers 
of 60 cartridges each. The packing box measures 34.5 by 9.5 by 
8.25 inches and weighs about 100 pounds when filled. The lid is 
held to the box by five brass bolts and can be easily removed 
without the use of tools. Two wire seals connect the cover with 
the sides of the box. When the lid is removed, the lining may be 
torn open by means of a wire handle on the metal cover. 

A metallic packing chest is also in use. It is made of tinned 
sheet iron painted olive-drab. This chest holds 1,200 cartridges 
packed in 20 bandoleers of 60 cartridges each. It has a terneplate 
cover under the lid and is hermetically sealed. The chest measures 
8 by 16J4 by 14 inches and weighs about 95 pounds when filled. A 
tin seal locks the hasp to the lid. By opening and closing the fold of 
this seal several times it will break, thus permitting it to be easily 
withdrawn. When the lid is opened the cover can be torn off 
by means of an iron handle attached thereto. 

BLANK CARTRIDGE, MODEL OF 1906 

The blank cartridge, model of 1906, differs from the ball 
cartridge in the charge of powder and in the bullet and in the 
fact that the case is tinned. The bullet is of paper, hollow, and 
contains a charge of 6 grains of " E. C." smokeless powder, which 
insures the breaking up of the bullet on leaving the bore. This 
charge is retained in the bullet by a drop of shellac. A coating of 
paraffin on the outside of the bullet prevents the absorption of 
moisture by the paper. The propelling charge is 10 grains of 
" E. C." powder. 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 305 

The cartridge is made 0.1 inch shorter than the ball cart- 
ridge. This is a measure of protection against the accidental 
assembling by the machine of a ball cartridge in a clip of blank 
ones. 

BLANK CARTRIDGE, MODEL OF 1909 

In the manufacture of these blank cartridges, cases are used 
which have been fired, or which have slight defects, rendering them 
unsuitable for use in ball cartridges. The charge is 12 grains of 
" E. C." powder. The case is closed by means of a paper cup 
inserted in the mouth of the case and shellacked to render the 
ammunition waterproof. 

DUMMY CARTRIDGE 

The case of the dummy cartridge is tinned and provided 
with six longitudinal corrugations, also three circular holes in the 
corrugated portion. The tinning, corrugations, and holes afford 
unmistakable means for distinguishing the dummy from the ball 
cartridge, both by sight and touch. The bullet is the same as in 
the ball cartridge. The dummy primer has a cup and anvil, but 
no percussion composion. 

GUARD CARTRIDGE 

This cartridge differs from the ball cartridge in the charge 
of powder and in the fact that second-class bullets having slight 
imperfections are used. Five cannelures encircle the body of the 
case at about the middle, affording means for distinguishing it 
from the ball cartridge by either sight or touch. The charge, about 
9.1 grains bull's-eye powder, or 16.7 grains Du Pont rifle smokeless 
No. 1, gives a muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet per second. It gives 
good results at 100 yards and has sufficient accuracy for use at 150 
and 200 yards. 

The guard cartridge, as now issued, differs from the old issue 
in that six longitudinal corrugations 3-16 inch long start from the 
shoulder of the case. This affords means of distinguishing this 
cartridge from the ball cartridge. It has the same charge of pow- 
der, muzzle velocity, etc., as the old issue. 

VARIATIONS AND CORRECTIONS 

The components of all machine-made ammunition must of 
necessity vary within certain practicable working limits, and every 



306 MILITARY TRAINING 

such variation, especially in the bullet and powder, has a corre- 
sponding effect upon the muzzle velocity. The service ammunition 
is loaded with a charge of powder which gives 2,700 feet per second 
muzzle velocity when fired from a standard rifle with selected 
bullets, the powder being at a temperature of 70° F. 

The service ammunition will give a muzzle velocity of 
2,700±20 feet per second when fired on a normal day (70° F.). 
This velocity will vary directly with the temperature (T) 1.5 feet 
per second per degree. So that this ammunition fired on any but 
a normal day will give a muzzle velocity of 2,700±20+(T— 70) 1.5 
feet per second. Besides the variations due to the ammunition and 
temperature there are slight variations caused by the rifle which 
are of no great importance. 

Small variations in velocity have small corresponding verti- 
cal deviations on the target. For example, at 1,000 yards an ex- 
treme vertical deviation of about 20 inches will be due to varia- 
tions in muzzle velocity and 20 inches more due to other causes. 
The mean vertical deviation at this range, however, is less than 
10 inches. 

Another factor entering the question of range is the density 
of the air, which varies with the barometer, thermometer, and 
hygrometer readings. 

HORIZONTAL DEVIATION 

The rifle has a right-hand twist, and the drift proper is there- 
fore to the right. There is, however, a slight lateral jump to the 
left, and the total horizontal deviation of the bullet, excluding 
wind, is the algebraic sum of the drift and the lateral jump. The 
trajectory is found to be very slightly to the left of the central 
or uncorrected line of sight up to a range of 500 yards, and beyond 
that range to the right of this line. In order to minimize the 
deviations at the most important ranges the drift slot on the sight 
leaf is so cut as to make the trajectory cross the adjusted line 
of sight at a range of 500 yards. 

AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45 

The automatic pistol, caliber .45, model of 1911, in the 
United States military service, consists of three principal parts — 
the receiver, the barrel and the slide. Referring to the drawing 
for reference numbers, the receiver (1) has suitable guides for the 
reciprocating slide (3), and a hollow handle in which the magazine 
is inserted from below and locked in place by the magazine catch 
(48). The magazine may be removed by pressure upon the 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 



307 



checkered end of the magazine catch (48), which projects from 
the left side of the receiver (1) in a convenient position for opera- 
tion by the thumb. 

The magazine catch (48) engages with and locks the maga- 
zine under the pressure of the magazine catch spring (49) and is 
held in the receiver (1) by means of the magazine catch lock (50). 

The magazine consists of a magazine tube (42) closed at 
the bottom by means of the magazine base (43) secured with two 
magazine pins (44). The magazine base (43) has riveted to it 
the magazine loop (45) to which can be attached a lanyard to pre- 
vent loss of the magazine. Within the magazine tube (42) is con- 
tained the magazine spring (46) exerting a pressure against the 




SS* 



AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER .45 



magazine follower (47), which serves as a movable platform for 
the cartridges. 

Secured at each end of the handle of receiver (1) on both 
sides are screw bushings (53), on to which are fitted the stocks 
(51) and into which, to secure the latter, are screwed the stock 
screws (52). 

In front of the handle of the receiver (1), in the trigger 
guard, is seated the trigger (34); in rear and above the handle 
the firing mechanism is arranged, comprising the hammer (23), 
mounted on the hammer pin (24), the sear (30) and (automatic) 
disconnector (33), mounted together on the sear pin (32), the grip 



308 MILITARY TRAINING 

safety (35), and safety lock (36); also the mainspring (27), and 
the sear spring (31). The mainspring (27) is seated within the 
mainspring housing (37) and there held by the mainspring-cap 
pin (29). The mainspring housing (37) also contains the main- 
spring cap (28) and the housing-pin retainer (39). The conical 
point of the latter protrudes slightly into the hole for the housing 
pin (38), engaging with the groove around the middle thereof, 
thereby holding the housing pin (38) in place. Into the base of 
the mainspring housing (37) is fitted the lanyard loop (40) secured 
by the lanyard-loop pin (41). 

The sear spring (31) has a rib on its lower end which fits 
into a slot in the rear wall of the magazine seat and keeps the 
spring from moving vertically. The mainspring housing (37^, 
bearing against the rear of the spring, locks it in position and 
gives to it the required tension. The hammer strut (25) is at- 
tached to the hammer (23) in rear of its pivot by means of the 
hammer-strut pin (26). Its lower end rests in the mainspring 
cap (28). 

Above the handle on the left side are the slide-stop plunger 
(5) and safety lock plunger (7) with their ends protruding from 
the front and rear, respectively, of the plunger tube (4). The 
plunger spring (6) is seated between the plungers (5 and 7) within 
the plunger tube (4) and yielding holds them in position. 

The ejector (18) is seated at the top of the receiver (1) near 
the rear end at the left side. It is held in place by the ejector 
pin (19). The top of the receiver (1) forward of the trigger guard 
has a semitubular extension which forms the seat for the rear 
portion of the recoil spring (14). 

The barrel (2) of the pistol is largest at the breech, and at 
the top has two transverse locking ribs, the forward edges of 
which, together with the forward edge of the breech portion, 
serve to positively interlock the barrel (2) with the slide (3) when 
in the firing position. At its rear is an extension which facilitates 
the entrance of the cartridge from the magazine into the chamber. 
The rear end of the barrel (2) is attached to the receiver (1) by the 
link (11), link pin (12), and the pin of the slide stop (8), and swing- 
ing thereon can move a limited distance lengthwise and also in a 
vertical plane. 

The side walls of the slide (3) overlap the sides of the re- 
ceiver (1), and being provided with longitudinal ribs corresponding 
with similar grooves at the top of the receiver (1), the slide (3) 
is free to move longitudinally. The slide (3) has at its front end 
a strong tubular abutment which is in line with the forward por- 
tion of the receiver (1), and which permits the slide (3) to move 
to the rear until the rear end of the abutment comes in contact 
with the flange of the recoil spring guide (15) against the shoulder 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY ZZ9 

in the receiver (1) at its forward end, thereby positively limiting 
the rearward movement of the slide (3). The latter is therefore 
necessarily assembled to the receiver (1) from the front, and is 
prevented from being thrown rearward from the receiver (1) under 
any circumstances. 

In the abutment at the front end of the slide (3) is seated 
the forward end of the recoil spring (14), fitted into the plug (16). 
The rear end of the recoil spring (14) fitted onto the recoil spring 
guide (15) rests against the shoulder in the front end of the 
receiver (1). On the top of slide (3) are mounted the front sight (10) 
and rear sight (9). The barrel bushing (13) fits into the front end 
of the slide (3), supports the muzzle end of the barrel (2), and 
holds the plug (16) and recoil spring (14) in place. When the 
slide (3) and the barrel (2) therein are mounted upon the receiver 
(1) and the slide stop (8) is in its place, so that the pin part of 
the slide stop (8) locks the barrel (2) to the receiver (1) through 
the link (11), the slide (3) is thereby positively locked in place 
upon the receiver (1). 

The firing pin (20), firing-pin spring (21), and (shell) ex- 
tractor (17) are carried in the rear end of the slide (3) and locked 
by the firing-pin stop (22). By pressing the firing pin (20) forward 
so as to clear the firing-pin stop (22), the latter is released and 
may be removed downwardly, leaving both firing pin (20) and 
extractor (17) free for removal. The slide stop (8) consists of the 
pin part, which serves as a pivot and passes through the link (11), 
and a body, on which a thumb piece, for releasing the slide (3) 
from the open position. 

The safety lock (36) consists of a thin plate, a projecting pin, 
a thumb piece, and a projecting stud. The pin part serves as a 
pivot for the safety lock (36) and is at the same time a pivot for 
the grip safety (35). The upper corner of the plate has an angle 
which will fit into a correspondingly shaped recess in the slide (3). 
When the slide (3) is in its forward position, and the hammer (23) 
is full cocked, the safety lock (36) may be pushed up manually, by 
means of the thumb piece, thereby positively locking the hammer 
and the slide. When the safety lock (36) is being pushed up into 
the locking position the stud on the safety lock (36) is being car- 
ried upward and it finally stands in rear of the lower arm of the 
sear (30), blocking the sear (30) and causing the locking of the 
hammer (23). If the safety lock (36) is pressed down so as to 
release the slide (3) the projecting stud on the safety lock (36) 
clears the sear (30), permitting the sear (30) to be operated by 
the trigger (34), thereby causing the release of the hammer (23) 
if the grip safety (35) is pressed inward, as by the hand grasping 
the handle of the pistol, and the trigger (34) is pulled. 

The grip safety (35) is pivoted in the upper part of the re- 



310 MILITARY TRAINING 

ceiver (1). Its lower part projects from the rear face of the 
handle under pressure of the short leaf of the sear spring (31), 
thereby locking the trigger whenever the handle of the pistol is 
released. But when the handle is grasped, as in the firing position, 
the grip safety (35) releases the trigger (34) without requiring 
the attention or thought of the firer. 

The (automatic) disconnector (33) is mounted in the re- 
ceiver (1) in rear of the magazine seat. In the underside of the 
slide (3) and near its rear end, a recess is provided which stands 
above the top of the disconnector (33) when the slide (3) is in the 
forward firing position. With the slide in this position the dis- 
connector (33) is raised to its operative position by the center leaf 
of the sear spring (31) and it then will transmit the movement o1 
the trigger (34) to the sear (30). The forward surfaces of the 
recess of the slide (3) and of the projecting end of the discon- 
nector (33) are inclining, so that the rearward movement of the 
slide (3) depresses the connector (33) until the slide (3) again re- 
turns to its forward position. In this depressed position of the 
disconnector (33) the trigger (34) is disconnected from the sear 
(30), allowing the sear (30) to re-engage the hammer (23). This 
arrangement automatically and positively prevents firing of the 
pistol except when all its parts are in the fully closed and locked 
firing position, and it also prevents more than one shot from fol- 
lowing each pull of the trigger (34). 

TO DISMOUNT AND ASSEMBLE THE PISTOL 

Remove the magazine by pressing the magazine catch (48). 
Press the plug (16) inward and turn the barrel bushing (13) to the 
right until the plug (16) and the end of the recoil spring (14) 
protrude from their seat, releasing the tension of the spring (14). 
As the plug (16) is allowed to protrude from its seat, the finger or 
thumb should be kept over it, so that it will not jump away and be 
lost or strike the operator. Draw the slide (3) rearward until the 
smaller rear recess in its lower left edge stands above the projec- 
tion on the thumb piece of the slide stop (8); press gently against 
the end of the pin of the slide stop (8) which protrudes from the 
right side of the receiver (1) above the trigger guard and remove 
the slide stop (8). This releases the link (11), allowing the barrel 
(2), with the link (11) and the slide (3), to be drawn forward to- 
gether from the receiver (1), carrying with them the barrel bush- 
ing (13), recoil spring (14), plug (16), and recoil-spring guide (15). 

Remove these parts from the slide (3) by withdrawing the 
recoil-spring guide (15) from the rear of the recoil spring (14), and 
drawing the plug (16) and the recoil spring (14) forward from the 
slide (3). Turn plug (16) to right to remove from recoil spring 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 311 

(14). Turn the barrel bushing (13) to the left until it may be 
drawn forward from the slide (3). This releases the barrel (2) 
which, with the link (11), may be drawn forward from the slide 
(3), and by pushing out the link pin (12) the link (11) is released 
from the barrel (2). Press the rear end of the firing pin (20) 
forward until it clears the firing-pin stop (22), which is then drawn 
downward from its seat in the slide (3); the firing pin (20), firing- 
pin spring (21), and extractor (17) are then removed from the 
rear of the slide (3). 

The safety lock (36) is readily withdrawn from the receiver 
(1) by cocking the hammer (23) and pushing from the right on 
the pin part or pulling outward on the thumb piece of the safety 
lock (36) when it is midway between its upper and lower positions. 
The cocked hammer (23) is then lowered and removed after re- 
moving the hammer pin (24) from the left side of the receiver (1). 
The housing pin (38) is then pushed out from the right side of 
the receiver (1), which allows the mainspring housing (37) to be 
withdrawn downward and the grip safety (35) rearward from the 
handle. The sear spring (31) may then be removed. By pushing 
out the sear pin (32) from the right to the left side of the re- 
ceiver (1), the sear (30) and the disconnector (33) are released. 

To remove the mainspring (27), mainspring cap (28), and 
housing-pin retainer (39) from the mainspring housing (37), com- 
press the mainspring (27) and push out the small mainspring cap 
pin (29). 

To remove the magazine catch (48) from the receiver (1), 
its checkered left end must be pressed inward, when the right end 
of the magazine catch (48) will project so far from the right side 
of the receiver (1) that it may be rotated one-half turn. This move- 
ment will release the magazine catch lock (50) from its seat in 
the receiver (1), when the magazine catch (48), the magazine catch 
lock (50), and the magazine catch spring (49) may be removed. 

With the improved design of magazine catch lock (50) the 
operation of dismounting the magazine catch (48) is simplified in 
that when the magazine catch (48) has been pressed inward the 
magazine catch lock (50) is turned by means of a screw driver or 
the short leaf of the sear spring (31) a quarter turn to the left 
when the magazine catch (48) with its contents can be removed. 
The improved design is recognized from the fact that the head of 
the magazine catch lock (50) is slotted. 

The trigger (34) can then be removed rearwardly from the 
receiver (1). The hammer strut (25) or the long arm of the screw 
driver can be used to push out all the pins except the mainspring- 
cap pin (29), lanyard-loop pin (41), and ejector pin (19). 

To assemble the pistol, proceed in the reverse order. 
It should be noted that the disconnector (33) and sear (30) are 



312 MILITARY TRAINING 

assembled as follows: Place the cylindrical part of the discon- 
nector (33) in its hole in the receiver (1) with the flat face of the 
lower part of the disconnector (33) resting against the yoke of the 
trigger (34). Then place the sear (30), lugs downward, so that it 
straddles the disconnector (33). The sear pin (32) is then inserted 
in place, so that it passes through both the disconnector (33) and 
the sear (30). 

The sear (30), disconnector (33), and hammer (23) being in 
place and the hammer (23) down, to replace the sear spring (31), 
locate its lower end in the cut in the receiver (1), with the end of 
the long leaf resting on the sear (30); then insert the mainspring 
housing (37) until its lower end projects below the frame about 
one-eighth of an inch, replace the grip safety (35), cock the ham- 
mer (23), and replace the safety lock (36); then lower the cocked 
hammer (23) ( , push the mainspring housing (37) home and insert 
the housing pin (38). 

In assembling the safety lock (36) to the receiver (1) use 
the tip of the magazine follower (47) or the screw driver to press 
the safety-lock plunger (7) home, thus allowing the seating of the 
safety lock (36). It should be remembered that when assembling 
the safety lock (36) the hammer (23) must be cocked. When re- 
placing the slide (3) and barrel (2) on the receiver (1), care must 
be taken that the link (11) is tilted forward as far as possible and 
that the link pin (12) is in place. 



METHOD OF OPERATION 

A loaded magazine is placed in the handle and the slide (3) 
drawn fully back and released, thus bringing the first cartridge 
into the chamber (if the slide is open, push down the slide stop 
(8) to let the slide (3) go forward). The hammer (23) is thus cocked 
and the pistol is ready for firing. 

If it is desired to make the pistol ready for instant use and 
for firing with the least possible delay the maximum number of 
shots, draw back the slide (3), insert a cartridge by hand into the 
chamber of the barrel (2), allow the slide (3) to close, then lock the 
slide (3) and the cocked hammer (23) by pressing the safety lock 
(36) upward, and insert a loaded magazine. The slide (3) and 
hammer (23) being thus positively locked, the pistol may be car- 
ried safely at full cock, and it is only necessary to press down the 
safety lock (36) (which is located within easy reach of the thumb) 
when raising the pistol to the firing position. 

The grip safety (35) is provided with an extending horn, 
which not only serves as a guard to prevent the hand of the shoot- 
er from slipping upward and being struck or injured by the 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 313 

hammer (23), but also aids in accurate shooting by keeping the 
hand in the same position for each shot; and, furthermore, per- 
mits the lowering of the cocked hammer (23) with one hand by 
automatically pressing in the grip safety (35) when the hammer 
(23) is drawn slightly beyond the cocked position. In order to 
release the hammer (23), the grip safety (35) must be pressed in 
before the trigger (34) is pulled. 

SAFETY DEVICES 

It is impossible for the firing pin (20) to discharge or even 
touch the primer, except on receiving the full blow of the hammer 
(23). The pistol is provided with two automatic safety devices: 

(1) The (automatic) disconnector {33) which positively pre- 
vents the release of the hammer (23) unless the slide (3) and bar- 
rel (2) are in the forward position and safely interlocked; this de- 
vice also controls the firing and prevents more than one shot from 
following each pull of the trigger (34). 

(2) The (automatic) grip safety (35) at all times locks the 
trigger (34) unless the handle is firmly grasped and the grip safety 
(35) pressed in. 

The pistol is in addition provided with a safety lock (36) 
by which the closed slide (3) and the cocked hammer (23) can be 
at will positively locked in position. 

OPERATION IN DETAIL 

The magazine may be charged with any number of cartridges 
from one to seven. The charged magazine is inserted in the han- 
dle and the slide (3) drawn once to the rear. This movement cocks 
the hammer (23), compresses the recoil spring (14), and, when 
the slide (3) reaches the rear position, the magazine follower (47) 
raises the upper cartridge into the path of the slide (3). The slide 
(3) is then released and, being forced forward by the recoil spring 
(14), carries the first cartridge into the chamber of the barrel (2). 
As the slide (3) approaches its forward position, it encounters the 
rear extension of the barrel (2) and forces the barrel forward; 
the rear end of the barrel (2) swings upward on the link (11), 
turning on the muzzle end as on a fulcrum. When the slide (3) 
and barrel (2) reach their forward position they are positively 
locked together by the locking ribs on the barrel (2) and their 
joint forward movement is arrested by the barrel lug encounter- 
ing the pin on the slide stop (8). The pistol is then ready for 
firing. When the hammer (23) is cocked, the hammer strut (25) 
moves downward, compressing the mainspring (27), and the sear 



314 MILITARY TRAINING 

(30), under action of the long leaf of the sear spring (31), engages 
its nose in the notch on the hammer (23). 

In order that the pistol may be fired the following conditions 
must exist: The grip safety (35) must be pressed in, leaving the 
trigger (34) free to move; the slide (3) must be in its forward posi- 
tion, properly interlocked with the barrel (2), so that the discon- 
nector (33) is held in the recess on the underside of the slide (3) 
under the action of the sear spring (31), transmitting in this posi- 
tion any motion of *the trigger (34) to the sear (30); the safety 
lock (36) must be down, in the unlocked position, so that the sear 
(30) will be unblocked and free to release the hammer (23) and 
the slide will be free to move back. 

On pulling the trigger (34), the sear (30) is moved and the 
released hammer (23) strikes the firing pin (20) which transmits 
the blow to the primer of the cartridge. The pressure of the gases 
generated in the barrel (2), by the explosion of the powder in the 
cartridge, is exerted in a forward direction against the bullet, driv- 
ing it through the bore, and in a rearward direction against the face 
of the slide (3), driving the latter and the barrel (2) to the rear 
together. The downward swinging movement of the barrel (2) 
unlocks it from the slide (3), and the barrel (2) is then stopped in 
its lowest position. The slide (3) continues to move to the rear, 
opening the breech, cocking the hammer (23), extracting and eject- 
ing the empty shell and compressing the recoil spring (14), until 
it — the slide (3) — reaches its rearmost position when another cart- 
ridge is raised in front of it and forced into the chamber of the bar- 
rel (2) by the return movement of the slide (3) under pressure of 
the recoil spring (14). 

The weight and consequently the inertia of the slide (3), 
augmented by those of the barrel (2), are so many times greater 
than the weight and inertia of the bullet that the latter has been 
given its maximum velocity and has been driven from the muzzle 
of the barrel (2) before the slide (3) and barrel (2) hive recoiled 
to the point where the barrel (2) commences its unlocking move- 
ment. This construction, therefore, delays the opening of the 
breech of the barrel (2) until after the bullet has left the muzzle 
and therefore practically prevents the escape of any of the powder 
gases to the rear after the breech has been opened. This factor 
of safety is further increased by the tension of the recoil spring 
(14) and mainspring (27), both of which oppose the rearward 
movement of the slide (3). 

While the comparatively great weight of the slide (3) of 
this pistol insures safety against premature opening of the breech, 
it also insures operation of the pistol, because at the point of the 
rearward opening movement where the barrel (2) is unlocked 
and stopped, the heavy slide (3) has attained a momentum which 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 315 

is sufficient to carry it through its complete opening movement 
and makes the pistol ready for another shot. 

When the magazine has been emptied, the pawl-shaped slide 
stop (8) will be raised by the magazine follower (47) under action 
of the magazine spring (46) into the front recess on the lower 
left side of the slide (3), thereby locking the slide (3) in the open 
position, and serving as an indicator to remind the shooter that 
the empty magazine must be replaced by a charged one before the 
firing can be continued. 

Pressure upon the magazine catch (48) quickly releases the 
empty magazine from the handle and permits the insertion of a 
loaded magazine. To release the slide (3) from the open oosition, 
it is only necessary to press upon the thumb piece of the slide stop 
(8) when the slide (3) will go forward to its closed position,, car- 
rying a cartridge from the previously inserted magazine into the 
barrel (2) and making the pistol ready for firing again. 

IMPORTANT POINTS 

1. Never place the trigger finger within the trigger guard 
until it is intended to fire and the pistol is pointing toward the tar- 
get. 2. Do not carry the pistol in the holster with the hammer 
cocked and safety lock on, except in an emergency. If the pistol 
is so carried in the holster, cocked and safety lock on, the butt of 
the pistol should be rotated away from the body when withdraw- 
ing the pistol from the holster, in order to avoid displacing the 
safety lock. 3. The trigger should be pulled with the forefinger. 
If the trigger is pulled with the second finger, the forefinger ex- 
tending along the side of the receiver is apt to press against the 
projecting pin of the slide stop and cause a jam when the slide re- 
coils. 4. Care must be exercised in inserting the magazine to in- 
sure its engaging with the magazine catch. 5. Pressure must be 
entirely relieved from the trigger after each shot in order that the 
trigger may reengage with the sear. 6. To remove cartridges 
not fired, disengage the magazine slightly and then extract the 
cartridge in the barrel by drawing back the slide. 7. The pistol 
must be kept clean, free from rust, and properly oiled. Excessive 
oil left in the mechanism will cause the parts to gum and work 
stiffly. 8. Care must be exercised to insure that the disconnector 
is properly assembled to the sear. 9. The hammer should not be 
snapped when the pistol is partially disassembled. 10. The stocks 
need never be removed, as the pistol can be dismounted and as- 
sembled without removing them. 11. Use no hammer either in 
assembling or dismounting the pistol. 12. Reasonable care should 
be taken to see that the magazine is not dented or otherwise dam- 
aged. Never insert the magazine and strike it smartly with the 



' 



316 MILITARY TRAINING 

hand to force it home, as this may spring the base or the inturn- 
ing lips at the top. It should be inserted by a quick continuous 
movement. 

CLEANING KIT 

For cleaning, dismounting, and assembling the pistol a kit 
is issued consisting of a metal box containing the following arti- 
cles: 10 screw drivers; 10 cleaning rods, brass (made so that either 
a cloth wiper or bristle brush can be used); 10 thong brushes; 1 
oil can; 1 grease pot for cosmic. These articles, with the exception 
of the oil can and grease pot for cosmic, are also supplied as part 
of the contents of the arm repair chest, model of 1910, when this 
chest is issued to organizations equipped with the pistol. The 
cleaning kit is therefore issued only to organizations equipped 
with the pistol and not provided with an arm repair chest. 

MISCELLANEOUS DATA CONCERNING PISTOL 

Weight, 2 pounds 7 ounces; trigger pull, 6 to iy 2 pounds; 
total length, 8.593 inches; length of barrel, 5.025 inches; diameter 
of bore, 0.445 inch; number of grooves, 6; width, 0.1522 inch; 
depth, 0.003 inch; width of lands, 0.072 inch; twist, one turn in 16 
inches, left-handed; front sight above axis of bore, 0.5597 inch. 

The drift or deviation due to the rifling is, in this pistol, to 
the left, but is more than neutralized by the pull of the trigger 
when the pistol is fired from the right hand. The drift is slight at 
short ranges and that for long ranges is immaterial, inasmuch as 
the pistol is a short-range weapon. 

The components of the ball cartridge consist of cartridge 
case, primer, powder, and bullet. 

CARTRIDGE CASE 

This cartridge case is cylindrical and is made of brass. It 
is provided with a cannelure to prevent the bullet being forced 
down on the powder. 

PRIMER 

The primer consists of a cup which contains the primer com- 
position, a paper disk, and an anvil which resists the blow of the 
firing pin. The anvil is provided with two vents by which the 
flame is communicated to the charge. Ignition is produced by 
crushing the composition between the cup and anvil by a blow of 
the firing pin. 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 317 

POWDER 

The powder is a smokeless powder. The charge varies with 
the kind and lot, but it is generally about 5 grains. 

BULLET 

The body of the bullet is a cylinder. The bullet has a core 
of lead and tin composition inclosed in a jacket of gilding metal 
or cupro-nickel. It weighs 230±2 grains. Inches 

Length of bullet . 0.662 

Diameter of cylindrical part of bullet 45015 

Total length of cartridge 1.261 

To render the cartridge waterproof the inside of the neck 
of the case and the outside of the primer are shellacked. 

PACKING 

The cartridges are packed in pasteboard boxes containing 
20 cartridges each. One hundred pasteboard boxes, or 2,000 car- 
tridges, are packed in one zinc case, hermetically sealed, with han- 
dle for tearing open. The whole is inclosed in a wooden box, the 
cover of which is fastened with screw hooks and thumb nuts and 
sealed. 

NOTES ON THE USE OF THE RIFLE 

Danger space decreases as the range increases. Extent of 
danger space depends upon (a) firer's position, (b) height of ob- 
ject fired at, (c) flatness of trajectory, (d) conformation of ground. 
The nearer the rifle is to the ground, ~\ 

The greater the height of the object fired at, I , At 

The flatter the trajectory, } th , e ^ reater the 

The more nearly the ground conforms to the | danger space, 
angle of fall of the bullet. ) 

With the bayonet fixed a slightly greater elevation is re- 
quired, about 50 yards at 600 yards. Using a fixed rest the rifle 
shoots slightly higher. 

More elevation is required when the temperature is cool. 
Less elevation is required (a) when the temperature is hot, (b) high 
above sea level, (c) firing up or down hill. 

The rifle is sighted for (a) barometric pressure of 30 inches, 
(b) temperature of 70° F., (c) still air. 

Objects seem near when (a) the object is in a bright light, 
(b) the color of the object contrasts sharply with the color of the 
background, (c) looking over water, snow, or a uniform surface 
like a wheat field, (d) in the clear atmosphere of high altitudes, 
(e) looking from a height downward. 



318 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Objects seem more distant when (a) looking over a depres- 
sion in the ground, (b) there is a poor light or fog, (c) only a small 
part of the object can be seen, (d) looking from low ground up- 
ward toward higher ground. v 

FIELD GUNS AND HOWITZERS 



2.95- 
inch 
moun- 
tain 
gun. 



3-inch 
rifle. 



3.8- 
inch 
howit- 
zer. 



4.7- 
inch 
rifle. 



6-inch 
howit- 
zer. 



Muzzle velocity foot-seconds. 

Caliber 

Weight of projectile , pounds . 

Number of rounds per gun: 

. With firing battery 

With C. tr 

With am. tr2 

Maximum range yards. 

Weight of — 

Gun and carriage pounds . 

Gun, carriage, and limber do. . . 

Width of track, center to center. . . .feet. . 



920 

2.953 

12.5 

50 

55 

60 

5,000 

830 



2H 



1.700 
3.0 
15 

190 

168 

106 

7,500 

2,520 

4.212 

5 



900 
3.8 
30 

96 

72 

264 

6,338 

2.040 

3,970 

5 



1,700 
4.7 
60 

84 

84 

168 

11,000 

7,420 

8,783 

5 



900 
6.0 
120 

42 

42 

84 

6,704 

7,248 

8,611 

5 



To replace ammunition used in combat an amount not less than that carried by 
mobile force is kept in ammunition columns near the advance base. An additional 
similar amount is maintained at the base. 

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION CARRIED IN THE FIELD 





Infantry. 


Cavalry. 


Artil- 
lery. 


Engi- 
neers. 


Signal 
troops. 


Rounds per rifle: 

In belt 


100 
120 
220 

Y\ 

7 

6,250 

4,800 

11,200 

12,850 


90 
130 
220 

21 

21 

7 

6,250 

4,800 

11,200 

12.850 


21 
21 

7 


80 
120 
220 

21 




In combat train 








Rounds per pistol: 

In belt 


21 








7 


7 


For each machine gun: 




° nmules {Automatic'.::: :::::: 

































To replace ammunition used in combat an amount not less than that carried 
by the mobile forces is kept in ammunition columns near advance depot and an addi- 
tional similar amount is maintained at the base. 

For the purpose of arriving approximately at the number of rounds to be carried 
in ammunition trains, the number of rifles in units is calculated as: Infantry regi- 
ment, 1,800; cavalry regiment, 1,300; engineer regiment, 950. The number of pistols 
is: Infantry regiment, 250; cavalry regiment, 1,500; artillery regiment, 1,300; engi- 
neer regiment, 325. 

Capacity in rounds per vehicle and animal is approximately: Rifle ammunition 
— mules, 2,400; wagons, 35,000; trucks, 36,000. Pistol ammunition — mules, 4,000, 
wagons, 46,000; trucks, 50,000. 



SMALL ARMS AND FIELD ARTILLERY 319 

FRENCH FIELD AND HEAVY ARTILLERY 



75 mm. 
field 
gun. 


105 mm. 

quick- 
firing 
gun. 


155 mm. 
quick- 
firing 
gun. 


1.736 

2.95 

16 

9,300 

2,130 


1,886 

4.13 

35}4 

12,900 

5,375 


984 
6.1 
90 
7,000 
6,215 



Muzzle velocity feet . 

Caliber inches . 

Weight of projectile pounds . 

Maximum range yards . 

Weight of gun and carriage pounds . 



SUPPLY OF AMMUNITION IN THE FIELD 

The work of replenishing ammunition is divided between 
units working under the commander of the line of communications, 
and units working under the division commander. The general 
system of ammunition supply is as follows: 

(a) the men and guns in the fighting line carry with them a 
certain amount of ammunition. 

(b) The regimental reserve supply of ammunition is carried 
on combat wagons or mules. Ammunition expended in the firing 
line is replaced from this source. These combat trains are in turn 
usually filled from the ammunition trains of the division, though 
in certain instances they may be filled direct from the line of com- 
muncation or from ammunition columns. 

(c) The divisional ammunition trains are operated under 
the divisional artillery commander, after release from the control 
of the commander of trains. These trains are divided into two 
sections, viz., a small arms section consisting of six wagon com- 
panies carrying 5,395,000 rounds of rifle ammunition and 180,000 
rounds of pistol ammunition; an artillery section consisting of six 
wagon companies, of which two wagon companies are used for 
3-inch ammunition, 5,064 rounds, and four wagon companies are 
use for 3.8-inch ammunition, 6,534 rounds. The ammunition trains 
are usually filled from the ammunition columns though they may 
in certain instances fill direct from the line of communication. 

(d) The ammunition columns operate from the line of com- 
munications. It is the function of the ammunition columns to push 
up close to the troops so as to shorten the haul of the ammunition 
trains and to keep a constant supply of ammunition at the refilling 
point. 

It is the function of the organizations to which are attached 
combat trains to regulate the supply of ammunition to the front 
and to insure the dispatching of empty combat wagons to the dis- 
tributing station. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SMALL ARMS FIRING, COMBAT PRACTICE AND 
TRAINING WITH THE RIFLE. 

An organization's ultimate efficiency in battlefield firing is 
dependent upon the thoroughness of its training in individual 
marksmanship, leadership, and team work. Maximum results can 
not be obtained by either a poor shooting company under the 
best of leadership or by a good shooting company under poor 
leadership. 

The sole purpose of rifle training for the soldier is to make 
of him a good shot under war conditions, and a scheme of instruc- 
tion is effective in so far as it tends to produce that result. The 
soldier should therefore be so trained at known distances in the 
various kinds of fire employed in actual service as to bring his 
skill as a rifleman up to the capabilities of his weapon, after which 
he should be so trained in firing as part of tactical units as to 
utilize his individual skill to the best advantage in operations sim- 
ulating those of the battle field. By means of preliminary drills 
and gallery practice the soldier is trained in the fundamental prin- 
ciples of marksmanship; by means of range practice he is taught 
to apply these principles in firing, at fixed distances, at clearly de- 
fined targets. This training is merely preparatory to combat firing 
in which individuals learn co-operation and commanders and lead- 
ers learn how to obtain the maximum efficiency of fire by a judicious 
co-ordination of the skill and the efforts of all the individuals of the 
group or fire unit. 

In all preliminary practice and in range firing the soldier is 
taught to reduce the size of his shot group as much as possible 
and to place the center of the shot group at the center of his tar- 
get. In combat firing this principle should be utilized in securing 
superiority of fire. In actual combat, individual targets are not, in 
general, visible, but if individual shot groups be so combined as to 
produce a grazing fire uniformly distributed along the hostile line, 
a large number of hits necessarily result and shots which miss 
have the approximate value of hits in determining superiority of 
fire. In a decisive battle success depends on gaining and maintain- 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 321 

ing superiority of fire. Every effort must be made to gain it early 
and then to keep it. 

The purpose of fire superiority is to get hits whenever pos- 
sible, but at all events to keep down the enemy's fire and render 
it harmless. The ultimate object of all instruction is, therefore, 
to enable troop commanders to deliver a heavy volume of close, 
accurate fire upon any designated objective. With a given extent 
of front, however, there is a limit to the number of men who can 
use their rifles effectively. When the maximum number of rifles 
has been brought into action, a further increase in the volume of 
fire can be obtained only by increasing the rate of fire. The rate 
of fire to be employed is always dependent upon the tactical situa- 
tions; as conditions are never the same no fixed rules concerning 
rates of fire can be prescribed, but in unexpected, close encounters 
a great advantage accrues to the side which first opens rapid and 
accurate fire with battle sight. 

Grades of Shots and Basis of Qualification. — Soldiers are 
graded according to proficiency exhibited in the record practice 
as experts, sharpshooters, marksmen, first-class men, second-class 
men, and unqualified. The grades of first and second class men, 
corresponding to certain percentages made in the qualification 
course, are intended to give encouragement to the poorer grades 
of shots and to provide the soldier, who has been unable to qualify 
as marksmen or better, with a more definite record of marksman- 
ship. The class unqualified is made to include those men borne on 
the rolls of an organization who have fired and failed to qualify as 
second class or better and all others who for any reason have not 
been classified. 

Period of Preliminary Instruction. — The portion of the year 
which immediately precedes the instruction of the soldier upon 
the target ground will be utilized in laying, by a thorough course 
of the preliminary drills and gallery practice, a good foundation 
for future proficiency. This applies especially to recruits and 
those who in the last season failed to qualify as marksman or 
better. The instructors also improve this opportunity for explain- 
ing the different theoretical principles, as far as the capacity and 
interest of the men appear to render it advantageous. Recruits 
also receive preliminary instruction during the month after joining 
their commands. 

The purpose in the training of a company should be to pro- 
duce uniform proficiency rather than expertness on the part of a 
:omparatively few men. A man who has once learned to shoot 
*vill seldom lose his ability. The attention of the instructor should 
herefore be concentrated on the poorer shots. 

Supplementary Practice Season. — A supplementary course of 



322 MILITARY TRAINING 

instruction is prescribed for the benefit of recruits. This practice 
is for the purpose of preventing an accumulation of recruits totally 
uninstructed. 

Duties of Company Officers. — The training of the men in 
small arms firing is under the immediate supervision of the com- 
pany commander, who is held responsible that a suitable standard 
of proficiency is reached. He is assisted by his lieutenants, non- 
commissioned officers, and expert shots, and these assistants should 
be given the theoretical instruction necessary to fit them to be 
coaches and instructors. As good teaching requires a practical as 
well as a theoretical knowledge of the subject taught, all company 
officers will be required to fire with the men, subject to certain 
exceptions. 

Duties of the Battalion Commander. — The battalion com- 
mander is the supervisor and inspector of firing instruction for the 
organizations under his command. He gives such theoretical in- 
struction to the officers as may be necessary, and, through proper 
supervision of the preliminary drills and exercises and of the range 
practice, assures himself that the company commanders and their 
assistants are thoroughly conversant with the details of the course 
and that suitable methods prescribed are being followed. He 
should not attempt to fix definite lines of procedure, but should 
endeavor to leave some room for initiative and ingenuity on the 
part of his subordinates, subject to such restrictions as circum-* 
stances and the necessities of other troops may impose. 

He also supervises the combat-firing exercises of his com- 
mand, endeavoring by every means to realize to the fullest extent 
the instructional value of these exercises. 

In combat-firing exercises designed for a company, the 
battalion commander supervises the firing and judges the results 
according to the prescribed standard, and he also supervises and 
judges the annual proficiency test of the organizations of his com- 
mand unless some other officer has been specially designated. 

Each battalion commander, at the end of the target-practice 
season, makes a written report to the regimental commander of 
the state of instruction in target practice in the organizations of 
his command, basing the opinions expressed both on the individual 
qualifications attained in record firing and upon the results obtained 
in the combat firing and in the annual proficiency test. 

Duties of the Regimental Commander. — The regimental com- 
mander exercises general supervision over the organizations of his 
command and endeavors to maintain the highest possible standard 
of efficiency in his regiment. Upon receipt of the company and 
the battalion commanders' reports, he submits, with the regimental 
consolidated report of classification, a brief report, through the 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 323 

brigade commander, to the department commander on the state of 
instruction of his command. 

The post commander exercises a general supervision over 
the target practice of troops at his post and directs supervision 
over the target practice of troops pertaining to the tactical unit to 
which he belongs. When troops of different brigades are serving 
at the same post he sees that the approved programs with refer- 
ence to target practice prescribed in accordance with instruction, 
orders of the War Department are faithfully complied with. 

The post commander recommends the months of the year 
most suitable for target practice, including the supplementary prac- 
tice season, for his post, and when combat-firing facilities do not 
exist on the reservation, should use every effort to procure suitable 
firing grounds in the vicinity so that the advantage of this training 
may not be lost. 

Duties of the Department Commander. — The department 
commander supervises instruction in small arms for the troops in 
his department and makes every effort to have complete facilities 
for this instruction at every post. He satisfies himself that the 
purposes of instruction in firing are fully understood and carried 
out, and to this end he makes the necessary examination of the 
firing records and orders such test firings at the time of his annual 
inspection as he may deem advisable and of which the ammunition 
available will admit. 

SIGHTING DRILLS 

The value of the sighting drills and the position and aiming 
drills can not be too strongly emphasized. By means of them the 
fundamental principles of shooting may be inculcated before the 
soldier fires a shot. These drills are given to all soldiers who have 
not qualified as "marksman" or better in the preceding target year. 

Sighting Bar. — This apparatus consists of (a) A bar of wood 
about 1 by 2 inches by 4 feet, with a thin slot 1 inch deep cut 
across the edge about 20 inches from one end. 

(b) A front sight of tin or cardboard y 2 by 3 inches tacked 
to the end nearer the slot and projecting 1 inch above bar. 

(c) An eyepiece of tin or cardboard 1 by 3 inches tacked to 
the other end of, and projecting 1 inch above, the bar, with a very 
small hole (0.03 inch) ]/ 2 inch from the top of part projecting above 
the bar. 

(d) An open rear sight of tin or cardboard \ l / 2 by 3 inches 
with a U-shaped notch ^ inch wide cut in the middle of one 
of the long edges. This is placed in the slot on the bar. A 
slight bend of the part of the tin fitting in the slot will give 



324 MILITARY TRAINING 

enough friction to hold the sight in any part of slot in which it 
is placed. 

(e) A peep rear sight of tin or cardboard 3 by 3 inches, with 
a peep hole 24 inch in diameter cut in the center. This replaces 
the open sight when the peep sight is shown. 

Carefully Dlacken all pieces of tin or cardboard and the top 
of the bar. Nail the bar to a box about 1 foot high and place on 
the ground, table, or other suitable place. Then adjust the open 
or peep rear sight in the slot and direct the bar upon a bull's-eye 
(preferably a Y target) placed about 5 yards from the bar. No 
other than the sight desired can be seen. Errors, etc., are shown 
by manipulating the open and peep rear sights. 

Sighting Rest for Rifle. — Take an empty pistol ammunition 
box or a similar well-made box, remove the top and cut notches 
in the ends to fit the rifle closely. Place the rifle in these notches 
with the trigger guard close to and outside one end. (The stock 
may be removed from the rifle so as to bring the eye as near the 
rear sight as in shooting.) Nail a plank (top of a box will do) 
to a stake or wall about 12 inches from the ground. Fasten a 
blank sheet of paper to the plank. Place the rest firmly on the 
ground, 20 or 30 feet from the plank, so that the rifle is canted 
neither to the right nor left — weight the box with sand if neces- 
sary — and without touching the rifle or rest, sight the rifle near 
the center of the blank sheet of paper. Changes in the line of 
sight are made by changing the elevation and windage. Take the 
prone position, with elbows on the ground, hands supporting the 
head. A soldier acting as marker is provided with a pencil and 
a small rod bearing a disk of white cardboard about 3 inches in 
diameter, with a black bull's-eye (a black paster is best) pierced 
in the center with a hole just large enough to admit the point 
of a lead pencil. The soldier sighting directs the marker to move 
the disk to the right, left, higher, or lower,, until the line of aim 
is established, when he commands "Mark" or "Hold." At the 
command "Mark," being careful not to move the disk, the marker 
records through the hole in its center the position of the disk 
and then withdraws it. At the command "Hold," the marker 
holds the disk carefully in place, without marking until the posi- 
tion is verified by the instructor, and the disk is not withdrawn 
until so directed. 

Line of Sight. — With the open sight the line of sight is deter- 
mined by a point on the middle line of the notch of the rear 
sight and the top of the front sight. With the peep sight, the 
line of sight is determined by the center of the peep and the top 
of the front sight. 

Point of Aim. — The soldier is informed that to give the 
greatest uniformity, a point just below the mark, and not the 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 



325 



mark, is taken as the point of aim, as it is impossible to always 
know,, if touching the mark with the top of the front sight, how 
much of the front sight is seen; that the term "on the mark or 
bull's-eye" will be understood to mean an aim, taken just below 
the mark showing a fine line of light between the mark and the 
top of the front sight. 

The Normal Sight. — Look through the rear-sight notch at 
the bull's-eye or mark and bring the top of the front sight on 
a line with the top of and in the center of the rear-sight notch 
and aligned upon the point of aim. 

The Peep Sight. — Look through the peep hole at the bull's- 
eye or mark, and bring the top of the front sight to the center 
of the aperture and aligned upon the point of aim. 

The soldier should be informed that regular results in firing 




NORMAL SIGHT. 



can be obtained only when the same amount of front sight is taken 
each time, and that this can be done only by using the normal 
sight with the open notch or the peep sight in the manner de- 
scribed above. He should understand that the effect of taking less 
than the normal amount of sight is to cause a point lower than 
that aimed at to be struck, and that taking too much of the front 
sight causes a higher point to be struck. 

Although men will be found occasionally who can get ex- 
cellent results by using the fine sight, the average man can not, 
and this form of sighting is not recommended. The so-called 
full sight should not be taught under any circumstances. If shown 
to the men at all, it should be for the purpose of pointing out 
a fault to be carefully avoided. 



326 MILITARY TRAINING 

Remarks. — The eye can be focused accurately upon objects 
at but one distance at a time; all other objects in the field of 
view will appear more or less blurred, depending on their distance 
from the eye. This can readily be seen if a pencil is placed in the 
field of view near the eye while looking at some distant object 
The pencil will appear blurred. This is the condition met with 
by the normal eye in sighting a rifle. If the eye is focused on one 
of the three points — the bull's-eye, the front sight, or the rear 
sight — the other two will appear blurred. This blurring effect is 
best overcome by using the "peep sight," as though looking through 
a window, and focusing the eye on the bull's-eye. The blurring 
of the peep hole will be concentric, giving a clear and easily de- 




PEEP SIGHT. 

fined center. The blurring of the front sight will be less, but 
symmetrical on both sides with very little blur on the top. It can 
be readily and naturally brought to the center of the peep hole. 
Variations in light have less effect on the peep than on the open 
sight. 

But the limited field of view and lack of readiness in getting 
a quick aim with the peep sight limit its use to those stages of 
the combat whenever comparative deliberation' will be possible. In 
the later stages of battle — especially when a rapid fire is to be 
delivered — the open sight will, in most cases, be used. In this 
case the normal sight should be used, as the horizontal line at the 
top of the notch of the rear sight affords a good guide for regu- 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 327 

larity. Whatever sight is used, the eye must be focused on the 
bull's-eye, or mark, not on the front or rear sight. 

Soldiers will some times be found who do not know how to 
place the eye in the line of sight; they often look over or along one 
side of the notch of the rear sight and believe that they are aim- 
ing through the notch because they see it at the same time that 
they do the front sight. 

POSITION AND AIMING DRILLS 

These drills are intended to so educate the muscles of the 
arm and body that the piece, during the act of aiming, shall be held 
without restraint,, and during the operation of firing shall not be 
deflected from the target by any convulsive or improper movement 
of the trigger finger or of the body, arms or hands. They also 
establish between the hand and eye such prompt and intimate con- 
nection as will insure that the finger shall act upon the trigger, giv- 
ing the final pressure at the exact moment when the top of the 
front sight is seen to be directed upon the mark. 

The fact, though simple, can not be too strongly impressed 
upon the recruit that, if at the moment of discharge, the piece is 
properly supported and correctly aimed, the mark will surely be 
hit. Since any intelligent man can be taught to aim correctly and 
to hold the sights aligned upon the mark with a fair amount of 
steadiness, it follows that bad shooting must necessarily arise 
from causes other than bad aiming. The chief of these causes is 
known to be the deflection given to the rifle when it is discharged, 
due to the fact that the soldier, at the moment of firing, instead of 
squeezing the trigger, jerks it. This convulsive action is largely 
due to lack of familiarity with the methods of firing and to a con- 
strained position of the muscles of the body, arm and hands which 
constrained position it is the purpose of the position and aiming 
drills to correct. 

To become a good shot, constant, careful and patient practice 
is required. Systematic aiming and squeezing the trigger will do 
much to make a rifleman. The men will be taught to take advan- 
tage of every opportunity for practicing aiming and squeezing the 
trigger. For this purpose the barracks and ground in the vicinity 
of the barracks should be furnished with aiming targets, which 
the men are encouraged to use at odd moments, as when waiting for 
a formation or during a rest. At drill the soldier is cautioned never 
to squeeze the trigger without selecting an object and taking care- 
ful aim. When on the range waiting for his turn to fire, the soldier 
should use part of his time in position and aiming exercises, aim- 
ing at the target or at objects outside of the range, and he should 



328 MILITARY TRAINING 

be made to understand that this practice previous to firing tends to 
prevent nervousness and has a marked effect upon his score. 

The position and aiming drills are given to all soldiers who 
have not qualified as "marksman" or better in the preceding target 
year. Some practice in these drills (especially in the trigger 
squeeze exercise) is recommended for those who have qualified 
as " marksman " or better. 

Drills; General Instruction. — These drills are divided into 
four progressive exercises. The first exercise teaches the position; 
the second exercise teaches the position and the aim; the third 
exercise teaches the aim and the manner of squeezing the trigger; 
and the fourth exercise teaches the methods of rapid fire. The 
exercises should be taught by the numbers at first; when fully un- 
derstood, without numbers. 

To correct any tendency to cant the piece, the rear sight 
will be raised. A black paster at which to aim will be placed on 
the wall opposite each man. The squad being formed in single 
rank, with an interval of 1 yard between files, the instructor directs 
the men to take the position of "Ready," except that the position 
of the feet is such as to insure the greatest firmness and steadi- 
ness of the body. The instructor then cautions "Position and 
aiming drill." 

The exercise which is being taught should be repeated fre- 
quently and made continuous. The instructor prefaces the pre- 
pratory command by " Continue the motion," or " At will," and 
gives the command "Halt" at the conclusion of the exercise, when 
the soldier will return to the position of "Ready." Or the soldier 
may be made to repeat the first and second motions by the com- 
mand "One," "Two," the exercise concluding with the command 
"Halt." 

POSITION EXERCISE 

The instructor commands: 1. Position, 2. EXERCISE. At 

the last command, without moving the body or eyes, raise the 
rifle smartly to the front of the right shoulder to the full extent 
of the left arm, elbow inclined downward, the barrel nearly hori- 
zontal, muzzle slightly depressed, heel of the butt on a line with 
the top of the shoulder. 

(Two.) Bring the piece smartly against the hollow of the 
shoulder, without permitting the shoulder to give way, and press 
the rifle against it, mainly with the right hand, only slightly with 
the left, the forefinger of the right hand resting lightly against 
the trigger, the rifle inclined neither to the right nor left. 

(Three.) Resume the position of "Ready." 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 329 

The instructor should especially notice the position of each 
soldier in this exercise, endeavoring to give to each man an 
easy and natural position. He should see that the men avoid draw~ 
ing in the stomach, raising the breast, or bending the small of 
the back. 

AIMING EXERCISE 

The instructor first directs the sights to be adjusted for the 
lowest elevation and subsequently for the different longer ranges. 

The instructor commands: 1. Aiming. 2. EXERCISE. 

At the last command execute the first and second motion of 
the position exercise. 

(Two.) Bend the head a little to the right, the cheek resting 
against the stocl^. the left eye closed, the right eye looking through 
the notch of the rear sight at a point slightly below the mark. 

(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of 
it escape, then, with the lungs in a state of rest, slowly raise the 
rifle with the left hand, being careful not to incline the sight to 
either side, until the line of sight is directly on the mark; hold 
the rifle steadily directed on the mark for a moment; then, with- 
out command and just before the power to hold the rifle steadily 
is lost, drop the rifle to the position of "Ready" and resume the 
breathing. 

Some riflemen prefer to extend the left arm. Such a position 
gives greater control over the rifle when firing in a strong wind 
or at moving objects. It also possesses advantages when a rapid 
as well as accurate delivery of fire is desired. Whatever the posi- 
tion, whether standing, kneeling, sitting or prone, the piece should 
rest on the palm of the left hand, never on the tips of the fingers, 
and should be firmly grasped by all the fingers and the thumb and 
held steadily. 

The eye may be brought to the line of sight either by lower- 
ing the head or by raising the shoulder; it is best to combine 
somewhat these methods; the shoulder to be well raised by raising 
the right elbow and holding it well to the front and at right angles 
to the body. 

If the shoulder is not raised, it will be necessary for the 
soldier to lower the head to the front in order to bring the eye in 
to the line of sight. Lowering the head too far to the front brings 
it near the right hand, which grasps the stock. When the piece 
is discharged, this hand is carried by the recoil to the rear and, 
when the head is in this position, may strike against the nose or 
mouth. This often happens in practice, and as a result of this blow 
often repeated many men become gun-shy, or flinch, or close their 



330 MILITARY TRAINING 

eyes at the moment of firing. Much bad shooting, ascribed to other 
causes, is really due to this fault. 

TRIGGER SQUEEZE EXERCISE 

The instructor commands: 1. Trigger squeeze. 2. EXER- 
CISE. At the command Exercise, the soldier executes the first 
motion of the aiming exercise. 

(Two.) The Second motion of the aiming exercise. 

(Three.) Draw a moderately long breath, let a portion of it 
escape, hold the breath and slowly raise the rifle with the left hand 
until the line of sight is on the mark, being careful not to incline 
the sights to either side. Contract the trigger finger gradually, 
slowly and steadily increasing the pressure on the trigger, while the 
aim is being perfected; continue the gradual increase of pressure 
so that when the aim has become exact the additional pressure 
required to release the point of the sear can be given almost in- 
sensibly and without causing any deflection of the rifle. Continue 
the aim a moment after the release of the firing pin, observe if any 
change has been made in the direction of the line of sight, and 
then resume the position of " Ready," cocking the piece by raising 
and lowering the bolt handle. 

Poor shooting is often the result of lack of proper co-ordina- 
tion of holding the breath, the maximum steadiness of aim, and the 
squeeze of the trigger. By frequent practice in this exercise, each 
man may come to know the exact instant his firing pin will be 
released. He must be taught to hold the breath, bring the sights to 
bear upon the mark, and squeeze the trigger all at the same time. 

The trigger should be squeezed, not pulled, the hand being 
closed upon itself as a sponge is squeezed, the forefinger sharing in 
this movement. The forefinger should be placed as far around the 
trigger as to press it with the second joint. By practice the soldier 
becomes familiar with the trigger squeeze of his rifle, and knowing 
this, he is able to judge at any time, within limits, what additional 
pressure is required for its discharge. By constant repetition of 
this exercise he should be able finally to squeeze the trigger to a 
certain point beyond which the slightest movement will release the 
sear. Having squeezed the trigger to this point, the aim is cor- 
rected and, when true, the additional pressure is applied and the 
discharge follows. 

RAPID-FIRE EXERCISE 

The object of this exercise is to teach the soldier to aim 
quickly and at the same time accurately in all the positions he will 
be called upon to assume in range practice. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 331 

The instructor commands: 1. Rapid-fire exercise. 2. COM- 
MENCE FIRING. At the first command the first and second mo- 
tions of the trigger squeeze exercise are performed. At the sec- 
ond command the soldier performs the third motion of the trigger 
squeeze exercise, squeezing the trigger without disturbing the aim 
or the position of the piece, but at the same time without undue 
deliberation. He then, without removing the rifle from the 
shoulder, holding the piece in position with the left hand, graps the 
handle of the bolt with the right hand, rapidly draws back the 
bolt, closes the chamber, aims, and again squeezes the trigger. 
This movement is repeated until the trigger has been squeezed 
five times, when, without command, the piece is brought back to 
the position of " Ready." 

When the soldier has acquired some facility in this exercise, 
he is required to repeat the movement ten times, and finally, by 
using dummy cartridges, he may, by degrees, gain the necessary 
quickness and dexterity for the execution of the rapid fire required 
in range firing. 

To hold the piece to the shoulder and, at the same time, 
manipulate the breech mechanism with the proper facility, are 
learned only after much practice. Some riflemen, especially men 
who shoot from the left shoulder, find it easier, in rapid firing, to 
drop the piece to the position of load after each shot. While at 
first trial this method may seem easier, it is believed that, with 
practice, the advantage of the former method will be apparent. 

POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, KNEELING 

These exercises are repeated in the kneeling position by 
causing the squad to kneel by the commands prescribed in the Drill 
Regulations. The exercises are executed as prescribed for stand- 
ing, except that at the command " Two " in the position exercise, 
the soldier rests the left elbow on the left knee, the point of the 
elbow in front of the kneecap. The pasters for the kneeling exer- 
cise should be at 2]/ 2 feet from the floor or ground. 

Frequent rests are given during practice in these exercises 
kneeling, as the position, if long continued, becomes constrained 
and fatigues the soldier unnecessarily. 

In firing kneeling, the steadiness obtained depends greatly 
upon the position adopted. The peculiarities of conformation of 
the individual soldier exert when firing kneeling a greater influence 
than when firing either standing, sitting or prone; the instructor 
should, therefore, carefully endeavor, noticing the build of each 
soldier, to place him in the position for which he is best adapted 
and which will exert the least tension or strain upon the muscles 



332 MILITARY TRAINING 

and nerves. It should be remembered, however, that without the 
rest of the left elbow on the knee this position possesses no ad- 
vantage of steadiness over the standing position. 

The kneeling position can be taken more quickly than either 
the sitting or the prone position. It is, therefore, the position nat- 
urally assumed when a soldier, who is standing or advancing, has 
to make a quick shot at a moving or disappearing object and desires 
more steadiness than can be obtained standing. 

POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, SITTING DOWN 

In many cases the men, while able to kneel and hold the piece 
moderately steady, can obtain in a sitting position much better 
results. All should, therefore, be instructed in aiming sitting down 
as well as kneeling. 

To practice the soldier in the preceding exercises in a sitting 
position, the squad being formed in a single rank, with an interval 
of one pace between files, the rifle should first be brought to 
" Order arms"; the instructor then commands: SIT DOWN. 

At this command make a half face to the right and, assisted 
by the left hand on the ground, sit down, facing slightly to the 
right, the left leg directed toward the front, right leg inclined to- 
ward the right, both heels, but not necessarily the bottoms of the 
feet, on the ground, the right knee slightly higher than the left; 
body erect and carried naturally from the hips; at the same time 
drop the muzzle of the piece to the front, and to the position of 
the first motion of load, right hand upon the thigh, just in front of 
the body, the left hand slightly above, but not resting upon, the 
left leg. 

POSITION AND AIMING DRILL, PRONE 

From the nature of the position it is not practicable to exe- 
cute these exercises according to the method followed when stand- 
ing or kneeling. Instruction, however, is always given with refer- 
ence to the position, to the manner of assuming it, and to aiming 
and squeezing the trigger. 

With care and practice the soldier may acquire an easy posi- 
tion which he is able to assume with great facility. 

As the body does not yield to the recoil, as when firing 
standing or kneeling, the force of recoil, if the rifle is not properly 
held, may severely bruise the soldier. Care must be exercised that 
the butt is not brought against the collar bone. By moving the 
shoulder slightly to the front or rear, and by moving the right 
elbow from the body or toward it, each soldier may determine the 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 333 

position in which the shoulder gives to the butt of the rifle the 
easiest rest. This is probably the one in which the force of the 
recoil is least felt. 

The soldier should persist in this exercise until he obtains a 
position in which he feels no constraint, which does not subject 
him to bruises from the recoil, and from which the mark appears 
plainly through the sights. Having secured such a position, he 
must not change it when firing, as a variation in the points of 
support of the rifle, the distance of the eye from the rear sight, or 
the tension of the hold has a decided effect, especially at the longer 
ranges, upon the location of the point struck. 

After the soldier has been drilled in the proper standing,, 
kneeling, sitting and prone positions, the use of the sling is taught. 
Adjustments and their advantages are taught with the idea of 
noninterference with quickness and freedom of action. The 
trigger-squeeze exercises are then continued in the different posi- 
tions, using the sling. 

DEFLECTION AND ELEVATION CORRECTION DRILLS 

Sight Correction. — The soldier may find when firing at a 
target that the first shot has missed the bull's-eye or figure, and 
in order to cause the second to hit, two methods may be used: The 
point of aim may be changed or the sights may be moved and the 
same point be aimed at. In order to do accurate shooting it is 
essential to have a well-defined mark at which to aim; conse- 
quently, except for very slight corrections, the method of moving 
the sights, involving changes in elevation and windage, is devised. 

Elevation. — The instructor shows the men the graduations Oh 
the rear-sight leaf, and explains to them the value of the different 
divisions. He explains how to adjust their sights for different dis- 
tances. He makes it clear that raising or lowering the slide on 
the rear-sight leaf has the effect of raising or lowering the point 
struck. The amount of change which a given amount of elevation 
causes in the point struck varies with the range and with the rifle 
and the ammunition used. 

Deflection. — The instructor explains how to move the mov- 
able base by use of the windage screw; that the graduations on the 
rear end of the movable base are for convenience in setting the 
sights and applying corrections; that each division is called a point 
Df windage; that turning the movable base of the rear sight to the 
■ight or left changes the point struck to the right or left; that to 
>vercome the drifting effect of a wind from the right, the movable 
)ase must be moved to the right, and, if the wind be from the left, 
he movable sight base must be moved to the left. 



334 MILITARY TRAINING 

Adjusting the Sights. — (a) Elevation. The graduations on 
the rear sight is found correct for but few rifles. This is due to 
slight variations in the parts of the rifle, especially the barrel, which 
occur under the most exact methods of fabrication. Not all rifles 
are tested at the arsenal, and when the graduations for the rear 
sight have been experimentally determined, they are correct only 
for the particular conditions existing when they were so deter- 
mined. The correction necessary for each particular rifle at any 
range is found by shooting it at that range, and is constant with 
the same ammunition and when firing under the same conditions. 
If no correction is necessary, the rifle is said to " shoot on the 
mark." 

(b) The Zero of a Rifle. — That reading of the wind gauge 
necessary to overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range is 
called the " zero " of that rifle for that range, and all allowances 
for wind should be calculated from this reading. 

The " zero " of a rifle is found by shooting it on a perfectly 
calm day. 

The Effect of Wind.— It is important that before going on 
the range the soldier should be taught to estimate the force and 
direction of the wind and the amount of correction necessary to 
apply to the movable rear-sight base to overcome the effect of the 
wind on the bullet in its flight. 

The direction of the wind, for convenience, is expressed by 
a clock-face notation, the clock being supposed to lie on the ground 
with the hour XII toward the target or mark and the hour III at 
the firer's right hand. A wind blowing from the front (that is 
from the direction of the target) is called a " XH-oclock wind," 
one directly from the left and across the field of fire is called a 
" IX-o'clock wind," and so on. The direction of the wind can be 
obtained by observing its effect upon the smoke, on trees, or grass, 
or dust, or by wetting the finger and holding it up. 

The force of the wind is designated in miles per hour. An 
anemometer should be placed near the barracks, where .it is not 
exposed to cross currents, and so that the dial can be readily seen. 
The force of the wind can then be read from the dial and at the 
same time the effect of the wind on the boughs of trees, flags, and 
streamers, and the smoke from chimneys should be observed. The 
soldier should be required to estimate the force of the wind and 
then verify his estimation by anemometer readings. 

Heat waves, when present, are an important aid in estimating 
the force of the wind. 

If the soldier is well drilled in applying the windage and 
elevation corrections necessary to bring an assumed hit into the 
bull's-eye or figure, using in turn each of the targets at which he 
fires on the range, he will need very little further instruction in ap- 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 335 

plying the necessary corrections. The instructor should assure 
himself that the men understand the reasons for these corrections, 
and they should never forget that they must move the rear-sight 
movable base into the wind and in the same direction they wish to 
move the point struck. 

GALLERY PRACTICE 

After the soldier has been thoroughly instructed in sighting, 
and in the position, aiming, deflection and elevation-correction 
drills, he is exercised in firing at short ranges with reduced charges. 

Notwithstanding the value of the position and aiming drills, 
it is impossible to keep up the soldier's interest if these exercises 
are unduly prolonged. By gallery practice, however, the interest 
is easily maintained and further progress, especially in teaching the~ 
trigger squeeze, is made. Many of the external influences, which 
on the range affect the firing, being absent, the soldier is not puz- 
zled by results for which, at this stage of his education, he could 
not account were he advanced to firing with full charges. Further- 
more, as there is no recoil to induce nervousness or flinching, the 
soldier soon finds that he can make good scores, and this success is 
the surest stimulus to interest. 

Not only to the beginner is gallery practice of value; to the 
good shot it is a means of keeping, to a certain extent, in practice, 
and practice in shooting, as much as in anything else, is essential. 
Since it can be carried on throughout the year, gallery practice is 
of much value in fixing in the men the habit of aimed fire, than 
which nothing in his training is of more importance. 

Matches in gallery firing between the men, particularly the 
recruits, and between teams of the same or different companies, 
should be promoted and encouraged. While such matches increase 
the interest of the men in their practice, they at the same time 
afford experience in the conditions of competitive firing. 

ESTIMATING-DISTANCE TEST 

Ability to estimate distances correctly is an important ele- 
ment in the education of the soldier. 

While it is true that fire on the battle field is usually by 
groups and the ranges given by officers or non-commissioned offi- 
cers, the battle field is reached only after a long series of exper- 
iences in scout, patrol and outpost duty, in which the soldier is 
frequently placed in positions where it is essential that he shall 
determine for himself the range to be used in order that the fire 

99 



336 MILITARY TRAINING 

may be effective. It is, therefore, a prerequisite to qualification 
that the soldier shall be proficient in estimating distances by 
eye. 

During the estimating-distance drills advantage should be 
taken of every opportunity to train the soldier in observing his 
surroundings from positions and when on the march. He should 
be practiced in pointing out and naming different features of the 
ground; in discovering and describing different objects; in count- 
ing different objects or beings. Especially should non-com- 
missioned officers be trained in describing the location, with 
reference to other objects, of objects difficult to see and in im- 
parting information of this kind quickly and accurately. 

Distances can be estimated by the eye or by sound; they can 
be determined by range-finding instruments, by trial shots or 
volleys, or from maps. 

Estimation of Distance by Eye. — To estimate distance by 
the eye with accuracy, it is necessary to be familiar with the ap- 
pearance, as to length, of a unit of measure which can be com- 
pared mentally with the distance which is to be estimated. The 
most convenient unit of length is 100 yards. To impress upon the 
soldier the extent of a stretch of 100 yards two posts 100 yards 
apart, with short stakes between to mark each 25 yards, should be 
placed near the barracks, or on the drill ground, and the soldier 
required to pace off the marked distances several times, counting 
his steps. He thus learns how many of his steps make 100 yards 
and becomes familiar with the appearance of the whole distance 
and of its fractional parts. 

Next a distance of more than 100 yards is shown him and he 
is required to compare this distance with the 100-yard unit and 
to estimate it. Having made this estimate, he is required to verify 
its accuracy by pacing the distance. A few minutes each day 
should be spent in this practice, the soldier often being required 
to make his estimate by raising his rear-sight leaf and showing 
it to the instructor. After the first drills the soldier should be 
required to pace the distance only when the estimate is unusually 
inaccurate. 

The soldier should be taught that, in judging the distance 
from the enemy, his estimate may be corrected by a careful obser- 
vation of the clearness with which details of dress, the movements 
of limbs or of the files in a line may be seen. In order to derive 
the benefit of this method, the soldier is required to observe closely 
all the details noted above in single men or squads of men posted 
at varying distances, which will be measured and announced. 

Although the standing and kneeling silhouettes used in field 
practice afford good objects upon which to estimate distances, the 
instructor should make frequent use of living figures and natural 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 337 

objects, as this is the class of targets from which the soldier will 
be compelled to estimate his range in active service. 

Methods of Estimating Long Distances by the Eye. — The fol- 
lowing methods are found useful: (a) The soldier may decide that 
the object can not be more than a certain distance away nor less 
than a certain distance; his estimates must be kept within the 
closest possible limits and the mean of the two taken as the range. 
(b) The soldier selects a point which he considers the middle 
point of the whole distance, estimates this half distance and doubles 
it, or he similarly divides the distance into a certain number of 
lengths which are familiar to him. (c) The soldier estimates the 
distance along a parallel line, as a road on one side, having on it 
well-defined objects, (d) The soldier takes the mean of several 
estimates made by different persons. This method is not applicable 
to instruction. 

During instruction the men should be taught the effect of 
varying conditions of light and terrain upon the apparent distance 
of an object. 

Objects seem nearer — (a) When the object is in a bright 
light, (b) When the color of the object contrasts sharply with 
the color of the background, (c) When looking over water, snow 
or a uniform surface like a wheat field, (d) When looking from a 
height downward, (e) In the clear atmosphere of high altitudes. 
Objects seem more distant — (a) When looking over a depres- 
sion in the ground, (b) When there is a poor light or a fog. (c) 
When only a small part of the object can be seen, (d) When 
looking from the low ground upward toward higher ground. 

Estimating Distance by Sound. — Sound travels at the rate of 
about 1,100 feet, or 366 yards, per second. If a gun is fired at 
a distance, a certain time elapses before the sound is heard. If 
the number of seconds or parts of seconds between the flash and 
the report be carefully taken and multiplied by 366, the product 
will be approximately the distance in yards to the gun. This 
method will be of doubtful use on the battle field, owing to the 
difficulty of distinguishing the sound of the gun whose flash is 
seen from that of any other. It may probably be useful in de- 
termining the range to a hostile battery when it first opens fire. 

Determining Distance by Range-finding Instruments. — Ac- 
curacy in determining by range-finding instruments depends upon 
care and facility in use of the instrument and clearness of defini- 
tion of the objective. Knowledge of the use of the instrument 
issued is essential to all company officers and should be imparted 
to sergeants when time is available. 

Determination of Distance by Trial Shots or Volleys — If 
the ground is so dry and dusty that the fall of the bullets is visible 



338 MILITARY TRAINING 

through a glass or with the naked eye, a method of determining 
the distance is afforded by using a number of trial shots or volleys. 

This method is as follows: 

The sights are raised for the estimated range and one volley 
is fired. If this appears to hit but little short of the mark an 
increase of elevation of 100 yards is used for the next volley. 
When the object is inclosed between two volleys, a mean of the 
elevations is adopted as the correct range. 

The range may be obtained from a near-by battery Or ma- 
chine gun. This is the best method where available. 

Estimating-Distance Test. — When instruction, in the opinion 
of the company commander, has progressed to such an extent as 
to enable the soldier to judge distances with the eye with fair 
accuracy, he is tested for proficiency. 

As the danger space is continuous for a man kneeling within 
a range of 547 yards (battle-sight range), and as individual fire and 
the fire of small squads is ordinarily limited to 1,200 yards, the 
soldier is tested for proficiency at distances between these two 
ranges. 

The rules governing this test are as follows: (a) The test 
is supervised by an officer, (b) Each soldier is tested separately. 
(c) The ground is other than over which he fired or has previously 
estimated distances, (d) The use of any device to mark the limits 
within which distances are tested (550 and 1,200 yards), at the 
time the test is given, so that this device can be seen from the 
estimating point, is prohibited, (e) The objectives are natural 
objects, men standing, kneeling or prone, or silhouettes, (f) 
For objectives, five or more natural objects are selected, or single 
men or groups of men stationed or silhouettes placed within the 
ranges indicated above. The distances of the objectives are not 
measured until all who are to estimate on them have made their 
estimates. The men to be tested are conducted to a point near 
that from which the estimates are to be made, and remain facing 
away from the objectives or hidden therefrom by some feature of 
the ground. They are not permitted to know what objects are to 
be used in the test until they are called up to the estimating point. 
The officer conducting the test calls up one man at a time, points 
out to him an objective and causes him to estimate the distance 
thereto. This is continued until the soldier's estimates on five 
objectives have been obtained. When the test for the day is com- 
pleted by any man, he is not allowed to join the squad awaiting 
test. After all the men have made estimates of distances to a 
given series of objectives, ranges thereto are measured, (g) Pro- 
ficiency for the expert rifleman and for the sharpshooter consists 
in making in five consecutive estimates an average degree of ac- 
curacy of 90 per cent. Similarly for proficiency, marksmen, first- 



SMALL ARMS FIRING > 339 

class men, and second-class men are required to make in five con- 
secutive estimates an average degree of accuracy of 85 per cent. 
Not more than three trials are given, and should the soldier fa^'l 
three times to make the required percentage, his final qualification 
is reduced one grade below that obtained in firing. 

Range Finders. — The estimating test having been completed, 
five or six enlisted men, selected by the company commander from 
the most accurate estimators, are designated as " Range finders." 
These men are given practice in estimating distances throughout 
the year. The practice is on varied ground and at distances up to 
2,000 yards. 



KNOWN-DISTANCE PRACTICE 

When gallery practice has been completed as required, the 
soldier is advanced to known-distance firing. The general scheme 
for which is quite comprehensive. 

Target Year and Practice Season. — The target year, being 
the period for which reports are rendered and which includes 
the practice season, commences January 1 and terminates Decem- 
ber 31. 

The practice season consists of two months, called the reg- 
ular season, and a period, not to exceed one month, called the 
supplementary season. All to be designated by the department 
commander upon the recommendation of subordinate commanders. 

During the period designated as the practice season, known 
distance firing is carried on in such manner that, while record 
firing should take place on favorable days and under the most 
favorable circumstances, the men should be required to practice 
under variable conditions of weather, care being taken that the 
shooting is not held under such adverse conditions as to make it 
unprofitable. 

As far as practicable, organizations actually firing are 
excused from all post duties during this time, the usual duties 
being performed by the remainder of the garrison. 

Use of Gun Sling. — The gun sling may be used at all ranges 
as an auxiliary to steady the piece, in connection with one arm 
only, provided that for the purposes of adjustment for shooting, 
neither end shall have been passed through either sling swivel. No 
knot will be tied in the sling and the sling itself will not be added 
to nor modified in any manner. 

Use of Rests — Positions. — In known distance practice a 
rest is not allowed for the rifle or any part of the body except as 
prescribed in regulations. In combat firing such rests as are 
available are permitted. Within the limits of regulations, the 



340 , MILITARY TRAINING 

soldier should be allowed to take the position giving him the 
greatest ease and steadiness. 

Use of Devices for Determining Force and Direction of 
Wind. — Anemometers, wind clocks, and other instruments, and 
flags, vanes or streamers for determining the force or direction of 
the wind are allowed on the range during instruction practice but 
not during record firing for qualification. 

Dress and Equipment. — In all classes of firing the service 
uniform and service hat are worn. In all known distance practice 
the soldier is equipped with the rifle and cartridge belt; for 
infantry and troops equipped as infantry, who are provided with 
the model 1910 equipment, the garrison belt, or the cartridge belt, 
model 1910, when the garrison belt is not available; for cavalry 
provided with the new equipment, the field belt; for other troops, 
the cartridge belt stripped; cartridge belt suspenders are not worn 
in known-distance firing; the coat may be omitted when author- 
ized by the post commander. 

Instruction Practice. — The instruction practice, qualification 
course, should carry out the purposes which the term implies, and 
hence the amount of ammunition to be expended in this practice 
should be in proportion to the instruction needed. 

For those who have qualified as marksman or better and 
who have learned the principles of shooting, not so much practice 
is required to keep in condition for retaining the qualification or 
for improving it; hence, for experts and sharp-shooters, the expen- 
diture of ammunition in the instruction practice, qualification 
course, will not exceed 100 rounds and 130 rounds per man, 
respectively, in one season's practice. 

Record Practice. — Record practice is for two purposes: 
First, to afford the soldier an object lesson of his progress; second, 
to obtain a record by means of which the soldier may be graded 
in awarding insignia and increased pay. 

The rules for record practice must be fixed and be applicable 
to all alike. These rules must be strictly observed by all; scores 
must be recorded accurately; the work in the pit must be con- 
ducted with great efficiency. 

In this practice "coaching" of any nature is prohibited. 
Each firer must observe the location of his own hit as indicated 
by the marking disk or spotter. After a soldier has taken his 
place at the firing point, no person shall render or attempt to 
render him any assistance whatever. 

Field Glasses. — Officers and enlisted men are allowed and 
encouraged to use field glasses, subject to the restrictions concern- 
ing coaching. 

Order of Procedure. — The practice season opens with instruc- 
tion practice, qualification course. This is carried to completion 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 341 

for each soldier before he proceeds to record practice. When 
the instruction practice, qualification course, is completed, the 

soldier proceeds to record practice (same course) and follows 
this to completion. 

No individual will fire record practice, qualification course, 
on the same day as any part of instruction practice. Record prac- 
tice having begun for any individual will be finished before any 
other firing is taken up. 

Sighting Shots. — Sighting shots form no part of the score 
and are not recorded as such. When sighting shots are prescribed 
they must be taken. If, through no fault of his own, a soldier's 
record score is not completed at a range where sighting shots are 
prescribed and has to be repeated, he must be given sighting 
shots with the new score. 

Instruction shots fired by an officer or enlisted man are 
permitted only in instruction practice. 

Scoring. — The record of the score, from which classification 
is made, is kept at each firing point by a non-commissioned 
officer, who is assigned, unless at a one company post, to a point 
where his own company is not firing. The scoring is closely 
supervised and the record verified by a company officer. Scores 
are recorded on the range with pencil on sheets prepared for that 
purpose. 

A separate sheet is kept for each man firing, and as soon as 
the man's score at any range is completed the scorer signs the sheet 
and the company commander takes it up, initials it, and keeps it 
in his personal possession until the soldier is again called upon to 
fire. The record scores are transferred from these sheets to the 
company target record by the company commander. 

Scoring Slow Fire. — The scorer, as each shot is signaled, 
announces in a tone loud enough to be heard by the firer the name 
of the firer and the value of the hit, and records it on a sheet 
assigned to that soldier. 

A shot upon the wrong target is entered upon the score of 
the man firing as a miss, no matter what the value of the hit 
upon the wrong target. 

If two shots strike a target at the same or nearly the 
same time, both are signaled; and if a shot was just fired from the 
firing point assigned to that target, the hit having the higher value 
of the two is entered in the score of the soldier firing from that 
target point, and no record made of the other hit. 

Scoring Rapid Fire. — In rapid fire as each shot is signaled 
it is announced as follows: One five, two fives, three fives, one 
four, two fours, three fours, four fours, one three, one miss, two 
misses, and jotted down on a pad as called, the scorer watching the 
target as he calls the shot. After the marking is finished the 



342 MILITARY TRAINING 

scorer counts the number of shots marked and, if more or less 
than 10, calls: "Re-mark No. — .." If 10 shots have been marked, 
he then enters the score on the soldier's score card and totals it 
as follows: 555444430 0=34. 

In record practice, in case of two men firing on the same 
target, the resulting score is rejected, the soldier at fault being 
credited with only such hits, if any, as he may have made on his 
own target, the other soldier repeating his score. In case of 
more than 10 hits on a target the score is not recorded and the 
soldier assigned to that target repeats the score. 

Officer in Charge of Firing. — At stations where the range 
is provided with several targets and practice is usually held simul- 
taneously by two or more companies and successively by others, 
an officer in charge of the firing is appointed. 

The officer in charge of the firing, who should be, when 
practicable, a field officer, has general supervision of the firing 
and of the target range during the practice season. He does not 
supervise the details of the instruction of the companies practicing 
on the range, but maintains order, regulates the distribution of 
ranges and targets to organizations, prevents infractions of reg- 
ulations, and in general assists by every proper means to secure 
efficient and accurate service from the working force of the range. 

He sees that all necessary precautions are taken for the 
safety of the markers and such spectators as may be present. 

When ranges are not provided with butts and the sur- 
roundings are such that persons or animals might attempt to 
cross the range, the officer in charge of firing, before firing is 
begun posts lookouts, in positions to be seen from the pit, whose 
duty it is to prevent any attempt to cross the line of fire. When- 
ever the lookouts can not prevent the line of fire being crossed 
they should display a danger signal, when the markers withdraw 
the targets. 

Range Officer. — At all ranges a range officer is appointed 
who is charged with the care and police of the range and with 
the necessary repairs to targets, shelters, butts, and firing points. 
He is assisted by a non-commissioned officer and such fatigue 
parties as may be required. He makes timely estimates for mate- 
rial and labor to place the range in proper condition for the prac- 
tice season, and all necessary repairs are made under his direction 
and the supervision of the post commander. He is responsible for 
the accurate measuring of the range and the correct location of 
the different firing points, for the condition of the telephone sys- 
tem, and for the arrangement and efficiency of the personnel at 
the butts. During the practice season he acts as assistant to the 
officer in charge of the firing. 

Non-commissioned Officer in Charge of Pit. — A competent 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 343 

non-commissioned officer, with such assistants as the post com- 
mander deems necessary, is detailed permanently during the 
target season in charge of arrangements at the butts. He is under 
the direction of the range officer and is responsible for the effi- 
ciency and discipline of the target details. It is his duty to see that 
targets are ready for the firing desired and that all targets are 
serviceable; also to see that as the target details report they are 
provided with the proper flags, marking disks, paste, pasters, etc. 

Target Details. — The detail for marking each target con- 
sists of two privates belonging to the company firing at that 
target, and one non-commissioned officer, always selected, except 
at a one-company post, from some other company. The non-com- 
missioned officer is held responsible that order is kept at his 
target and should be familiar with the regulations governing ihe 
markers and with the method of marking. Upon arriving at the 
pit the non-commissioned officer in charge of the target sees that 
his detail procures from the non-commissioned officer in charge of 
the pit the necessary ricochet and danger flags, spotters, marking 
disks, pasters, and paste. He displays the danger flag in front of 
his target, examines the target carefully to see that it is in good 
working order and that all old shot holes are pasted up. In 
case any target is, or becomes, so badly mutilated as to be unserv- 
iceable, he procures a new one from the non-commissioned officer 
in charge of the pit. Upon completion of the firing he takes 
down the target and returns it, with the disks, flags, etc., to the 
pit house. 

If it should become necessary before the completion of the 
firing for the markers to leave or for other persons to enter a 
target pit not provided with a continuous shelter or covered 
approach, the target should first be turned or withdrawn from the 
firing position and the danger signal displayed. After the signal 
"Cease firing" has been sounded, or if there is no musician present 
at the firing point after a few seconds' delay, the target pit may 
be entered or left, the target turned back to the firing position, 
the danger signal removed, and the firing resumed. 

Marking. — When a post is garrisoned by a single company 
and it is impossible to detail non-commissioned officers of other 
companies to supervise the marking and scoring, those duties 
are performed by the non-commissioned officer of the firing 
company. In record firing, qualification course, when only one 
company is firing, new paper targets are used for each day's firing, 
and upon its completion the company commander or one of his 
lieutenants counts the number of hits made in each division of 
the target and compares the totals with the recorded scores. 

As in some cases the markers may inadvertently make errors 
in signaling hits, whenever an examination of the target gives 



344 MILITARY TRAINING 

r 

results very closely agreeing with the recorded scores, the record 
should be permitted to stand, but the markers cautioned to exer- 
cise greater care in the future. 

Any shot cutting the edge of the figure or bull's-eye is 
signaled and recorded as a hit in the figure or bull's-eye, and as 
the limiting line of each division of the target is the outer edge 
of the line separating it from the exterior division, whenever this 
line is touched by a shot, it is signaled and recorded as a hit in 
the higher division. 

Marking, Slow Fire. — In slow fire with the rifle, as each 
shot is fired the non-commissioned officer indicates to one of the 
markers the value and position of the hit, if any is made, and 
supervises this marker while he signals the result of the shot to 
the firing point. The center of the disk should be placed over 
the shot hole. When double sliding targets are used the target 
hit is withdrawn and the location of the hit indicated with the 
proper disk on the other target. After the result of the shot has 
been signaled, if a direct or ricochet hit has been made, the other 
marker covers the shot hole with the proper paster. When spot- 
ters are used the shot hole is not pasted up, but the spotter hung 
in the hole. When the exposed target is hit it is withdrawn and 
the other target run up, the spotter showing the exact location 
of the preceding hit on that target. When another hit is made 
on that target it is withdrawn, the spotter changed from the first 
shot hole to the second, and the first shot hole pasted up. When 
spotters are used care must be taken to paste up a shot hole as 
soon as the spotter is removed and also to paste up any shot hole 
in the spotter itself. 

The value of a shot will be indicated to the firing point as 
follows: If a bull's-eye, with a white disk. If a center (four), 
with a red disk. If an inner (three), with a black and white disk. 
If an outer (two), with a black disk. 

Marking, Rapid Fire. — In this class of fire the time is reg- 
ulated in the pit. The targets being ready, they are pulled fully 
down and a red flag is displayed at the center target. On signal 
from the firing line, the flag is waved and lowered and five seconds 
thereafter the targets are run up, being fully exposed for the 
time required for that range. 

At the expiration of the time limit the targets are run 
down and the hits are marked, beginning with the highest in 
value, the disk being placed over the shot hole, then swung off 
the target and back to the next shot hole, care being taken to 
mark slowly enough to avoid confusing the scorer. The misses 
are indicated by slowly waving the red flag once across the face 
of the target for each miss. The shot holes are then pasted and 
the target made ready for further firing. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 345 

ADVICE TO RIFLEMEN 

For purposes of instruction, all firing may be divided into 
three classes, viz.: 1. Slow fire at 600 yards and under. 2. Slow 
fire at ranges over 600 yards. 3. Rapid fire. 

Short-range Practice. — In the krst class of fire, slight 
changes of wind, light, and temperature may be almost disregarded. 
The principal things to be learned are: Setting the sight properly 
at the beginning of a score; aiming properly; squeezing the trig- 
ger properly; holding the rifle. These constitute probably 90 per 
cent, of the work at ranges under 600 yards, and if the soldier 
performs these actions correctly with each shot, he will make 
a good score regardless of small changes in the atmospheric 
conditions. It is very important that the piece be held firmly and 
sighted uniformly. 

Long-range Practice. — In the second class of firing (at dis- 
tances greater than 600 yards) a very large part of the work is 
in the holding, but changes of wind, temperature, and light must 
be studied in order to make good scores. 

Wind. — Wind is the most important factor to be considered 
in long-range known-distance practice. It is unnecessary to teach 
recruits and others who never shoot beyond 600 yards more than 
the adjustment of the wind gauge for a right or left wind and how 
to change the wind gauge when a hit is made. 

The direction of the wind is shown by considering the range 
as a clock face, the firer being in the center and the target at 12 
o'clock. The direction is then indicated as a 10 o'clock wind, 2 
o'clock wind,, etc. 

The force of the wind is indicated in miles per hour and is 
shown accurately by the anemometer, and is estimated by observa- 
tion of flags, by throwing up leaves, grass, or bits of paper, and by 
the " feel " of the wind on the hands or face. 

At long-distance ranges, after firing a shot and before firing 
again, the firer should look carefully for any change in direction 
and force of the wind. A change of 4 miles in force or of one 
hour in direction will make a decided difference in the location of 
a hit. 

Any wind deflects the bullet from its course in the direction 
the wind is blowing. The amount of deflection varies with the 
direction and force of the wind. 

Temperature. — After the proper adjustment of the sight has 
been determined, it rarely happens while firing a single, or even 
several consecutive scores, that such changes can occur in the 
temperature as to make further corrections necessary. If the first 
shot has been fired from a clean, cool gun, the subsequent fouling 
and heating of the barrel and the different vibrations of the latter, 



346 MILITARY TRAINING 

which are caused by the heating, generally make necessary a slight 
increase in elevation for the second shot, and often an additional 
increase for the third shot. This should be followed, in some 
cases, where a number of shots are fired without cleaning or with- 
out any considerable interval, by a slight lowering of the eleva- 
tion after additional shots. 

A decided increase in the temperature causes the bullet to 
strike high; a decided drop in temperature causes the bullet to 
strike low. 

Light. — Changes of light do not affect the flight of the bullet; 
they do affect the manner in which the aim is taken. As all men 
are not affected alike by changes of light, each man must determine 
for himself how changes of light affect him. 

Using the peep sight, the bull's-eye of a bright target is 
more clearly defined than the bull's-eye of a dark one, and the 
firer usually holds closer to the bright bull's-eye than to a dark 
one. If the target changes from bright to dark, the next shot 
usually goes low. 

With the open sight, as the light changes from bright to 
dark and the rear notch fills with shadow, more front sight is 
seen, and the shot goes high. 

In rapid firing with open sights, on very dark days shots 
seem to go high, due entirely to the firer taking more front sight 
than on bright days. 

Mirage. — This is the term applied in target practice to heated 
air in motion, as seen through telescopes or field glasses on 
clear days with winds of from 2 to 14 miles per hour. Through 
the telescope waves appear to be moving across the face of the 
target in the direction the wind is blowing. 

These waves indicate the general direction and speed of the 
wind. As to direction, they indicate a right or left wind only, and 
not one from 11, 1, 5, or 7 o'clock. 

In a light 6 o'clock wind, or with no wind at all, the waves 
go straight up or " boil." 

With a light wind the mirage moves slowly across the face 
with a decided vertical motion, giving a saw-tooth appearance. As 
the wind increases, the vertical motion of the mirage decreases 
until, with a 12 to 14 mile wind, the waves seem nearly flat and 
run across the target with very little vertical motion. 

On hot days, with no wind, or a very light wind from 6 
o'clock, the mirage rises straight from the bottom to the top of 
the target. This condition seldom lasts long, and in a very short 
time the mirage runs from one side to the other. 

Never fire while the mirage is "boiling," for there is usually 
a slight drift toward one side or the other, invisible to the firer, 
and if a shot is fired with no windage in a "boil." it will usually be 



SMALL ARMS FIRING . 347 

out of the bull's-eye. Wait for the mirage to move from one 
side. 

Rapid Firing. — Success in rapid firing depends upon catching 
a quick and accurate aim, holding the piece firmly and evenly and 
in squeezing the trigger without a jerk. 

In order to give as much time as possible for aiming accu- 
rately, the soldier must practice taking position, loading with the 
clip, and working the bolt so that no time is lost in these opera- 
tions. With constant practice all these movements may be made 
quickly and without false motions. 

When the bolt handle is raised it must be done with enough 
force to start the shell from the chamber; and when the bolt is 
pulled back it must be with sufficient force to throw the empty 
shell well away from the chamber, and far enough to engage the 
next cartridge. 

The aim must be caught quickly, and once caught must be 
held,, and the trigger squeezed steadily. Rapid firing, as far as 
holding the aim and squeezing the trigger are concerned, should 
be done with all the precision of slow fire. 

Firing at Moving Targets. — In firing at moving targets, the 
rifle must move with the target. If the target moves across the 
front, the aim must be a certain distance in front of it, depending 
on the distance of the target and its speed. If it moves toward 
the firer he must hold below it; if away from him, he must hold 
over it. 

Firing with Rests. — In the ordinary positions for firing with 
piece supported by hands, arms, and shoulder, the explosion of 
the powder charge sets up in the barrel of the rifle certain vibra- 
tions which become disturbed and altered somewhat when the 
rifle is fired with the additional support of a solid rest applied at 
some point of the barrel. 

Using the same elevations and aiming point the effect of a 
rest is exhibited in a changed point of strike of the bullet. 

The vertical vibrations of the barrel are the more pro- 
nounced, and as these are interfered with by a point of rest under 
the barrel this species of support will usually change the point of 
strike more than in the case of a side rest against a vertical sur- 
face. In the latter case the piece is steadied rather than rested. 

With a rest beneath the balance, or near the point, the ten- 
dency is to shoot above and to the right of the point of strike that 
would be attained without a rest, using the same elevation and 
point of aim. 

The tendency is the same and more pronounced when the 
rest is under a point near the muzzle. The change in the point 
of strike in any case is slight and insufficient to carry the shot 
off the target from the center of target D at 600 yards. 



348 • MILITARY TRAINING 

In firing with the bayonet fixed,, usually a lower point on 
the target will be struck corresponding to a reduction in the range 
of about 50 yards. 

THE EFFECT OF FIRE 

The ballistic qualities of an arm are indicated by its ac- 
curacy, flatness of trajectory, and disabling power. 

The quality of flatness of trajectory is directly dependent 
upon the initial velocity and to some extent upon the form of 
the bullet,, a given weight being assumed. 

Two rifles of different type may possess the same accuracy, 
that is to say, the same dispersion, at any given range; but if one 
of the rifles gives a trajectory more curved than the other, an 
error in the setting of the sight due to an erroneous estimate of 
the range will cause a greater displacement from the aiming point 
of the center of impact of the diagram of hits than will be the 
case with the rifle with a flatter trajectory. A flat trajectory can 
not do away with the influence of errors in aiming, but this quality 
bestows an advantage in that with one sight a greater extent of 
ground may be held under fire and the target still be hit when it 
is not at the exact distance for which the sight is set. 

The trajectory cuts the line of sight in two places, the first 
near the muzzle, the second at the point aimed at (supposing the 
point to be struck); between these two points all portions of the 
trajectory are above the line of sight. If aim be taken at the 
lowest point or element of an object, it follows that if the highest 
ordinate of the trajectory corresponding to the range is equal to 
or less than the height of the object aimed at, the danger space for 
that object will be continuous. For example, the highest point of 
the trajectory coresponding to a range of 500 yards is 2 feet above 
the line of sight, so that for an object of that height, or greater, 
the danger space will be continuous provided aim is taken at the 
foot of the object. It is this circumstance which permits the adop- 
tion of a universal sight — the battle sight — adaptable to all the 
shorter ranges. 

Owing to the fact that curvature of the trajectory increases 
with the range, the angle of fall for the longer ranges will be greater 
and the danger space for an object of a given height will be less, 
the falling branch only of the trajectory being considered. The 
increase in the distance also makes it more difficult to obtain a 
close estimate of the range. 

The Cone of Dispersion and the Probabilities of Hitting. — 
The causes which make for dispersion of shots as given in the table 
of deviations of the United States rifle are dependent upon varia- 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 349 

tions in different parts of the rifle and imperfections in the ammu- 
nition alone. 

In consequence of differences in sights, the variations in 
different parts of the rifle, and in the ammunition, and, to a much 
greater extent, individual errors made in aiming and firing, a series 
of shots fired by a body of soldiers with a common aiming point 
and the same sight setting, under uniform meteorological condi- 
tions, do not all follow the same path, but will be more or less 
separated. 

The trajectories considered together make a horn-shaped 
figure called the cone of fire or cone of dispersion, owing to the re- 
semblance to the geometrical figure of that name. The term 
"sheaf of bullets" is also used to express the same meaning, and 
all these are applied to a particular series of collective shots fired 
in practice or in service. 

If the shots so fired be intercepted by a vertical target in a 
position normal to the direction of the fire, a diagram of hits is 
formed called the shot group. In the diagram of hits the shots 
appear as most thickly disposed about a point situated approxi- 
mately in the center of the group, called the center of impact. 
From this point in all directions the density of the grouping de- 
creases progressively — at first gradually, then more rapidly out to 
the limits of the group. 

The arrangement of shots in the diagram of hits, apparently 
regardless of any rule, is in fact in conformity to a law which does 
not exhibit itself until after the delivery of a large number of 
shots. If measurements be made of a given shot group, the wild 
shots being disregarded, and the mean vertical and mean horizontal 
dispersion from the center of impact be found, these measurements 
are in effect statements or indexes of the law of distribution of 
the hits for that particular group. A horizontal strip of the width 
of the mean vertical dispersion and symmetrically placed as to 
the center of impact contains 50 per cent, of the hits in the 
group. 

It is well known that the dimensions of the cone of disper- 
sion and of the shot group vary with the skill of those firing; 
good ^hots make a small group and poor shots a larger group. If 
the mean verticle and mean horizontal dispersions for riflemen 
of a certain grade of skill be determined for various ranges, a 
large number of shots being considered, means are provided by 
which, in connection with a table of probability factors, there may 
be computed the probable number of hits to be expected in col- 
lective firing by shots of the same degree of skill at any range, 
at targets of any size. By this means a suitable standard may be 
constructed by which the results obtained in combat firing may be 
judged. 



350 MILITARY TRAINING 

The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the surface 
on which the object of the fire stands is called the beaten zone. 
On a horizontal surface the form of the beaten zone is somewhat 
that of an ellipse with its major axis in the direction of the line 
of fire. At short ranges the elliptical figure is very much elon- 
gated, and, as the range is increased, the greater axis becomes 
shorter. When the surface of impact is on ground rising with 
respect to the line of sight the longer axis is very much shortened, 
or, in other words, the depth of the beaten zone is very much 
diminished. 

The grouping obtained on the surface of the ground by 
shots fired as a volley, or in a particular series of shots fired col- 
lectively, is sometimes referred to as the shot group. 

The arrangement of hits in the beaten zone follows a law 
similar to that in the diagram of hits on a vertical target. The 
mean longitudinal dispersion on a horizontal surface in the direc- 
tion of the fire bears a direct relation to the mean vertical dis- 
persion, being the product of the latter by the cotangent of the 
angle of fall. 

The Effectiveness of Fire. — The effectiveness of fire under 
battle conditions and in combat firing exercises is dependent upon 
the three factors: The percentage of hits made, the number of 
targets hit, and the time of execution. The ultimate effect may be 
expressed synthetically by the number of enemies disabled or 
targets hit in a unit of time. 

The percentage of hits is dependent upon the dispersion, and 
this is influenced by the precision of the arm, the distance from 
the target, the visibility of the target, the prevailing atmospheric 
conditions, the training and instruction of the troops, and upon 
their physical and normal state at the time. 

The percentage of hits is also dependent upon the visibility 
of the objective, upon the character of the ground as favoring 
ricochet hits, upon the correct estimation of the distance or choice 
of sight, and designation of the target, these latter pertaining to 
fire control. 

With a given accuracy, the number of targets hit or the 
distribution of fire may be affected by varying degrees of visibility, 
as men instinctively choose the more conspicuous marks as aiming 
points. Under any circumstances, an imperfect distribution of 
the hits made will be due to an absence of proper instructions from 
the leaders, or, in other words, to poor control, or else to a want 
of understanding or lack of obedience on the part of the men. 

The time of execution is important in that the gaining of 
fire superiority is dependent less upon obtaining high percentages 
of hits than upon making an absolutely large number of hits in 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 351 

a unit of time. There is necessarily a limit to the rapidity of fire 
which, if exceeded, results in some loss of accuracy. 

The results obtained in collective firing exercises in time of 
peace give but a slight basis for estimating the results to be ex- 
pected in time of war. The somewhat inferior training of units 
mobilized to war strength, the emotions to which even disciplined 
men are subject in action, and the physical impairment incident 
to service conditions are influences which combine to greatly 
lessen the effects which peace-time experiments give, this lowering 
in effects being due to increased dispersions, the latter, under the 
doctrine of chances, giving lesser probabilities of hitting in pro- 
portion to the increase in dispersion. 

It has been estimated that war-time dispersion varies ac- 
cording to the training, morale, and physical condition of the 
troops from twice to four times, or more, the peace dispersions. 
This is not a condition to be desired or sought, but one to be 
understood and reckoned with. 



THE INFLUENCE OF GROUND 

An obstacle of sufficient thickness to prevent the penetra- 
tion of the bullet will protect from fire the space extending from 
its foot to the point where the bullet, which grazes its crest, meets 
the ground. The space which is thus protected from fire is called 
the " defiladed space." Its extent will depend on the height of the 
shelter, the curvature of the trajectory and the slope of the ground 
behind the shelter. 

If the height of the shelter be less than that of a man stand- 
ing, only a partial protection will be afforded, and to obtain com- 
plete shelter it is necessary for the soldier to assume the kneeling 
or prone positions. By cover is meant effective defilade from the 
enemy's fire. Concealment means a screening from view but not 
necessarily protection from fire. 

Rising and Falling Ground. — The influence of the ground 
upon the effect of fire manifests itself in the depth of the beaten 
zone. This depth is decreased if the surface of reception rises with 
respect to the line of sight; it increases, on the other hand, if the 
surface of reception falls with respect to the line of sight. 

It should tie remembered that, assuming a proper adjustment 
of the fire, depth of beaten zone can affect only targets which have 
depth. On a lineal target the depth of the beaten zone has no 
effect one way or the other. If this target is backed up by sup- 
ports and reserves, the effect upon them will depend upon their 
positions with respect to the firing line which forms the objective 
or aiming point and upon the depth of the beaten zone. The 



352 



MILITARY TRAINING 



beaten zone is influenced by the lay of the ground, whether rising 
or falling, with respect to the line of sight. 

Through a judicious choice of ground, the measurement of 
slopes, the placement of targets, and the selection of firing points, 
the possibilities of the species of indirect fire known as grazing 
fire may be demonstrated; but the mere possibility of inflicting 
damage on invisible enemies must not create a fajfcg impression as 
to the use of this class of fire. ^^ 

Ricochet Shots. — Bullets which ricochet usually tumble after 
striking, and jacketed bullets, on striking a hard, rough surface 
become altered in form more or less, the jackets sometimes becom- 



Grotmd rising in respect of line of sight. 

Rising Ground 

\Rising Ground 

, Rising Grountk 




Level Ground 

Ground falling in respect of line of sight. 



The Beaten zone is greatest on slope A-D, 
the Trajectory being practically parallel 
to the surface of the ground. 



THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT 



B LeosJ 
^Grtuni 



Falling 
Ground 




ing separated from the lead core. Wounds inflicted by ricochet 
hits are, therefore, as a rule, severe. 

The most favorable ground for ricochets is a smooth, hard, 
horizontal surface. Bullets also ricochet on water, and, to a lesser 
extent on plowed ground, wet clay, wet turf, or swampy ground. 
The chance of ricochet in sand is very slight. Bullets which 
ricochet are often deflected laterally and the amount of deflection 
influences the range of the rebound. The maximum angle of de- 
flection is about 30° and it is usually to the right. The range will 
be greater as the point of strike is nearer the point from which the 
piece is fired. A smooth, hard surface so inclined as to give an 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 353 

acute angle of fall to the bullet produces the maximum range of 
rebound, which is about 2,500 yards or a little more. 

The Occupation of Ground. — The question presents two as- 
pects, as follows: 

First. What firing positions may be chosen which will tend 
to increase the losses of the enemy? 

Second. What positions may be chosen and formations 
adopted to minimize our own losses? 

Where other conditions admit, it is obvious that a defensive 
position well down a slope is preferable to a position higher up, 
on or near the crest, as by this arrangement the depth of the 
beaten zone for fire delivered therefrom is increased and the upper 
portion of the cone of shots include the supports and reserves 
advancing to reenforce the firing line of the attacking force. This 
course also tends to eliminate dead spaces, which might otherwise 
exist at the foot of the slope. 

On the other hand, a defensive position near the crest, be- 
sides favoring observation of the enemy, lends itself to a ready 
withdrawal of the firing line should a falling back be necessary, or 
else to its prompt reenforcement by the supports advancing from 
behind the crest. The decision as to choice of ground to be 
occupied in any particular case must therefor be dependent upon 
judgment as to the relative value of the ballistic and tactical con- 
siderations involved. 

From the point of view of avoiding losses, all gentle reverse 
slopes are dangerous and are to be avoided when possible. When 
necessary to traverse or to occupy such ground, precautions must 
be taken to protect the reserves or other bodies of troops by 
placing them on the flanks; by disposing them in formations with a 
narrow front; by causing them to lie down; by the construction of 
suitable shelter; and by avoiding useless movements. Finally by 
placing the firing line, which is the visible target and at which the 
enemy's fire is directed, as well down the slope from the crest as 
tactical considerations will admit, the high ground will interpose as 
a defilade and intercept the upper portion of the collective cone 
which might otherwise take effect on objects behind the crest. 

THE ADJUSTMENT OF FIRE 

The correct adjustment of infantry fire is attained by caus- 
ing the center of impact of the collective group to fall on the 
center of the target, this placement of the group under the law of 
probabilities insuring the greatest number of hits. This is the 
problem constantly presented in combat firing and in service. 

Two distinct and independent elements enter, which may 
supplement or counteract each other — the influence of the troops 



354 MILITARY TRAINING 

and that of the commander. When a body of troops has aimed 
correctly at the indicated objective with the elevation ordered and 
has fired with steadiness, it has done all that can be expected of it; 
but this is not sufficient. It is the duty of the commander to bring 
the shot group into proper relationship with the target. If the 
correct elevation be given, a maximum result will be obtained; if 
a mistake is made, the result may be nothing. 

It is known that good shots make a small group and poor 
shots a large group, average shots making a group of intermediate 
size. The maximum effect is obtained if the shots are of the 
highest grade and if the center of impact is correctly placed. But 
if the center of impact of the group made by good shots is dis- 
placed, the effect falls off very rapidly compared to the other 
grades of shots, and if the displacement is very great, it may be 
sufficient to insure that the good shots will make no hits at all, 
while, with the same displacement of the center of impact, the 
fire of the poorer grades of shots will continue to have some effect. 
In other words, the fire of a thoroughly trained body of troops 
may be less effective than that of much poorer shots if, through 
a lack of appreciation of the range, the center of impact of its shot 
group be displaced. * 

Normally, battle-field targets are lineal targets, and hence 
a lateral displacement is of slight consequence, as shots aimed at 
one element or section of the hostile line may take effect in some 
other element or section of the same front. Owing to the slight 
depth of service targets and to the form of the trajectory, the 
longitudinal placement of the center of impact is more difficult. 

The point of strike of the bullet is determined by the angle 
of elevation given the axis of the bore when the piece is fired, and 
the adjustable slide of the rear sight, with the scale of the leaf 
graduated to yards, is a device for giving the elevation necessary 
to reach any point within the range of the arm. If the range to 
a target is known exactly, under average conditions, a perfect ad- 
justment of the fire is obtained by having each man of the firing 
detachment set his sight for the indicated range, the mean tra- 
jector of the cone of dispersion approximating closely to the nor- 
mal trajectory for the range indicated. 

Rear-Sight Corrections Through Observations of Signs of 
Impact. — When the surface on which the objective stands is such 
as to give visible signs of the impact of bullets, a supplementary 
means is provided by which rear-sight settings may be corrected. 
When the ground is favorable, the simultaneous strike of a num- 
ber of shots fired with the same rear-sight setting gives a better 
indication of the location of the shot group than the same number 
of shots would provide if fired at the will of the individuals of 
the platoon or detachment. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 355 

In order to be able to recognize the center of impact on the 
various surfaces ordinarily met with in service, it is necessary to be 
acquainted with the form and dimensions of the beaten zone as it is 
exhibited thereon. A rising surface of reception produces a short- 
ening effect on the beaten zone. 

Combined Sights. — When means of exact determination are 
not available and indications of impact are lacking or insufficient 
and the range can not be learned from the artillery or neighbor- 
ing troops, some error in the range must be expected. In such 
a case, through the expedient of combined sights, a greater depth 
of beaten zone may be created, giving an assurance of effect which 
might not otherwise be obtained. Such a fire loses in concentra- 
tion, and this must be compensated for by the employment of a 
larger number of rifles. The most common application of com- 
bined sights is in executing fire of position. The expedient is not 
usually employed by bodies of less strength than a battalion. 

The approximate ranges for combined sights and the num- 
ber of sights to be employed in any case are questions which 
depend upon the depth of the beaten zone and the probable error 
in the estimation of the range. Both these factors vary between 
certain limits. The depth of the beaten zone varies inversely with 
the range. It is also greater in time of war than in time of peace, 
but, in view of the circumstances under which the fire of position is 
usually executed, a very great dispersion need not be looked for. 
The greatest probable error is about 15 per cent, of the range. 
When a good instrumental range finder is available the error 
should not exceed 5 per cent, of the range. In the majority of 
cases the error to be expected will lie between these two ex- 
tremes. 

Auxiliary Aiming Points and Target Designation. — Through 
invisibility and the practice of concealment, it frequently occurs in 
service that individual enemies or deployed bodies of the enemy 
are too inconspicuous to provide in themselves a good aiming 
point. In such case it is necessary to select well-defined marks or 
objects in the immediate vicinity upon which to direct the fire, 
these being so chosen and the rear sight so adjusted that the objec- 
tive will lie at the center of the resulting beaten zone. 

When natural and artificial features are numerous enough 
to make a confusion of forms, or when the surface is of a monoton- 
ous character, unbroken by marks which might serve as aiming 
points or points of reference, target designation is difficult. It is 
necessary that indications be given in clear and precise terms, and 
that the men in ranks have the capacity to understand what is 
said. A lack of understanding may cause the fire to be delivered 
in quite another direction from that intended. 

It is frequently advantageous to make use of the clock no- 



356 MILITARY TRAINING 

tation in indicating the direction of a target. For this purpose a 
well-defined object in front is announced and considered as being 
at 12 o'clock, the objective being indicated by the usual clock 
designations, according to the difference from the point of refer- 
ence. Angular differences between the target and reference points 
may be indicated by finger breadths. 

Fire at Moving Targets. — The adjustment of fire on moving 
objectives is subject to certain special considerations in that, due to 
changes of position of the target, it is not possible with a certain 
sight setting to maintain a perfect adjustment of the fire. Changes 
in sight setting are necessary to conform to the changes in the 
position of the target, and the two questions naturally arise, what 
original sight setting should be adopted upon first opening fire and 
what changes in it should be made as the action progresses. 

It is obvious that if a beaten zone be established imme- 
diately in front of an enemy, his forward movement into the beaten 
zone will complete the adjustment of the fire. Due to the chance 
of overestimating the range, it is necessary to adopt a rear sight 
setting well under the estimated range, in order to insure that the 
Ibeaten zone will be in advance of the enemy. When the fire be- 
comes effective, as may be judged by the actions and movements 
of the enemy, the rate of fire should be quickened in order to in- 
crease the effect of the fire. When the target continues to advance 
till it has passed entirely through the zone of effective fire (75 per 
cent, zone), a lower sight setting will be required so as to again 
bring the center of the beaten zone in front of the target. Fre- 
quent changes of sight cause a loss of time, besides multiplying 
chances of error in sight setting. 

In accordance with these ideas, against infantry advancing, a 
sight setting 200 yards less than the estimated range should first 
be used. When the enemy has passed through the zone of effective 
fire, the sight should be lowered 200 yards and the operation re- 
peated till the battle-sight zone is reached, in which no sight ma- 
nipulation is required other than throwing down the leaf. Against 
skirmish lines which advance by rushes the sight setting shoufd 
not be changed during a rush. This should be done at the halts, 
so that the greater vulnerability of the targets presented during 
the rush may be taken advantage of. 

Against attacking cavalry, due to the rapidity of the advance, 
there is not usually time for sight manipulation other than throw- 
ing down the leaf of the rear sight, so that the battle sight should 
be resorted to at all ranges. 

Against retreating targets fire should be opened with the 
sight corresponding to the estimated range, and when the target 
appears to have passed beyond the zone of effective fire 200 yards 
should be added to the sight. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 357 

In firing at a target moving across the line of fire it is de- 
sirable, on account of the confusion caused thereby, to hit the head 
of the column. It is necessary therefore to hold to the front a 
distance sufficient to allow for the time of flight and the rate of 
march. 

Indirect Fire. — The proper adjustment of fire on an objective 
which is screened from the view of the observer at the firing point 
by an intervening obstacle is dependent upon the conjunction of 
favorable circumstances not usually met with in service. The 
height of the obstacle and the range must be such that the ob- 
jective is not defiladed from fire, and besides determining the 
range, the position of the objective must be known, so that the 
proper lateral direction to the pieces may be given. For this pur- 
pose intermediate auxiliary aiming points are necessary to mark 
the direction of the fire. In siege operations opportunities may 
arise for the employment of this kind of fire, in which case material 
may usually be found for constructing rests for rifles, so that fire 
delivered therefrom will reach important stationary objectives. 

Night Firing. — The invisibility afforded by darkness neutral- 
izes the power of the rifle to a great extent by making it im- 
possible to employ the ordinary means of fire adjustment. 

In night attacks the purpose of the offensive is to gain rapidly 
and quietly a position where the issue may be decided in a hand 
to hand encounter or a position from which the superiority of fire 
may be gained at daylight. For the offensive, therefore, fire action 
is a subordinate consideration. 

On the defensive, when a night attack is apprehended, prep- 
arations should be made to sweep with fire the ground immediately 
in front over which the assailant must advance. Special arrange- 
ments may sometimes be made for resting rifles on the parapet, 
so that the ground in front will be suitably covered. A solid sup- 
port is necessary for maintaining the proper direction of the pieces 
during firing. For this purpose notched boards or timbers are 
convenient. The arrangements should be such that the operations 
of loading and firing may be performed without removing the 
rifles from the support. Searchlight illumination may reveal the 
position and movements of the enemy sufficiently well to permit 
the use of the sights. 

The Critique. — Intelligent criticism is the basis of good in- 
struction and insures progress. Hence, to realize the full benefits 
of the exercises in combat firing a careful analysis is made by the 
supervisor as soon as the results of each firing are known, and 
on the ground on which the exercise was held. A discriminating 
judgment is required on the part of the officer charged with this 
duty, and it is important that not only the errors committed, but 



358 MILITARY TRAINING 

the means of correcting or avoiding them, should be carefully ex- 
plained. 

Range Regulations. — A suitable range party is detailed by 
the officer supervising the firing, consisting of an officer as range 
officer and a sufficient number of men to act as target and signal 
men and range guards. 

The duties of the range officer are to prepare the targets, to 
superintend their placing and manipulation, to see that the range 
is safe, and where necessary to post range guards to prevent per- 
sons from entering the area of fire; to record and report the results 
of the firing. 

Every precaution is taken to provide for the safety of mark- 
ers, target men and others whose duties require them to be any- 
where within or near the area of fire. When it appears to be neces- 
sary, a point which is continually in view of the officer or non- 
commissioned officer in charge of the firing line throughout the 
exercise is selected from which to display the danger signal. -This 
point is known to all engaged in the firing. No firing of any kind 
is done while the danger signal is displayed. Should the danger 
signal appear while an exercise is in progress, the command is 
halted and all firing and movement ceases. When the danger 
signal is removed the exercise is resumed. 

Except during the regular practice season, there is held 
monthly, if practicable, such combat practice as the regimental 
commander may prescribe. 

Where local or other conditions prevent the use of ball 
ammunition, such exercises are conducted with blank ammunition. 

This instruction includes company, battalion and regimental 
combat firing exercises. A record of such combat practice is kept 
and a report showing the nature of the exercises, with copies of 
the problems, if any, are submitted monthly to the department 
commander. 

PROFICIENCY TEST 

To determine the proficiency attained in collective marks- 
manship, courses in firing suitable as tests and adapted to the firing 
grounds available are prepared by the regimental commander for 
the companies or troops of his regiment. These tests follow the 
combat practice and are held near the end of the practice season 
or later — they must be held during the period announced for the 
field training of the troops. They are designated as a further and 
more formal proof or test of instruction than is furnished by the 
results obtained in the known-distance practice and the combat 
exercises. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 



359 



CLASSIFICATION RIFLE FIRING 

The requirements for the qualification in the several grades 
of marksmanship are given in the following table : 



Grade. 


Rifle firing. 
Points. 


Expert rifleman 

Sharpshooter 


253 
238 
202 
177 
152 


Marksman 


First-class man 


Second-class man 



The soldier having attained the grade of marksman or better 
retains that classification during his current enlistment unless in 
subsequent firing he attains a higher grade. The officer having 
attained the grade of marksman or better retains that classi- 
fication and is authorized to wear the badge for three years from 
date of qualification unless in subsequent firing he attains a higher 
grade. Requalification by officers with a view to obtaining author- 
ized bars can be made only after three years from date of first 
qualification or from date of last requalification for a bar. 

The soldier who has completed the course of known dis- 
tance practice and is transferred thereafter, or who is discharged 
and re-enlists, is not given a second opportunity in the same 
target year to qualify. 

A soldier who is discharged and re-enlists within three 
months retains his last qualification for one year from date of 
re-enlistment unless in the meantime he shall have fired the record- 
practice qualification course. As soon as he fires the record- 
practice qualification course his previous classification ceases and 
he is classified according to the scores he may make in that 
course. 

EXTRA COMPENSATION 

The soldier receives such extra compensation for qualifica- 
tion in rifle firing as may be authorized by law and regulations. 

Immediately after the close of the record practice, qualifi- 
cation course, the names of men who qualify in the various grades 
for which extra compensation is awarded are published in orders. 

These orders are issued by commanders empowered by reg- 
ulations to issue orders for the appointment and promotion of 
non-commissioned officers, or in exceptional cases by higher com- 



360 MILITARY TRAINING 

manders, upon receipt of properly authenticated evidence as to 
qualification, and show the date of actual qualification from which 
the soldier is entitled to additional pay. 

INSIGNIA 

To each officer and soldier qualifying for the first time as 
expert rifleman, sharpshooter, marksman, expert pistol shot, and 
first-class pistol shot certain insignia, indicating their skill in marks- 
manship, are issued. 

Rifleman's Insignia. — (a) Marksman's Pin. To marksmen, 
when first qualifying as such is issued a marksman's pin. A sol- 
dier, having qualified as a marksman, may wear this pin as long 
as he continues to draw the increased pay for that qualification. 

(b) Sharpshooter's Badge. To the sharpshooter a 'silver 
badge is issued. For the first qualification in this grade the badge 
consists of a pin and cross; the soldier having once qualified as a 
sharpshooter may wear the badge while he is entitled to draw the 
increased pay for that qualification. To those who have qualified 
as sharpshooters for three years, not necessarily consecutive years, 
nor, in the case of enlisted men, in the same enlistment, a silver 
bar is issued, on which the three years of their qualifications is 
indicated, and this is attached to the badge, between the pin and 
the cross. For each additional three years of qualification an 
additional bar is issued, and each in succession attached below the 
one previously supplied and above the cross. 

(c) Expert Rifleman's Badge. To the expert rifleman is 
issued a silver badge. The soldier having qualified as an expert 
rifleman may wear the badge while he is entitled to draw the 
increased pay for that qualification. To those who have qualified 
as expert riflemen for three years, not necessarily consecutive 
years, nor, in the case of enlisted men, in the same enlistment, a 
silver bar is issued, on which the three years of their qualification 
is indicated, and this is attached to the badge below the pin. 
For each additional three years of qualification an additional bar 
is issued, and each in succession attached below the one previously 
supplied. 

Marksman's Pin, Special Course "A." — To marksmen, when 
first qualifying as such in special course "A," is issued a special 
marksman's pin. If qualification is renewed in the succeeding 
season the pin may be worn another year, and so on for further 
seasons, but if the grade of marksman is not reached the pin is 
not worn. This pin is issued upon the certificate of the company 
commander that the soldier has qualified under the regulations as 
a marksman in special course "A." 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 361 

Expert Pistol Shot's Badge. — To the expert pistol shot, 
officer or enlisted man, a silver badge is issued, which may be 
worn for three years from the date of qualification or requalifi- 
cation. Requalification by officers and enlisted men can be made 
only after three years from date of first qualification or from 
date of last requalification. For each requalification, a silver bar 
is issued, which specifies the year of requalification and is attached 
to the badge immediately below the pin. 

First-Class Pistol Shot's Pin.— To the first-class pistol shot 
is issued a pin, which may be worn for one year from the date 
of qualification and thereafter for one year from the date of 
each subsequent qualification. 

Duplicates. — All these insignia become the property of the 
persons to whom issued. If they are lost by the owner or in 
transmission to him, or if they become unsightly from long wear, 
they may be replaced without cost to the owner. In case of loss, 
claim must be made within 60 days from date of loss. Duplicates, 
if desired for use on separate coats, will be sold to those entitled 
to wear the insignia. 

Telescopic Sights. — To properly equip a special class of 
shots who, in action, may be employed as sharpshooters the tel- 
escopic sight is adopted. These sights are supplied by the Ord- 
nance Department at the rate of two to each company. They are 
assigned to the enlisted men found best qualified to use them, and 
may, in the discretion of the company commander, be carried by 
them at inspection under arms. Not less than four men of each 
company will be given a suitable amount of practice with these 
sights. 

RECORDS AND REPORTS 

The company target record consists of three parts: (a) 
The individual record of known-distance rifle firing, (b) The 
individual record of pistol firing, (c) The record of the company 
combat firing and proficiency test. The sheets forming these 
records are bound by the loose-leaf system. By this means the 
books are at all times live records. All entries in these records 
are made in ink. 

For companies of Coast Artillery the record contains the 
record of firing special course "A," the same individual sheets 
being used. 

The record of an officer attached to a company for prac- 
tice is duly attested and transmitted to the officer. 

The records of an enlisted man attached to a company for 
practice are similarly attested and transmitted to the officer 



362 MILITARY TRAINING 

charged with the custody of the soldier's descriptive list and ac- 
count of pay and clothing. 

Reports. — All reports of rifle and pistol firings are submitted 
to the proper headquarters as soon as possible after the comple- 
tion of the firing. The reports to be rendered are as follows: 1. 
Report of individual classification in rifle practice (annual, com- 
pany, excepting companies of Coast Artillery). 2. Report of indi- 
vidual classification of firing under special course "A" (annual for 
companies of Coast Artillery). 3. Battalion commander's report 
of combat firing (annual). 4. Report of individual classification in 
pistol practice (annual, company, for all armed with the pistol). 

5. Consolidated regimental report of classification, rifle practice. 

6. Consolidated regimental report of classification, pistol practice. 

7. Regimental commander's report of combat firing and the results 
of the proficiency tests. 

With the exception of the battalion commander's report of 
combat firing and the regimental commander's report on combat 
firing and the results of the proficiency test, these reports are 
rendered on prescribed forms furnished by the Adjutant General of 
the Army. 

As soon as possible after the close of the practice season, 
the battalion commander will forward to the regimental com- 
mander the reports of individual classification in rifle and pistol 
practice of the companies of his battalion. With these he will sub- 
mit a report of the combat exercises and of the results of the 
proficiency test when these tests were not supervised by the 
regimental commander. This report will be in letter form and will 
set forth briefly when and where the exercises were held, the 
suitability of the ground for the purpose, the number and general 
character of the exercises and whether or not proficiency was 
attained therein according to the established standard of judg- 
ment, the number of men in each company participating, and the 
average number of rounds per man expended in this practice. 



TARGETS 

Targets are divided into four classes: (a) Known-distance 
targets (for rifle), (b) Field targets (for rifle), (c) Pistol targets. 
(d) Miniature targets (for gallery practice). 

Known-distance Targets. — Target A. The short-range tar- 
get, used for 200 and 300 yards, is a rectangle 6 feet high 4 feet 
wide. Black circular bull's-eye 8 inches in diameter, value of hit, 
5; center ring, 26 inches in diameter, value of hit, 4; inner ring, 
46 inches in diameter, value of hit, 3; outer, remainder of target, 
value of hit, 2. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 363 

Target B. The mid-range target, used for 500 and 600 yards, 
is a square 6 feet on a side, black circular bull's-eye 20 inches in 
diameter; center ring, 37 inches in diameter; inner ring, 53 inches 
in diameter; outer, remainder of target. Value of hits, same as 
on target "A." 

Target C. The long-range target, used for 800 and 1,000 
yards. It is a rectangle 6 feet high and 10 feet wide. Black cir- 




TARGET NOMENCLATURE: 

A hit at (1) is described as a bullseye, pinwheel, at (2), a bullseyc, half in 
at ten o'clock, at (3), a four, hanging on at five o'clock, at (4) a three half out at 
seven o'clock, and at (5) a two just out at one-thirty. 

cular bull's-eye, 36 inches in diameter; center ring, 54 inches in 
diameter; inner space outside of center ring bounded by vertical 
lines 2 feet from each end of target; outer, remainder of target. 
Value of hits, same as on target "A." 

Target D. The rapid-fire target. A black silhouette rep- 
resenting a soldier in the prone position placed in the middle of 



364 MILITARY TRAINING 

a rectangular target 6 by 6 feet. Value of hits in the figure, 5; 
in the space (within parallels to figure, 4 inches in width above 
and at sides of figure, 14 inches below figure) immediately out- 
side the figure, 4; in the space immediately outside the 4 space, 3; 
remainder of the target, 2. 

Field Targets. — Target E. A drab silhouette about the 
height of a soldier in the kneeling position, made of bookbinders' 
board or other similar material. Hits on all field targets count 1, 
and any shot cutting the edge of a silhouette is a hit. 

Target F. A drab silhouette about the height of a soldier in 
the prone position made of bookbinders' board or other similar 
material. The life of targets E and F can be materially prolonged 
by pasting on fresh paper silhouettes when the figure becomes too 
much damaged by shots. These targets are used as stationary 
targets as well as on the moving and disappearing appliances. 

Target G. Falling target. The target is made of soft wood 
about the shape, size and color of the prone silhouette F. These 
targets should be placed in small pits (1 by 2 feet), so that about 
9 or 10 inches of vertical protection is given the base and mechan- 
ism; only the face of the target should show to the front. 

Target H. Targets E or F inserted in a slit at the end of 
a marking disk staff or pole and fastened with wooden pegs. 
The staffs are held in the hands of markers or in brackets on the 
inside of the crest of the pit. The targets are held faced to the 
front. When struck they are turned rapidly so as to show the 
white side, and then back to the original position. 

Target I. Beam disappearing target. The visible target 
represents a line of prone or kneeling figures at suitable intervals. 
In close order 8 figures are mounted on each beam. The figures 
are targets E and F, mounted on the regulation staves, which are 
modified by having the points cut off, so that but 6 inches project 
below the bottom of the figures. 

Target K. Sled target. The disappearing target beam 
(target I), is lashed lengthwise to two sleds. A rope from 200 to 
300 yards long is used to pull this target and an escort wagon and 
team has been found to be the best motive power. The rope can 
be run through a snatch block and the team concealed by inequal- 
ities of the ground. If no cover can be found for hiding the sled 
before it starts, it can be easily masked with brush, grass, etc., 
which will fall when the targets start. 

Pistol Targets. — Target L. A rectangle 6 feet high and 4 feet 
wide, with black circular bull's-eye, 5 inches in diameter. Value of 
hit therein, 10. Seven rings with diameters as follows: 

Value of hits. 

(1)8^ inches 9 

(2) 12 inches 8 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 365 

Value of hits. 

(3) lSy 2 inches \ . 7 

(4) 19 inches 6 

(5) 22^ inches ' 5 

(6) 26 inches 4 

(7) 46 inches 3 

(8) Outer, remainder of target 2 

Target M. Silhouette, representing standing figure, of which 
the upper part is Target E and lower part a trapezoidal piece 
whose upper edge is placed closely against the lower edge of tar- 
get E. Hits count 1. 

Miniature Targets. — For use in Special Course for Volun- 
teer Recruits, and in gallery practice. 

RANGES 

There are two classes of ranges: Class "A" ranges,, which 
are more or less limited in extent and which are equipped for 
known distance practice; class "B" ranges, which are of extended 
area and diversified terrain, and which are used for combat firing. 

As the nature and extent of the ground available for target 
practice and also the general climatic conditions are often widely 
dissimilar for different military posts, it is not possible to pre- 
scribe any particular rules governing the selection of ranges, but 
only to express certain general conditions to which ranges should 
be made to conform as far as may be practicable. In view ef the 
extreme range and penetration of the bullet of the United States 
rifle it is found necessary in the case of many posts to have target 
practice conducted at a distance of several miles from the post, 
necessitating the establishment of a camp on or near the range. 

For posts situated in thickly settled localities, where the 
extent of the military reservation is limited, the first condition to 
be fulfilled is that of security for those living or laboring near or 
passing by the range. This requirement can be secured for class 
" A " range by selecting ground where a natural butt is available 
or by making an artificial butt sufficiently extensive to stop wiid 
shots. For complete security there should be no road, building, 
or cultivated ground on either flank of the range nearer than 300 
yards, nor in the rear of it within the extreme range of the rifle. 
This condition can rarely be secured unless a natural butt of large 
extent exists. 

Direction of the Range. — If possible, a range should be so 
located that the firing is toward or slightly to the east of north. 
This gives a good light on the face of the targets during the 



366 MILITARY TRAINING 

greater part of the day. However, security and suitable ground 
are more important than direction. 

Best Ground for Class "A" Range. — Smooth, level ground, or 
ground with only a very moderate slope, is best adapted for a 
range. If possible, the targets should be on the same level with 
the firer, or only slightly above him. Firing downhill should, if 
practicable, be avoided. 

Size of Range. — The size of the range is determined by its 
plan and by the number of troops that will fire over it at a time. 
There are two general plans used in range construction — one with 
a single target pit and firing points for each range, the other with 
its firing points on one continuous line, the target pits for the 
various ranges being in echelon. The latter type requires more 
ground but admits of firing at different ranges at the same time. 

Intervals Between Targets. — To reduce to a minimum the 
amount of labor required in preparing the range, the targets should 
be no farther apart than is necessary to obviate the probability 
of a shot being fired on the wrong target. At all ranges the width 
between the targets need not exceed the width of the targets them- 
selves — that is, at short and mid range, 6 feet; at long range, 12 
feet. 

Protection for Markers. — On all ranges protection must 
be provided for the pit details. This is done by excavating a pit 
for the targets or by constructing a parapet in front of them, or 
by a combination of these methods. 

Where there are several targets in a row, the shelter should 
be continuous. It must be high enough to protect the markers 
and the target not being fired upon. The parapet may be of earth, 
with a timber or concrete revetment, of sufficient thickness to 
stop bullets, and from 7y 2 to 8 feet high above the ground or plat- 
form on which the markers stand. 

Artificial Butts. — If an artificial butt is constructed as a 
bullet stop, it should be of earth not less than 30 feet high and 
with a slope of not less than 45°. It should be extended about 5 
yards beyond the outside targets and should be placed as close 
behind the targets as possible. The slopes should be sodded. 

Hills as Butts. — A natural hill to form an effective butt 
should have a slope of not less than 45°; if originally more gradual 
it should be cut into steps, the face of each step having that slope. 
As a temporary expedient the face of the hill may be plowed 
perpendicularly to the range, but as the bullets soon cut down the 
furrows this measure must be frequently repeated to prevent the 
danger of ricochets. 

Numbering of Targets. — Each target should be designated | 
by a number. The numbers for ranges up to 600 yards should \ 
be at least 6 feet in height and should be painted black on a white 



SMALL ARMS FIRING 367 

background. The Arabic is preferable to the Roman notation, 
being more readily comprehended by the soldiers; if made of the 
size suggested, they will always be quickly recognized. They 
should be placed on the butt behind each target, but not so far 
above as to prevent the soldier seeing the number when aiming 
at the target. 

Measuring the Range. — The range should be carefully meas- 
ured and marked with stakes at each 100 yards in front of each 
target. The stakes should be about 12 inches above the ground, 
painted white, and lettered in black, with the number of the cor- 
responding target and its distance. These stakes will then desig- 
nate the firing points for each target at the different distances. 
Particular care should be taken that each range thus marked out 
is perpendicular to the face of its own target. 

Ranges Parallel. — The different ranges for the same distance 
should all be parallel, so that similar conditions with respect to 
wind and light may exist. It is not essential, however, that the 
ranges employed for long-distance shooting should be parallel to 
those used for the ordinary company practice. 

Firing Mounds. — If it becomes necessary to raise a firing 
point on account of low ground, a low mound of earth no higher 
than absolutely required should be made. The mound should be 
not less than 8 feet square, level and sodded. If the entire firing 
line is raised, the firing mound must be not less than 8 feet wide 
on top, level, and sodded if possible. 

Pit Shed. — A small house or shed should be built in or near 
the target pit, in which the marking disks and signal flags and 
spare parts of the target frames for making immediate repairs 
should be stored. It should be sufficiently large to afford a shelter 
for the markers in case of a sudden storm. 

Danger Signals. — A socket for the staff of the danger signals 
should be placed on the marker's shelter in front of each target 
and so inclined that the flag will always fall clear of the staff and 
be readily seen. This flag is always displayed when the target 
is in place and not in use. In addition to the danger signals at 
the targets one or more danger signals are displayed near the 
range to warn passers-by when firing is in progress. These sig- 
nals are not placed in such a position as to serve as streamers for 
judging wind on the range. They should be placed on the roads 
or on the crest of the hill where they can be plainly seen by those 
passing. 

Range House. — On large ranges where competitive firing is 
held a house containing a storeroom and several office rooms 
should be erected in some central place, off the range, but in its 
immediate vicinity. Such facilities as will enable visitors to satis- 
factorily witness the firing should also be provided. 
24 



368 MILITARY TRAINING 

Telephone Service. — When, practicable, ranges should be 
equipped with a telephone system, connecting the target pit with 
each firing point, the range house, and the post. When a large 
number of targets are installed, the range should be equipped with 
the annunciator buzzer system. 

Covered Ways Between Pits. — Where the pits are in echelon, 
covered ways or tunnels should be provided between the various 
pits. This allows the pit details to be shifted with safety without 
interrupting the firing. 

Class B Range. — Certain extensive reservations in the United 
States and the Philippine Islands furnish ample and suitable 
ground for combat firing. At times extensive tracts of unoccupied 
land or land from which the crops have been harvested may be 
rented near the post. At other points where leased tracts are at 
the disposal of the garrison for purposes of target practice or 
maneuvers facilities for combat firing can probably be found. Any 
ground suitable for maneuvers is also suitable for combat firing, 
if the safety of the neighboring inhabitants be taken into consid- 
eration and provided for. 

Tracts that have been set aside as permanent Class " B " 
ranges may be improved by the construction of permanent shelters 
for the markers and pitmen, which should be made inconspicuous. 
Otherwise, these ranges should be kept in the natural state, but 
changes made to facilitate the practice or to save labor from year 
to year should be such as not to provide assistance to those under 
instruction. 

COMPETITIONS 

Competitions exist for the purposes of fostering interest in 
target practice, of furnishing the means for the exchange of ideas 
among those who excel in small arms firing, and of classifying the 
best shots according to merit shown under similar conditions. 

In every alternate year, or when directed by the Secretary of 
War, the following competitions are held: 1. Department rifle 
competitions. 2. Department pistol competitions. These competi- 
tions are held at such places and times as may be designated by 
the respective department commanders. A department rifle com- 
petition for Philippine Scouts is held in every alternate year. 

REGULATIONS FOR COMPETITION 

The officer in charge is an officer of experience, preferably 
a field officer. He has control of the range for the conduct of 
the competition and for the police and government of the range 
during the competition. He prescribes the hours for preliminary 
practice, and for the competitions proper. His decision on such 
matters is final. 



SMALL ARMS FIRING * 369 

An assistant to the officer in charge reports to and receives 
instructions from the officer in charge and assists him in the man- 
agement of the competition. He also acts as chief range officer. 
He has immediate charge of the range and pit and all details per- 
taining thereto. 

The adjutant discharges the duties of adjutant to the officer 
in charge, issues by direction of the officer in charge the necessary 
orders, and performs 'such other duties as may be assigned to 
him. He is in direct charge of the competitors, whether they are 
encamped or assigned to companies in barracks. He details daily 
such range officers, scorers, markers, etc., as may be considered 
necessary to carry on the competition. 

The quartermaster has charge of quartering all competitors 
and arranging for the transportation of their baggage and property 
upon their arrival at the competition. If they encamp, he lays out 
and puts up the camp. He provides all the property, including 
stationery and office supplies, other than ordnance and signal prop- 
erty, required for the competition and for the preparation and 
care of the range, and performs such other duties as may be as- 
signed to him by the officer in charge. 

The statistical officer assigns the competitors to targets and 
order of firing by lot or by a scheme worked out prior to the 
competition. He verifies the additions of the scores as reported 
by the scorers, grades them in order of excellence, and prepares 
the result for official announcement. He issues such bulletins 
from time to time as may be ordered by the officer in charge. 

The ordnance officer makes timely requisition for all am- 
munition and ordnance stores needed in the matches, and during 
the matches supplies these stores as required. 

The signal officer has charge of the electrical equipment of 
the range and procures on requisition such telephones, signal 
stores, and field glasses as may be needed for the proper conduct 
of the competition. 

Under direction of, and as assistants to, the chief range 
officer are a number of range officers, not fewer than one to two 
targets in the pit and one to two firing points on the range. Their 
duties are to supervise the marking and scoring, to see that the 
firing is conducted according to the regulations, and to perform 
such other duties as required. 

During the firing at all competitions a range officer is de- 
tailed in charge of the pit at each distance. The officer in charge 
and chief range officer formally assemble and instruct the range 
officers in their duties before the opening of the competition and 
place them on duty during the preliminary practice for their prac- 
tical instruction. 



370 MILITARY TRAINING 

PENALTIES 

Evading Rules. — Any competitor who may be detected in 
an evasion of the conditions prescribed for any competition is de- 
barred from further competition. 

Falsifying Scores. — Any competitor who may be guilty of 
falsifying his score or being accessory thereto is debarred from 
the competition. 

Offering Bribes. — Any competitor who offers a bribe of any 
kind to a scorer or marker is debarred from the competition. 

Disorderly Conduct, Intoxication, etc. — Any competitor who 
refuses to obey the instructions of the officer in charge or his as- 
sistants, or who violates any regulations, or is guilty of disorderly 
conduct or intoxication, is debarred from the competition. 

COURSES FOR ORGANIZED MILITIA 

The general scheme of instruction for the Organized Militia 
embraces: First, a certain amount of instruction in the preliminary 
drills and exercises, followed by gallery practice, with a prescribed 
test before the soldier can be advanced to practice on the target 
range; second, a definite course of instruction practice, under 
which, by selected scores of five shots each, a soldier must at- 
tain a certain proficiency before he can be advanced to fire the 
record practice, Organized Militia, or the qualification course. 
Regular Army; third, a definite test, either the qualification course, 
Organized Militia, or the qualification course, Regular Army, at 
the discretion of the State authorities, under which the soldier at- 
tains a certain grade of marksmanship; fourth, long-range practice. 

DISTINGUISHED CLASSES OF MARKSMEN 

Whenever a marksman has won three authorized medals in 
department rifle competitions, or in department pistol competitions, 
or as a member actually firing on a prize-winning team in the 
national team match, he will be announced by the War Department 
as belonging to a distinguished class, no longer eligible to enter de- 
partment competitions with the arms in the use of which he is 
distinguished. 

If the three medals were won in rifle competitions, the 
marksman will be designated a " distinguished marksman," and if 
in pistol competitions, a " distinguished pistol shot." 

To distinguished marksmen and distinguished pistol shots 
appropriate badges are issued, which after being received by the 
soldier, if lost, can be replaced by purchase only, for which author- 
ity must be obtained from the War Department. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE CARE AND PRESERVATION OF ORDNANCE 
EQUIPMENT, SMALL ARMS, AMMUNI- 
TION AND EXPLOSIVES 

The general subject of the care and preservation of arms 
and equipment is entitled to great consideration and should be 
made the subject of instruction as well as administration. Officers 
or non-commissioned officers should make themselves thoroughly 
familiar with the problems involved and enforce the recognized 
rules governing the care of equipment in order to prolong its life 
and reduce the cost of maintenance. 

All cloth equipment should be well brushed, frequently with 
a stiff bristle brush. A dry scrub brush may be used. It should be 
washed only under the direction and supervision of a commissioned 
officer. During ordinary garrison duty it should rarely be neces- 
sary to wash the equipment. When the equipment becomes soiled 
a light local washing will frequently be sufficient, but when dirty 
it should unhesitatingly be given a good and thorough washing, 
otherwise it may be expected that it will become unsanitary and 
rot. During field service it is to be expected that the equipment 
will become soiled much more rapidly. Always on return to gar- 
rison from such service and as opportunity offers in the field, 
equipment should be thoroughly washed. 

Instructions for Washing Cloth Equipment. — (a) Prepara- 
tion of soap solution: H. & H. soap or a substitute is issued by the 
Ordnance Department for washing the cloth equipment. The most 
economical use of this soap is to make a solution by dissolving one 
cake of soap in nine cups of hot water. One cup of the solution 
is sufficient to clean approximately two square yards of equipment 
or the entire cloth and web equipment of one man. A cake per 
squad is a liberal allowance. 

(b) Brushing: Brush the equipment thoroughly to remove 
all dust and mud before washing. 

(c) Washing: Spread the belt, haversack, etc., on a clean 
board or rock and apply the soap solution with a scrub brush. 



372 MILITARY TRAINING 

When a good lather appears, wash off with clear water. In the 
case of a bad grease spot the direct application of soap to the 
brush will ordinarily be sufficient to remove it. 

(d) Drying: Always dry wash the equipment in the shade. 
The bleaching action of the sun on all damp fabric is marked. 
Likewise, on the return from a march in the rain dry the equip- 
ment in the shade if practicable. 

At the arsenals the equipment is cleaned by immersion in 
gasoline. This is very satisfactory, but it is impracticable to issue 
gasoline to troops. The soap issued by the Ordnance Department 
(H. & H.) is a neutral naphtha soap, prepared especially for wash- 
ing cloth fabrics liable to fade. If for any cause this is not obtain- 
able, a good laundry soap (Ivory or equal) may be used, but in no 
case should the yellow soap issued by the Quartermaster Corps be 
used. This latter soap contains a large percentage of free alkali. 

The specifications of the Ordnance Department in regard to 
fading, under which its cloth and web equipments are purchased, 
are as rigid as it is practicable to make them. Each year sees an 
improvement in the degree of permanency obtained. The alternate 
exposure of equipment to sun and rain, which is a necessary feature 
of service, renders fading inevitable. No dyed fabric will hold its 
color under these conditions. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE OF 
LEATHER EQUIPMENT 

Two agents are essential to the proper care of leather equip- 
ment — a cleaning agent and an oiling agent. The cleaning agent 
issued by the Ordnance Department is castile soap; the oiling 
agents are neat's-foot oil and harness soap. 

The castile soap is a commercial article containing about 3 
per cent of sodium carbonate (lye), which is necessary to give it 
the required cleaning power. Its action, however, is merely to 
free the leather from the dirt, sweat, and other matter which 
normally accumulates on it in the surface pores of the leather. 

The neat's-foot oil, which has been found by long experience 
to be most satisfactory for this purpose, penetrates the pores and 
saturates the fibers, making them pliable and elastic. Dry leather 
is brittle; leather oiled excessively will soil the clothing and accu- 
mulate dirt. The condition to be desired is leather saturated with 
sufficient oil to be soft and pliable, without excess sufficient to 
cause it to exude. 

In washing with any alkaline soap, it is impossible to prevent 
the removal of the surface oil. This leaves the surface hard and 
dry and liable to crack. It is difficult to replace this surface oil 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 373 

by a direct application without applying an excess. This has led 
to the development of various saddle soaps with a view of obtaining 
a soft, pleasing finish. Most of these contain more or less neutral 
oil, which replaces the surface oil removed in washing. Only those 
which do are of permanent value. On the other hand, a mere com- 
bination of soap and oil may easily be objectionable, and in such 
combinations the percentage of oil content is usually excessive. 
Propert's soap, containing about A]/ 2 per cent of neutral oil, 
was found to be very satisfactory, but its issue to the service has 
been discontinued, because it is of foreign manufacture, and the 
supply could not be depended upon in time of war. It is believed 
that a substitute of equal merit has been found for issue to the 
service. 

CLEANING 

Daily, or as often as used, the equipment should be wiped of! 
with a cloth slightly dampened in water, merely to remove mud, 
dust, or other foreign substances. It should never be cleaned by 
immersing it in water or holding it under a hydrant. This daily 
care will do much to maintain the appearance of the equipment, 
but is, however, insufficient of itself to properly preserve it. At 
intervals from one to four weeks, depending upon circumstances, 
it is essential that the equipment be thoroughly cleaned, in accord- 
ance with the following general instructions: (a) Separate all 
parts, unbuckle straps, remove all buckles, loops, etc., where possi- 
ble, (b) Wipe off all surface dust and mud with a damp (not wet) 
sponge. After rinsing out the sponge, a lather is made by moisten- 
ing the sponge in clear water, squeezing it out until nearly dry, and 
rubbing it vigorously upon castile soap. When a thick, creamy 
lather is obtained, thoroughly clean each piece of the equipment 
without neglecting any portion. Each strap should be drawn its 
entire length through the lathered sponge so as to actually remove 
the salt, sweat, and dirt from each leather piece, (c) After again 
rinsing the sponge make a thick lather as described above with 
the saddle soap. Go over each separate piece, thoroughly working 
the lather well into every part of the equipment, remembering that 
its action is that of a dressing, (d) After the leather has been al- 
lowed to become partially dry, it should be rubbed vigorously with 
a soft cloth to give it the neat, healthy appearance that is desired. 

If the foregoing instructions have been carefully followed, 
the appearance should now be perfect, and if the leather is soft 
and pliable nothing further is required. It will be found, however, 
that it will be necessary from time to time to apply a little oil. It 
is not practicable, owing to different conditions of climate and 
service, to prescribe definitely the frequency of oiling. It has 
been found that during the first few months of use a set of new 



374 MILITARY TRAINING 

equipment should be given at least two applications of oil per 
month. Thereafter, it is entirely a matter of judgment, as indicated 
by the appearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent, light 
applications are of more value than infrequent, heavy applications. 

Before using, perfectly new equipment should in all cases be 
given a light application of neat's-foot oil; soap is unnecessary be- 
cause the equipment is clean. The application of oil is important 
because leather equipment frequently remains a considerable time 
in an arsenal or depot and in spite of periodical inspections and 
dubbing it is probably too dry for severe service. 

The quantity of oil, also, can not be definitely prescribed, 
but it should rarely exceed a coverful of the individual soap box 
(1 ounce) for each set of horse equipment, or two (2) ounces for 
each set of artillery harness. In applying the oil the following 
general instructions should govern: 

(a) The oil should be applied to the flesh side of the equip- 
ment where practicable when the leather is clean and still damp 
after washing (about half dry). 

(b) The oil should be applied with an oiled rag or cotton 
waste by long, light, quick strokes — light strokes that the pressure 
applied may not squeeze out an excess of oil, quick strokes that the 
leather may not absorb an undue amount of oil. The endeavor 
should be to obtain a light, even distribution. 

(c) After applying the oil the leather equipment should be 
allowed to stand for 24 hours, if practicable, in a warm, dry place. 
It should then be rubbed with a dry cloth to remove any unab- 
sorbed oil. 

The principles prompting the instructions given in (a) above 
is that the oil penetrates more uniformly when applied from the 
flesh side, while if the leather is dry it will absorb the oil like blot- 
ting paper, preventing proper distribution. The presence of mois- 
ture which tends to retard the penetration of the oil makes it de- 
sirable to oil the leather while still moist from washing. The more 
moist the leather when oiled the lighter the application that can be 
given; any equipment should be moistened, as in washing, before 
oiling. 

An additional reason for consistent washing and oiling lies 
in the fact that practically all leather contains at least one-tenth 
of 1 per cent of sulphuric acid acquired as a normal product of 
tannage. This acid, which, if excessive, will in time rot the leather, 
is neutralized by the alkali of the castile soap and to a less degree 
by the oil. In some commercial leathers the sulphuric acid runs as 
high as 3 per cent as the result of the tanner's efforts to hasten 
the tannage and bleach the leather. Such leather is not purchased 
knowingly by the Ordnance Department, but it is impracticable 
to eliminate its purchase entirely. 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 375 

Leather in storage, unlike leather in service which receives 
constant attention, is subjected to the danger of becoming molded 
or too dry. It is of the utmost importance that it be stored in a 
cool, dry place without artificial heat. 

To guard against these two conditions which would render 
the leather in storage unserviceable, it should be inspected at regu- 
lar intervals. In temperate northern stations leather in sides should 
be inspected once during the winter and twice during the summer 
months (February, July, and September), equipment at least once 
a year. The frequency of examination should be increased for 
semitropical and tropical stations, until in the Philippines during 
the rainy season once a month is not too often to go over and 
examine the leather in sides, while the equipments should be in- 
spected with corresponding greater frequency. 

If mold is promptly discovered and removed, little harm is 
done, but if allowed to remain it will very shortly attack the leather 
and render it unserviceable. When, therefore, mold or dampness 
is discovered, the surface should be immediately cleaned and ex- 
posed to the air to dry before returning to storage. 

Leather equipment in storage should not contain as much 
oil as equipment in use, for the tendency to mold is increased 
thereby, but in no case should it be allowed to dry out entirely. 
Should examination indicate that it is very dry, a light application 
of oil should be given in accordance with the general instructions 
for oiling leather. 

APPLICATION 

Lay the leather on a smooth, flat table and moisten the entire 
flesh side with a sponge. Then lay the leather aside on a smooth, 
flat surface, following it by other sides similarly treated, placing 
grain to grain and flesh to flesh. Let the sides lie for about two 
hours. This is done to allow the moisture to penetrate evenly 
through the leather, for the better absorption of the dubbing which 
will follow. 

When the moisture has penetrated sufficiently lay the leather 
out on a table as before and spread the dressing very lightly with 
a soft cloth on the flesh side. Great care should be taken to spread 
the dressing evenly and lightly with quick light strokes as in oiling 
equipment and for the same reasons. As the operation proceeds 
place the leather grain to grain and flesh to flesh and let lay for 
a period of 12 hours. Then take a soft cloth or a piece of woolen 
flannel and remove any dressing that may remain on the surface. 
The leather then should be loosely rolled, 'stood on its edge for a 
few hours until it is thoroughly aired, and it should then be re- 
turned to storage. 



376 MILITARY TRAINING 

CARE OF LEATHER IN THE FIELD 

In active campaign or on the march little protection can be 
given equipment. But at all times advantage should be taken of 
such opportunities as the situation affords, to first get the equip- 
ment out of the mud and then protect it from rain, dust, and heat. 
Racks are improvised with forked sticks and crossbar or advantage 
taken of a neighboring fence. A piece of canvas or manta affords 
a great deal of protection. 

When shelters are provided for animals and fodder, provision 
should also be made for the horse equipment. The normal troop 
stable is approximately 22 feet wide, with a height of 7y 2 feet at 
the eaves. An excellent saddle room for a troop of 72 saddles can 
be made in a 36-foot section of such stables by use of wooden 
racks 4 feet above the ground and approximately 4 feet apart, nine 
saddles to a rack. The entrance may be from the side, covered by 
drop curtains or old canvas, or entrance can be had at the ends 
and space left at the end of the racks for passage. This arrange- 
ment has the advantage of enabling the saddles to be cleaned under 
cover. 

THE SERVICE RIFLE 

Experiments at arsenals have shown that with the present 
ammunition an accuracy life of from 8,000 to 13,000 rounds may be 
expected of the Springfield rifle barrel. It may be considered that 
a rifle will be fired 400 rounds in a season, so that rifle with reason- 
able care should be accurate for at least 10 years or for over 4,000 
rounds. From reports received from arsenals, it is evident that the 
instructions heretofore issued have been ineffective in doing away 
with the abuse of rifles by improper methods of cleaning. The 
cause of this lies largely in the mistaken idea obtained at inspec- 
tions where men are praised for securing a polished appearance of 
the bore rather than for maintaining their pieces in serviceable 
condition. 

The most marked effect of improper cleaning is to enlarge 
the muzzle, which is the most effective way to destroy the accuracy 
of the piece. The erosion at the muzzle from firing is slight, but 
in 10 minutes by cleaning from the muzzle with an abrasive, such as 
is unfortunately sometimes the practice, the rifle may be rendered 
more inaccurate than by thousands of rounds. 

In order that the expense of replacing unserviceable barrels 
may be placed upon those responsible for their condition, it is 
recommended that commanding officers of organizations equipped 
with rifles cause a test to be made to determine their present condi- 
tion. This may be made by using gauges regularly furnished by the 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 377 

Ordnance Department to regimental and post ordnance officers and 
by inserting a service bullet, point foremost, into the muzzle of 
the piece and noting the amount of the bullet showing between the 
muzzle of the piece and the cartridge case. In a new rifle approxi- 
mately one-quarter of an inch of the bullet will be exposed. 

A gradual enlargement of the muzzle extending throughout a 
period of years is to be expected, but should any test show a 
noticeable enlargement, it may be considered an indication of abuse 
unless satisfactory explanation is known. Such records should be 
considered by surveying officers in determining the responsibility 
for the condition of rifles when found inaccurate, and unless satis- 
factory explanation is given, taking into consideration the normal 
life of the rifle under service conditions, the cost of replacing 
such barrels may justly be charged to the enlisted men concerned. 

While it is generally recognized that rifles are rendered un- 
serviceable through inaccuracy by lack of care rather than by firing, 
it is believed that this lack of care has been largely due to a lack 
of appreciation and understanding of the problems involved, and 
that if careful and adequate supervision were given by organization 
commanders, the number of rifles condemned annually for inac- 
curacy would be reduced by more than half. 

CARE OF THE BORE 

The proper care of the bore requires conscientious, careful 
work, but it pays well in reduced labor of cleaning and in prolonged 
accuracy life of the barrel, and better results in target practice. 
Briefly stated, the care of the bore consists in removing the fouling 
resulting from firing to obtain a chemically clean surface, and coat- 
ing this surface with a film of oil to prevent rusting. The fouling 
which results from firing is of two kinds — one, the products of 
combustion of the powder; the other, cupro-nickel scraped off 
(under the abrading action of irregularities or grit in the bore). 
Powder fouling, because of its acid reaction, is highly corrosive; 
that is, it will induce rust and must be removed. Metal fouling itself 
is inactive, but may cover powder fouling and prevent the action 
of cleaning agents until removed, and when accumulated in notice- 
able quantities it reduces the accuracy of the rifle. 

Powder fouling may be readily removed by scrubbing with 
a hot soda solution, but this solution has no effect on the metal 
fouling of cupro-nickel. It is therefore necessary to remove all 
metal fouling before assurance can be had that all powder fouling 
has been removed and that the bore may be safely oiled. Normally, 
after firing a barrel in good condition the metal fouling is so slight 
as to be hardly perceptible. It is merely a smear of infinitesimal 



378 MILITARY TRAINING 

thickness, easily removed by solvents of cupro-nickel. However, 
due to pitting, the presence of dust, other abrasives, or to accumu- 
lation, metal fouling may occur in clearly visible flakes or patches 
of much greater thickness, much more difficult to remove. 

In cleaning the bore after firing it is well to proceed as fol- 
lows: Swab out the bore with soda solution to remove pcwder 
fouling. A convenient method is to insert the muzzle of the rifle 
into the can containing the soda solution and with the cleaning 
rod inserted from the breech, pump the barrel full a few times. 
Remove and dry with a couple of patches. Examine to see that 
no patches of metal fouling are in evidence, then swab out with the 
swabbing solution — a dilute metal-fouling solution. The amount 
of swabbing required with the swabbing solution can be determined 
only by experience assisted by the color of the patches. Normally 
a couple of minutes' work is sufficient. Dry thoroughly and oil. 

The proper method of oiling a barrel is as follows: Wipe 
the cleaning rod dry; select a clean patch and thoroughly saturate 
it with sperm oil or warmed cosmic, being sure that the cosmic has 
penetrated the patch; scrub the bore with the patch, finally draw- 
ing the patch smoothly from the muzzle to the breech, allowing 
the cleaning rod to turn with the rifling. The bore will be found 
now to be smooth and bright so that any subsequent rust or 
sweating can be easily detected by inspection. 

If patches of metal fouling are in evidence, the standard 
metal fouling solution must be used. After scrubbing out with the 
soda solution, plug the bore from the breech with a cork at the 
front end of the chamber or where the rifling begins. Slip one of 
the 2-inch sections of rubber tube over the muzzle down to the 
sight and fill with the standard solution to at least one-half inch 
above the muzzle of the barrel. Let it stand for 30 minutes, pour 
out the standard solution, remove hose and breech plug, and swab 
out thoroughly with the soda solution to neutralize and remove 
all trace of ammonia and powder fouling. Wipe the barrel clean, 
dry and oil. With few exceptions, one application is sufficient, but 
if all fouling is not removed, repeat as described above. 

After properly cleaning with either the swabbing solution or 
the standard solution, as has just been described, the bore should be 
clean and safe to oil and put away, but as a measure of safety 
a patch should always be run through the bore on the next day 
and the bore examined to insure that cleaning has been properly 
done. The bore should then be oiled, as described hereinafter. 

If the swabbing solution or the standard metal fouling solu- 
tion is not available, the barrel should be scrubbed, as already de- 
scribed, with the soda solution, dried, and oiled with a light oil. At 
the end of 24 hours it should again be cleaned, when it will usually 
be found to have "sweated"; that is, rust having formed under 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 379 

the smear of metal fouling where powder fouling was present, 
the surface is puffed up. Usually a second cleaning is sufficient, 
but to insure safety it should be again examined at the end of a 
few days, before final oiling. The swabbing solution should always 
be used, if available, for it must be remembered that each puff when 
the bore - sweats " is an incipient rust pit. 

A clean dry surface having been obtained to prevent rust, it 
is necessary to coat every portion of this surface with a film of 
neutral oil. If the protection required is but temporary and the 
arm is to be cleaned or fired in a few days, sperm oil may be 
used. This is easily applied and easily removed, but has not suf- 
ficient body to hold its surface for more than a few days. If 
rifles are to be prepared for storage or shipment, a heavier oil, 
such as cosmic, must be used. 

In preparing arms for storage or shipment they should be 
cleaned with particular care, using the metal-fouling solution. 
Care should be taken, insured by careful inspection on succeeding 
day or days, that the cleaning is properly done and all traces of 
ammonia solution removed. The bore is then ready to be coated 
with cosmic. At ordinary temperatures cosmic is not fluid. In 
order, therefore, to insure that every part of the surface is coated 
with a film of oil, the rifle and the cosmic should be warmed. 
Apply the cosmic first with a brush; then, with the breech plugged, 
fill the barrel to the muzzle, pour out the surplus, remove the 
breech-block, and allow to drain. The rifle should be warmed only 
in the presence of an officer or non-commissioned officer, and 
should not be warmer than can readily be held in the hand. It 
is believed that more rifles are ruined by improper preparation for 
storage than from any other cause. If the bore is not clean 
when oiled — that is, if powder fouling is present or rust is started 
— a half inch of cosmic on the outside will not stop its action, and 
the barrel will be ruined. 



PREPARATION OF SOLUTIONS 

Soda Solution. — This should be a saturated solution of sal 
soda (bicarbonate of soda). A strength of at least 20 per cent, is 
necessary. Sal soda — one-fourth pound, or 2 heaping teaspoon- 
fuls. Water — 1 pint or cup, model of 1910, to upper rivets. The 
sal soda will dissolve more readily in hot water. 

Swabbing Solution. — Ammonium persulphate — 60 grains — 
one-half spoonful smoothed off. Ammonia, 28 per cent. — 6 ounces, 
or three-eighths of a pint, or 12 spoonfuls. Water — 4 ounces, or 
one-fourth pint, or 8 spoonfuls. Dissolve the ammonium per- 
sulphate in the water and add the ammonia. Keep in a tightly 



380 MILITARY TRAINING 

corked bottle; pour out only what is necessary at the time, and 
keep the bottle corked. 

Standard Metal Fouling Solution. — Ammonium persulphate 
— 1 ounce or 2 medium heaping spoonfuls. Ammonium carbon- 
ate — 200 grains, or 1 heaping teaspoonful. Ammonia, 28 per cent. — 
6 ounces, or three-eighths pint, or 12 spoonfuls. Water — 4 ounces, 
or one-fourth pint, or 8 spoonfuls. Powder the persulphate and 
carbonate together, dissolve in the water and add the ammonia; 
mix thoroughly and allow to stand for one hour before using. It 
should be kept in a strong bottle, tightly corked. The solution 
should not be used more than twice, and used solution should not 
be mixed with unused solution, but should be bottled separately. 

Neither of these ammonia solutions have any appreciable 
action on steel when not exposed to the air, but if allowed to 
evaporate on steel they attack it rapidly. Care should, therefore, 
be taken that none spills on the mechanism and that the barrel 
is washed out promptly with soda solution. The first application 
of soda solution removes the greater portion of the powder foul- 
ing and permits a more effective and economical use of the am- 
monia solution. 

It is a fact recognized by all that a highly polished steel 
surface rusts much less easily than one which is roughened; also 
that a barrel which is pitted fouls much more rapidly than one 
which is smooth. Every effort, therefore, should be made to pre- 
vent the formation of pits, which are merely enlarged rust spots,, 
and which not only affect the accuracy of the arm but increase 
the labor of cleaning. 

The chambers of rifles are frequently neglected because 
they are not readily inspected. Care should be taken to see that 
they are cleaned as thoroughly as the bore. A roughened chamber 
delays greatly the rapidity of fire, and not infrequently causes 
shells to stick. 

The principles as outlined above apply equally well for the 
cleaning of the barrel of the automatic pistol. Special attention 
should be paid to cleaning the chamber of the pistol, using the 
soda solution. It has been found that the chamber pits readily 
if it is not carefully cleaned, with the result that the operation 
of the pistol is made less certain. 

THE GALLERY PRACTICE RIFLE 

The cleaning of the bore of the gallery practice rifle differs 
from that of the service rifle, in that instead of the fouling of 
hard cupro-nickel there is a similar fouling of lead. The greater 
proportion of the primer in the .22-caliber cartridges, and the fact 
that either black or semismokeless powder is used, makes it even 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 381 

more desirable to swab out frequently with the soda solution. It 
has a further advantage of retarding deposit of lead. 

One of the most frequent causes of inaccuracy of gallery 
practice rifles is the use of rusted or injured cartridge holders. 
It can be readily appreciated that these are, in fact, merely an 
extension of the bore made to simulate the service cartridge, and 
that any deformation of the mouth will tend to deform the bullet 
and cause inaccuracy. They must be kept clean and the mouth 
free from dents and burrs if good shooting is to be done with 
these rifles. 

A practice which has been found satisfactory is to have 
the men as they finish their score pick up their holders and turn 
them over to a man who removes the empty shell and drops the 
holder into a can of kerosene. The man who loads from time to 
time takes the holders out of the can, roughly dries and loads 
them. During the entire gallery practice the holders should be 
kept in kerosene when not in use. They will not rust as long 
as they are not exposed to the air. 

CARE OF METAL PARTS 

All metal parts should be kept clean and free from rust. 
All materials for accomplishing this end are furnished by the 
Ordnance Department. Metal parts and components of equip- 
ment are of two general classes — corrosive metal, such as steel, 
cast iron, etc., and so-called non-corrosive metals, such as alumi- 
num, German silver, brass, etc. All metals are corrosive under 
certain conditions. Corrosive metals are frequently coated with 
non-corrosive metals to combine the strength and cheapness of 
the first with the protective qualities of the latter. 

In caring for corrosive metal parts, rust should be prevented 
from forming by coating the cleaned surface thinly with oil or 
cosmic. Should rust appear, it should be removed immediately 
by rubbing with oil and a soft cloth or stick. Corrosive metal 
parts that are protected by a surface finish, can not rust until 
the finish has worn through and the corrosive metal is exposed. 
In caring, therefore, for these parts, no more force should be 
used than is necessary to remove such dirt, etc., as may have 
collected, and which should first be softened by oil or water. 
In no case should emery or other abrasive be used. 

Non-corrosive metal parts are easily kept clean, but it is 
necessary that they be kept clean, for non-corrosive metal is 
affected to a greater or less extent by various agents encountered 
in ordinary service, such as salt water, fruit acids, etc. Except 
in the care of mess kits, the surface should be given a light 



382 MILITARY TRAINING 

coating of oil or cosmic. Should there be any evidence of corro- 
sion, the surface should be immediately and thoroughly cleaned. 
Such articles as the canteen and components of the mess outfit 
should be kept thoroughly clean and water and food kept in 
them no longer than necessary. 

Aluminum should be cleaned with soap and water., a neutral 
or slightly alkaline soap (H. & H.) being used. In the cleaning 
of canteens a little sand can be used to advantage. Particular 
care should be taken to insure that canteens are properly cleaned 
after they have been filled with coffee, milk, or any fluid contain- 
ing organic matter. The white nodules which occasionally appear 
in canteens used with hard water are aluminum hydrate; the 
gelatinous film is alumina, and both are harmless. When not 
actually in use, canteens should habitually be emptied and the 
cap left off to dry. 

PAINTING 

All parts to be painted should be free from dirt and grease. 
When rust appears on a painted surface or forms under the 
paint, the rust should be immediately and thoroughly removed 
from the rusted area, and the bright dry surface thus exposed 
primed with olive drab paint (second coat, if available). If it is 
desired to paint the whole surface after this priming coat has 
dried 24 hours or more, the whole surface should be rubbed down 
with No. V/z sandpaper, and a coat of paint applied and allowed 
to dry thoroughly before use. 

In painting wood, all that is roughened or decayed should 
be removed and a surface scraped down to good wood. Cracks 
should be filled or puttied. If the whole surface is in bad condi- 
tion and needs painting, it should be sandpapered thoroughly with 
No. V/2 sandpaper or coarser, a coat of paint should then be laid, 
and after drying for at least 24 hours it should be rubbed down 
with No. 00 sandpaper and the finishing coat laid. It should be 
allowed to dry for at least 24 hours before using. 

After repeated painting the paint may become so thick that 
it scales off and becomes unsightly. It may then be removed 
for repainting, as follows: Dissolve 1 pint of concentrated lye 
in 6 pints of hot water and slake in enough lime to give the 
solution the consistence of paint. Use the solution freshly mixed 
and apply to the parts where paint is to be removed, with a brush 
or with waste tied to the end of a stick. When the solution 
begins to dry on the surface use a scraper to remove the old 
paint; then scrub clean with water. If one application is *not 
sufficient to loosen the paint, apply a second coat. 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 383 

Paint is issued by the Ordnance Department in cans pro- 
vided with friction tops. When not being used these cans should 
be tightly closed or. the surface covered with linseed oil or 
water to prevent the paint becoming thick or "fatty." Paint that 
is too thick and fatty should be thinned by the addition of a little 
turpentine (not to exceed 2 per cent) worked well in. 

CLEANING AND PRESERVING MATERIALS AND 
THEIR USES 

It may be well to review the uses of the various materials 
furnished by the Ordnance Department for cleaning and pre- 
serving the supplies furnished by it. 

Borax. — Issued for use as a flux in welding. Unit of issue, 
pound. 

Cosmic. — A heavy petroleum oil used as a rust preventive. 
Its heavy body and high viscosity under ordinary temperatures 
make it admirably adapted for this purpose, but also difficult to 
apply. To insure protection against rust, the entire surface of the 
metal must be clean and free from every deposit and then coated 
thoroughly with cosmic. If cosmic is applied over lubricating 
oil, it creeps or runs in hot weather and the surface is exposed. 
To insure complete coating it is preferable that the parts to be 
oiled should be warm and the cosmic should be heated until 
liquid and then applied with a brush. 

Lavaline. — A metal polish issued to artillery, interchange- 
ably with Gibson's soap polish. Unit of issue, 16-ounce cans. 

Lye, Powdered. — When dissolved in hot water 1 pound to 
6 quarts, with sufficient lime to give a consistence of paint, is 
used to remove old and blistered paint. Unit of issue, pound. 

Metal Fouling Solution. — The standard solution contains 
Ammonium persulphate, 1 ounce or 2 medium heaping spoonfuls. 
Ammonium carbonate, 200 grains or 1 heaping spoonful. Ammo- 
nia 25 per cent, 6 ounces, or three-eighths pint or 12 spoonfuls. 
Water, 4 ounces or one-fourth pint or 8 spoonfuls. 

Powder the persulphate and the carbonate together, dis- 
solve in the water, and ad 1 the ammonia. Mix thoroughly, allow 
to stand one hour before using. 

Napthalene. — A moth preventive effective only when eggs 
and grubs already present are removed. 

Oil, Clock. — A very light oil for use on spindles and bear- 
ings of sights, range quadrants, and other instruments. In cases 
of emergency use as substitutes sperm oil and engine oil No. 1. 

Oil, Coal. — Used for cleaning and in the field for lanterns. 
Coal oil for illuminating purposes is furnished by the Quarter- 
master Department. 



384 MILITARY TRAINING 

Oil, Hydroline. — Use only to fill the recoil cylinders of gun 
carriages, and not as a lubricant. 

Oil, Linseed, Boiled. — This oil has a limited use in thinning 
paint which has become too thick to be thinned successfully with 
turpentine. It has the effect of a drier and requires the addition 
of little or no turpentine; generally used for interior painting. 

Oil, Linseed, Raw. — A vegetable oil used to preserve the 
wood of stocks, grips, etc Applied with rag and rubbed in with 
the hand; also used for thinning paint for outside work; usually 
requires the addition of drier or turpentine. 

Oil, Lubricating (Engine No. 1). — A light petroleum oil. 
The general lubricant of artillery, replacing synovial oil. 

Oil, Neat's-foot. — An animal oil used to soften and preserve 
leather. Applied to the flesh side of moistened leather. 

Oil, Slushing. — A heavy petroleum oil similar to cosmic 
(issued to artillery). Used as a rust preventive. Essentially a 
mineral oil containing a small per cent of rosin. It should be 
applied in a thin coat to the clean surface to be protected. In 
cold weather it should be applied by stippling — that is, by holding 
the brush perpendicular to the surface to be coated and tapping 
the surface with the point of the brush. Particular care should 
be taken to see that all lubricating oil is removed before applying 
slushing oil. 

Oil, Sperm. — A light oil used as a lubricant and temporary 
rust preventive. Its low viscosity and light body make it unsuit- 
able for a rust preventive for more than a few days. The general 
lubricant of small arms and arms. 

Paint, Rubberine. — Used in connection with loading ammu- 
nition in accordance with instructions regarding the same. 

Petrolatum (Vaseline). — A heavy petroleum oil free from 
rosin. Used as a lubricant for gears and worms of sights and 
for packing ball bearings, etc. 

Polish, Gibson's Soap. — A metal polish issued to Artillery 
interchangeably with Lavaline. 

Primer, Brown Enamel. — A hard, quick-drying enamel used 
for painting parts of horse collars, draft springs, etc. 

Sal Soda (Carbonate of Soda). — A saturate solution of soda 
and water makes an alkaline solution that will not rust. The 
solution must be saturated; that is, at least 20 per cent or one- 
fourth pound of soda to 1 pint of water (6 heaping spoonfuls to 
1 cup of water). This solution is an effective solvent of powder 
fouling and should always be used after firing, whether metal 
fouling solution is to be used or not. It reduces the labor of 
cleaning with oil alone by more than half. Used also in weaker 
solution (one-half pound to 8 quarts of water) in washing surfaces 
to be painted to remove dirt and greases. 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 385 

Soap, Castile. — An alkaline soap used in cleaning leather 
equipment. Applied as a lather on a moistened sponge. 

Soap, H. & H. — A neutral naphtha soap used in washing 
web and cloth equipment. Applied in the form of a solution 
(1 cake to 9 cups of water) or directly on the brush. After wash- 
ing, equipments should be always dried in the shade. 

Soap, Saddle. — A soap used as a dressing for leather equip- 
ment. Apply with thick lather on a moistened sponge. 

Swabbing Solution. — A solution containing ammonium per- 
sulphate, 60 grains or one-half spoonful smoothed off; ammonia, 
28 per cent, 6 ounces or three-eighths of a pint or 12 spoonfuls; 
water, 4 ounces or one-fourth pint or 8 Spoonfuls. Dissolve the 
ammonium persulphate in the water and add the ammonia. Keep 
in a tightly corked bottle. 

Turpentine. — Use as a thinner and drier for thick or fatty 
paint. Should not be used in quantities greater than 2 per cent of 
the paint thinned. 

REPAIR OF EQUIPMENT 

A general knowledge of the repair of equipment should be 
had by all officers and enlisted men. In active service when prob- 
lems of supply are difficult, the replacing of equipment is difficult 
and uncertain, and the repair thereof may be of vital importance. 
Improvised or first-aid repair may be the means of maintaining 
the efficiency of the organization which would otherwise be sadly 
hampered. In time of peace it is the means of prolonging the 
life of the equipment and greatly reducing the cost of maintenance 
of the organization. 

In general, the majority of repairs within the organization 
consists in replacing the worn or unserviceable part and requires 
little more than average common sense and a small amount of 
mechanical ability. In the case of horse equipment and artillery 
materiel, some special knowledge is required. To meet this need 
the School for Saddlers and Battery Mechanics was established 
at Rock Island Arsenal. This offers the opportunity to mounted 
organizations of obtaining a thoroughly trained man. But aside 
from these men trained at Rock Island Arsenal, almost every 
organization has some man or men who in civil life have received 
more or less training as saddler or mechanic or by association 
with men so trained are qualified to make such repairs as may 
be required. 

When any of the olive-drab cotton webbing straps that 
form part of the equipment become worn or torn, the entire strap 
should be replaced by a piece of olive-drab webbing of the 
proper width. If the strap has a free end, it should be provided 



386 MILITARY TRAINING 

with an end clip. If it becomes necessary to repair web straps 
because webbing of the proper size for replacements is not on 
hand, as may often happen in active service, at maneuvers, etc., 
the following instructions should be carefully followed: (a) If the 
strap is not put through a buckle, the ends should be care- 
fully lapped about 1 inch and sewed with any good, strong 
thread, (b) If the strap is run through a buckle, or if the shorten- 
ing incident to lapping would interfere with its proper func- 
tioning, the broken ends should be squared, placed abutting against 
each other, and stitched with heavy thread with a baseball stitch 
or overcast, (c) Upon returning to garrison or upon receipt of 
the proper size webbing, the repaired strap should always be 
replaced by an entire new strap, (d) All worn or torn parts 
should be patched, darned, or sewed, and all frayed edges over- 
cast, as explained in direction for repairing cotton duck. 

When the olive-drab cotton duck of the haversack, pack 
carrier, etc., is worn or torn, it should be repaired in one of the 
following ways: (a) The two sides of the tear can be brought 
together so as to lie flat without a ridge and stitched with a 
baseball stitch, (b) The two sides of the tear can be brought 
together and overcast on the under side, (c) In case a small hole 
is worn in the duck, it should be darned as a sock is darned. 
(d) In case the hole is large, it should be cut back to good, strong 
material, and a patch of such a size as to give a half-inch lap all 
around should be set under the hole and sewed to the original 
piece by being overcast. A neater job is made by turning under 
the edge of the hole, but this is not necessary. 

If eyelets pull out of cloth or webbing, the holes should be 
darned before they are replaced. Sometimes it is practicable to 
shift the position of the eyelet to whole, strong cloth, darning the 
old hole to keep it from enlarging. 

Any metal parts, such as buckles, double hooks, slides, or 
special hardware, that may be bent out of shape may be rebent 
to their original shape by using the wire cutter, the pliers in the 
arm repair chest, or the vise. Small pieces of cloth or some 
such material should be interposed between the jaws and the 
piece gripped to prevent marring the surface finish. In some cases 
it will be easier to use a block of wood and a wooden or copper 
hammer. Never strike the metal parts of equipment with a steel 
hammer, as this will bruise the surface finish and may leave ham- 
mer marks or burrs that might cut the webbing or duck. 

Keep rivets and screws tight. Loose rivets should be 
tightened by holding a piece of iron under the head and riveting 
over until tight. If threads in screw holes become so worn that 
they will not stay set up, the holes should be plugged with wooden 
plugs and the screws set up. 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 387 

REPAIR OF ARMS, SIGHTS AND RANGE FINDERS 

Repair of arms is limited primarily to the replacement of 
unserviceable parts. In this manner they may be continued in a 
serviceable condition indefinitely, but for the purposes of account- 
ing and issue the identity of the arm is considered to rest in the 
numbered part— in hand arms, the blade; in firearms, the receiver. 
With the exception of the cavalry saber, old model, which can 
not be repaired within the organization, the necessary tools and 
parts are issued for replacement so that complete repairs may be 
made within the organization. 

Automatic Machine Rifle, Caliber, .30, Model of 1909.— The 
automatic machine rifle is literally a machine, a gas engine, and 
as such requires unusual care, and it is subjected to unusual wear 
and strain. That it may be handled efficiently, the principles of 
its operation and its individual peculiarities must, be thoroughly 
understood. Because of the technical considerations which arise 
in connection with their maintenance, automatic machine rifles and 
guns are placed under armament officers, and problems of repair 
or replacement not covered directly in general instructions should 
be referred promptly to them in accordance with the general orders 
published on that subject. 

Automatic Pistol, Caliber .45, Model of 1911.— This pistol, 
like the automatic rifle, is a gas-operated machine, semi-automatic 
in its operation. It has relatively few parts and requires but 
reasonable care. The working parts must be kept clean and lightly 
oiled to insure proper functioning. Unserviceable parts are easily 
replaced. Slides which require rebluing may be exchanged by 
organization commanders without the action of a surveying officer. 

Bayonet and Bolo. — The only parts likely to require replace- 
ment are the bayonet-scabbard catch, bayonet-scabbard spring, 
and the bayonet catch. These are replaced by removing the grips 
which are secured by the bayonet screws and the bayonet nut. 
The bolo is similarly repaired. 

Colt Double-action Revolver, Caliber .45, Model of 1909. — 
This arm, which was issued only to troops serving in the Phil- 
ippine Islands, is now withdrawn from the service. Revolvers 
which are unserviceable or irreparable within the organization are 
surveyed and turned in. 

Cavalry Saber, Model of 1913. — All the parts can be disas- 
sembled by removing the two grip screws and the screw at the 
end of the pommel. The guard which is the most likely part to 
require replacement can readily be replaced. 

Telescopic Sights and Range Finders. — These are optical 
instruments of great accuracy and value and as such should be 
handled with great care. The instructions regarding their adjust- 



388 MILITARY TRAINING 

ment and care are given in detail in the appropriate pamphlets. 
These should be followed explicitly. When disassembling is 
authorized it should only be done by a competent person, prefer- 
ably under the supervision of an officer. 

Telescopic Musket Sight. — This sight is close fitted and 
adjusted to a special selected rifle. It is not intended that this 
sight should be permanently separated from the rifle to which it 
belongs. In other words, the rifle and its telescopic musket sight 
constitute a unit. Should the sight require repairs, except as 
noted hereafter, or should the barrel of the special selected rifle 
require replacing, the rifle and sight are surveyed and turned over 
to the proper supply officer for immediate shipment to the desig- 
nated arsenal. 

Range Finder, Self-contained (80-centimeter). — This instru- 
ment while identical in function, may appear in different models. 
Very delicate adjustments are of necessity a feature of these 
instruments; and while they have been made surprisingly rigid 
they require^ reasonable care to insure the best results. They 
should be intrusted only to careful and responsible persons. 

REPLACEMENT OF INACCURATE RIFLE BARRELS 

When barrels are found inaccurate by test, the procedure 
is as follows: 

(a) The rifles submitted for accuracy test by organizations, 
having been tested by the officer designated to conduct test in 
accordance with instructions, his report on the same, in duplicate, 
having been approved by the commanding officer, is presented 
to the proper ordnance supply officer, who immediately submits 
special requisition for the necessary number of barrels and 
receivers, assembled, to replace the number of unserviceable bar- 
rels shown on the report. 

(b) Organization commanders on the completion of the 
test submit to the action of a surveying officer such rifles of the 
organization as are found inaccurate. No articles other than 
inaccurate or unserviceable rifles appear on the survey report, and 
for each rifle the following information is given: Number of 
rifle, arsenal, number of target seasons fired (if exact number is 
unknown, then the maximum number known), the mean radius 
of dispersion at the ranges tested (as shown by the report of 
test), together with any other information which would enable the 
surveying officer to determine if the rifle was rendered unservice- 
able through fair wear and tear in the service. 

(c) On receipt of the barrels and receivers, assembled, the 
ordnance supply officer holds them for issue until such time as it 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 389 

will be practicable to make the adjustment of the front sight 
(movable stud), and on the direction of the post or regimental 
commander he issues, on the approved survey reports referred to 
above to the various organizations the number required as shown 
thereon. The unserviceable barrels and receivers are replaced by 
new barrels and receivers within the organizations in accordance 
with the instructions given. 

Due to the tendency of wood to change its shape under 
varying conditions of moisture, in assembling stocks to barrel and 
receivers, the following precautions should b'e taken: 

(a) See that the Upper Band Does Not Bind. — If the upper 
band binds tightly, scrape the stock until it slips on easily. If 
it is difficult to insert the upper band screw, ream out the hole in 
the stock until the screw slips readily into place. 

(b) See that the Receiver Bears on the Stock in Rear of the 
Recoil Lug. — With the rear guard screw tight, loosen and tighten 
the front guard screw. If there is an appreciable amount of 
space between the receiver and the stock, shim up with paper or 
thin cardboard on the flat surface in rear of the recoil lug until 
good bearing is obtained. 

The Adjustment of the Front-sight Movable Stud. — When 
it becomes opportune to make this adjustment for the rifles found 
inaccurate during the year, an officer should be especially selected, 
by reason of his interest in and knowledge of shooting, to super- 
vise this work. The necessary number of selected riflemen and 
pitmen should be detailed to assist in the work, together with such 
artificers or mechanics as are required. 

A range of 100 or 200 yards is required — a 200-yard range is 
preferred. Targets should be prepared by painting on the back 
of standard targets black crosses with vertical and horizontal arms 
approximately 20 inches long. If the targets are to be used on 
a 100-yard range, the width of the vertical and horizontal arms 
should be 2 inches; if on a 200-yard range, these arms should 
be 4 inches wide. These widths at their respective ranges cor- 
respond to one-half point windage. Starting with the movable 
stud centrally located, it should be adjusted until four out of five 
shots lie within the vertical lines. This should give a mean error 
of probably less than one-fourth point of windage. The firing 
should be done under favorable weather conditions and every- 
thing done to insure accuracy of firing. This adjustment of the 
front sight is not difficult and should seldom require more than 
10 shots per rifle. If it is remembered that a movement of the 
movable stud corresponding to one-half point of windage moves 
the center of impact the width of the vertical line at the target, 
the proper amount to move the front sight can readily be deter- 
mined and verified by firing a string of shots. 



390 MILITARY TRAINING 

The movable stud having been properly adjusted, its posi- 
tion should be immediately marked by a pencil mark across the 
joint. This marking should, as soon as it is practicable, be made 
permanent by nicking with the five-sixteenths-inch cold chisel, 
furnished in the kit of tools for securing the front sight. The 
movable stud is issued undrilled. To secure it in place it is 
necessary to drill a hole for the front-sight screw. For this 
purpose the kit of tools is issued each post or other supply officer. 

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF AMMUNITION AND 
EXPLOSIVES 

For the purpose of storage, ammunition is divided into 
five classes: (a) Ammunition for mountain, field and siege guns, 
and howitzers, (b) Trench munitions (explosive bombs and gre- 
nades), (c) Miscellaneous munitions (incendiary and smoke 
munitions, rockets, flares, etc.). Incendiary and smoke munitions 
should be in stacks separated from each other as far as possible 
in the area and should be separately transported, (d) Mining or 
demolition explosives (gunpowder, guncotton, dynamite, jovite, tri- 
ton, etc.). (e) Small arms ammunition. 

In large depots each of the above classes should be stored 
at a distance of at least 400 yards from other classes. Even in 
ammunition dumps class (c) should be stored separately owing to 
its liability to take fire. 

Field Artillery Ammunition. — In all field artillery guns up 
to the 4.7-inch fixed ammunition is used, all shrapnel fuzed, and 
all shell filled and fuzed. The element of danger of accidental 
arming of fuzes has been practically eliminated, and the danger 
from accidental burst through the "time feature" is negligible if 
the fuze is set at "safety." The upper powder train may burn 
entirely out in case of accidental firing of the time plunger without 
the flame being able to reach the magazine of the fuze. Primers 
are assembled with the cartridge cases. Field artillery howitzers 
and siege guns use separate loading. 

The hand grenade, as well as the rifle grenade, is assembled 
with primer. It is rendered inert during transportation and 
until ready for use by the safety cup in the case of the hand gre- 
nade and by the safety pin in case of the rifle grenade. 

Live grenades should be handled with the greatest care, and 
should not be used until practice has been had with dummies. At 
practice or in combat all grenades which have failed to function 
should be destroyed by throwing them into a deep stream or 
by burying them deep in the ground. In handling the hand gre- 
nades always hold same by the body and not by rope or streamer. 



CARE AND PRESERVATION 391 

In firing the rifle grenade all persons about the firing point 
should take cover before grenade strikes the ground as the stem 
is sometimes thrown several hundred yards to the rear with 
sufficient force to inflict a dangerous if not fatal wound. If a 
rifle grenade fails to function it should be picked up and carried 
with stem pointing downward and placed in a deep stream or 
buried. A grenade which has failed should not be fired again. 

If proper precautions are taken and the grenade fuse has 
ignited properly, there can be no danger in picking up and throw- 
ing unexploded grenades. If troops are required to take a posi- 
tion where there are any unexploded grenades, these should be re- 
moved as soon as possible. One man, with the aid of a branch or 
stick, removes the grenades, while the rest of the personnel re- 
main under cover. As a rule, failure to explode is due to non- 
ignition of the fuse or the detonator; sometimes to an error in 
assembling the primer; and more rarely to failure of the percussion 
caps (or igniters) to operate. If the percussion bolt groove is 
not obstructed by mud, one can easily see if the fuses have oper- 
ated, as the groove will be blackened. Such grenades are no more 
dangerous to handle than the ordinary grenade. 

If, on the other hand, the sides and bottom of the groove are 
white and shiny, the fuses have not operated, and the percussion 
spring, being in contact with the fuses, might ignite at any shock. 
In fact, by striking an unexploded dummy grenade violently, on 
any hard surface, the primer can be destroyed without striking the 
pin. This is due to the small mass of the striker. In any case, 
unless the operation of the fuses is quite evident, it is best to re- 
move the grenades singly and by hand, without taking the eyes 
off them, so that they may, should they become ignited, be thrown 
away without delay. Unexploded grenades are piled together and 
fired by a petard. They may be used to advantage to charge a 
fougasse. 

Rockets, Flares, Etc. — Some of the rockets, flares, bombs, 
grenades, etc., contain phosphorus. This chemical, if dry, ignites 
spontaneously when exposed to the air. Water should be kept 
conveniently near storage places of these articles. They should 
not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun and should be 
stored in a cool place. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE CONDUCT OF FIRE, FIRE FOR EFFECT, 
FIELD ARTILLERY AND MACHINE GUNS 

To render effective assistance upon the battlefield, artillery 
must be able to deliver a timely and overpowering fire upon any 
designated part of the enemy's position. 

Those areas of the hostile positions within which fire is to be 
delivered by particular artillery units are called sectors. They are 
usually described by reference to prominent points of the terrain. 
Within, and sometimes outside, the sectors assigned, fire must be 
delivered upon objectives called targets. 

The officer charged with the conduct of fire must be the 
master of the fire of his guns. He must be able to turn the 
fire promptly upon any target at will and to regulate its intensity 
and distribution as circumstances require. The attainment of this 
condition requires on the part of the officer complete familiarity 
with the weapons at his disposal and skill, of quick decision in their 
use, and on the part of the organization through knowledge of the 
materiel, uniform and reliable service of the piece, co-operation of 
all parts, and strict fire discipline. 

Owing to inaccuracies in the determination of firing data, 
to the influence of weather conditions, to errors made in the serv- 
ice of the guns, and to imperfections in materiel and ammunition, 
fire must be delivered and, on the basis of observations, corrected 
to insure effectiveness upon the target. Fire of this nature is 
called fire for adjustment. During such fire effect is desirable. 

When fire has been thus adjusted it must be continued, often 
with changed data, to secure effect. During such fire continued 
observation is necessary. Fire of this nature is called fire for 
effect. In addition to physical effect artillery may produce im- 
portant effects of neutralization, moral support, or diversion. These 
will be the more surely obtained if accompanied by great physical 
effect, but they may be obtained though physical effect is slight. 
These effects are to be considered in the decision to start or stop 
the fire or to vary its intensity. 

For adjustment of fire, a knowledge of how to manipulate 
the trajectory, combined with accurate observation, or " spotting," 
are essential. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE . 393 

MANIPULATION OF THE TRAJECTORY IN THE PLANE 

OF FIRE 

The location of the trajectory in the vertical plane depends 
upon the site and elevation. It may be changed by changing one 
or the other of these elements, or the same location may be re- 
tained by making the proper changes of both in opposite senses. 

A variation of the site affects the range the same as an 
equal variation of the elevation. 

The height of burst under normal conditions depends only 
on the site and the corrector. 

If the site only is varied, the point of burst is displaced in 
height, but not in range; if the corrector only is varied the point 
of burst is displaced at the same time in both height and range. 
Simultaneous and equal but opposite changes of site and cor- 
rector cause no change in height of burst, but the burst range 
changes. 

The burst range depends only on the fuse setter range and 
and corrector settings. It is increased or diminished by increasing 
or diminishing the fuse setter range or by lowering or raising the 
corrector. 

The points of burst of two or more rounds are not coinci- 
dent unless these three elements remain constant, or unless all 
three change at the same time by suitable amounts and in the 
proper relation. 

The point of burst or impact is determined partly by the 
characteristic appearance of the smoke of the bursting charge, 
partly by its location relative to the target, and partly by physical 
effect on the target. or terrain. 

BURSTS IN AIR 

A burst in air produces a ball of smoke which ordinarily 
remains together for an appreciable time, and the smoke, white or 
light gray in appearance, is projected in the direction of the trajec- 
tory. The point of burst is therefore always above the center of 
the smoke ball. At ranges beyond about 2000 yards the point 
of burst is near to or above the summit of the smoke ball, and the 
latter, observed from near the plane of fire, is seen in a pear- 
shaped form, small end uppermost. 

An air burst after ricochet gives a pear-shaped smoke ball, 
with the broader end up. Occasionally a burst in air close to the 
ground will give a flattened smoke ball discolored by dust or mud 
in considerable quantity, caused by the impact of a large number 
of bullets on a small area. 



394 MILITARY TRAINING 

BURSTS ON IMPACT. 

When a common shrapnel bursts on impact the smoke 
ball is discolored and fugitive, its upper portion wide and irregular 
but somewhat flat. 

When a shell or high explosive shrapnel bursts on impact 
a large irregular columnar mass of black smoke and dirt is 
formed, which remains visible for some time. 

The bullets and fragments from a burst in air knock up 
a considerable amount of dirt and dust if they strike dry soil; on 
wet soil splashes of mud are knocked up by the shrapnel case and 
large fragments. Occasionally the effect of bullets and fragments 
may be observed in the flattening of long grass or in the move- 
ment of brush or tree branches. 

An air burst of high-explosive shrapnel is followed by a 
percussion burst of the head. Care should be taken to distinguish 
the impact burst of the head from a graze burst of the whole pro- 
jectile. 

The height of a burst is measured or estimated from the 
bottom of the target to the point of burst if the target is not 
concealed in trenches or behind a crest; otherwise it is measured 
from the summit of the covering crest. 

The height of a group of bursts is the mean of the individ- 
ual heights of burst. 

SPOTTING FOR RANGE 

It is rarely possible from a position near the guns to esti- 
mate with accuracy the amount of the error in range. Such esti- 
mates are usually too small and cause delay through an effort to 
correct the fire by making timid and insufficient changes in the 
range. Attention should rather be concentrated on deciding, from 
careful observation of each shot, upon the sense of a number of 
shots fired with the same range and site, and on quickly inclosing 
the target with fire which is surely short and fire which is surely 
over. If the sense of a shot cannot be definitely decided upon, it 
is doubtful, and should be disregarded. 

The most accurate sensing of range is based on obser- 
vation of effect on the target. Next comes observation of bursts 
on impact, then of effect on terrain, then of the position of the 
smoke ball with respect to the target. 

If the observer is considerably above the target, or the 
target is on ground sloping toward the observer, the sense of a 
salvo (short or over) may usually be recognized readily by noting 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 395 

the relative position, with respect to the target, or graze bursts of 
the projectile. 

If the outlines of the target are more clearly denned against 
the smoke of the burst, the range may always be considered as 
over, whether the burst occurred in air or on graze. 

If the target is obscured by the smoke of the burst, the 
range may be considered as short; but, in the case of a burst in 
air, the burst may be low in order to warrant this conclusion. 

If the target is indistinct and of about the same color as the 
smoke, it may be less visible against the smoke as a background. 
A burst beyond the target may, for this reason, sometimes seem to 
obscure the target, and hence be judged short, when it is in reality 
over. On the other hand, some targets become very much more 
visible if projected against the smoke background. 

Frequently the target occupies terrain of such a nature 
as to justify sensings of rounds, when the deflection is known to 
be approximately correct, as lost over. But soft or swampy ground 
may completely smother a burst and prevent sensing. 

If the wind is blowing up or down the range, a decision 
should be formed quickly as to the relative position of the smoke 
with respect to the target. But if the wind is blowing across the 
range, it may be better to wait until the smoke has drifted across 
the front or rear of the target. To secure this result it may be 
desirable to direct the fire at the windward flank of the target. 

In observing bursts with reference to a crest, care must 
be taken not to be deceived by a crest parallel to the crest 
sought, but short of it. In rolling country such an intermediate 
crest is often present, and it may merge into the background 
formed by the high ground in its rear, and hence escape de- 
tection, while, as a matter of fact, there may be a broad valley 
or depression between the two crests. Shots observed against 
the near side of the intermediate crest are short and easily sensed, 
but shots which pass over the intermediate crest and burst low 
or on graze in the valley between the two and are lost, may be 
thought to have cleared the farther crest and erroneously sensed 
as over. Such deceptions may be avoided by obtaining bursts in 
the air on the line joining the observer and the crest sought. If 
the ball of smoke is cut in two by the crest and the crest clearly 
defined against it, the burst is over. If the crest is concealed by the 
smoke, the burst is short. The short burst may often serve to re- 
Veal the existence of the intermediate crest by causing the latter 
to be silhouetted against the smoke. 

When the burst is in the direction of a wood the smoke 
ball may present a ragged appearance due to its being partly 
hidden by branches or foliage. The indication is that the burst 
is beyond the near limit of the wood. 



396 MILITARY TRAINING 

If the sun is shining, information as to the sense of burst 
in air may often be obtained by observing the shadow of the smoke 
ball on the ground. The height of the bur'st and the position of the 
sun must, however, be taken into consideration. 

Observations of range from lateral positions are compli- 
cated by errors of direction. But if the direction is correct all 
shots seen by the flank observer will be over if they appear be- 
yond the target, and short if on the near side. 

An accurate conception of the terrain 'in the vicinity of the 
target increases the number of rounds which may properly be 
called sensible. Preparatory to opening fire the study of ground 
forms around the hostile positions should be taken up, and this 
should be continued during the action. 

AUXILIARY OBSERVING STATIONS 

Auxiliary observers may frequently be used with advantage 
at stations near the targets or at a considerable distance to a flank 
of the line of fire. Elevated stations are particularly favorable. In 
the selection of such stations the most important requirements are 
a plain view of the target and its adjoining area, cover from hos- 
tile discovery, and sure and swift communications with the stations 
to which they are auxiliary. 

With respect to the adjustment of fire, they indicate espe- 
cially whether the range is short, over or correct; whether the 
burst interval, when in front of the target, is too great, too small, 
or correct, whether the direction is right, left, or correct. If large 
errors in range are made, an observer on the flank of the guns 
will not usually be able to separate the errors in range from those 
in direction; in such a case the observer would ordinarily signal 
the direction only, as right or left, as it appears to him, and the 
officer conducting the fire, knowing the position of the observer, 
would deduce the sense of the salvo, volley, etc., in range. 

With respect to movements of the enemy, the observer re- 
ports especially: If the enemy abandons his position; if he shifts 
to the right or left, or rear to escape effective fire; whether hostile 
reenforcements enter the sector and their location. 

With respect to our own troops, the observer makes such 
reports as to their movements and situation as will enable the 
artillery commander best to assist them with the fire of the 
guns. 

Arrangements should, moreover, be made to obtain from ad- 
vanced troops information which will assist in the adjustment of 
fire, and indication as to when fire should be commenced or dis- 
continued. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 397 

Auxiliary observing stations are sometimes established in 
captive balloons or mobile aircraft, and are of great assistance in 
the study of terrain and the location of targets, or in " spotting." 
The designation of objectives is difficult. It is possible, however, 
by several methods, such as by photography, by sketches, by refer- 
ence to squared maps, by description, or by their relation to refer- 
ence points. 

In observation of fire from a great height, bursts in air and 
bursts on graze may both be seen, but it is difficult to judge the 
height of the burst center except by the ratio between the num- 
ber of air bursts and graze bursts. In both range and direction 
the relation of the shots to the target is easily determined. 

FIRE FOR ADJUSTMENT 

Adjustment may be dispensed with only when the neces- 
sary data have been determined by previous fire, or when the range 
is very short. The greatest difficulties arise from errors due to 
personnel, rather than materiel; for example, from failure to set 
the scales exactly as ordered or to center the bubbles; from not 
noticing and correcting any derangement of the laying due to load" 
ing or of the settings due to firing; from not turning the pro- 
jectile in the fuse setter in the proper manner and from similar 
mistakes. 

Adjustment is effected upon the target itself, if practicable. 
In many cases, however, the target will not be visible, to the offi- 
cer conducting the fire, though its approximate position may be 
known. Thus, the target may consist of troops concealed behind 
a ridge, or behind a wall or hedge, or in the edge of a village, a 
forest, or a field of standing grain. Some prominent feature of 
the terrain in or near the enemy's known positions — for example, 
a tree, a house, a mass of rock, etc. — is then selected as a regis- 
tration mark, and by means of scouts, observers in balloons, or any 
available means, the enemy's location with respect to this mark is 
determined within the narrowest possible limits. 

The fire is then adjusted upon the registration mark, and the 
area within which the target has been located is searched by 
the subsequent fire. 

If the circumstances permit, advantage may be taken of 
lulls in the action to secure at least a rough adjustment upon 
localities in which the enemy is known to be, or near which he 
is expected to appear. Such a fire is termed fire for registration. 
The data are thus secured for opening promptly an effective fire 
upon the enemy appearing at or near the positions upon which 
the fire has been registered; by minor modifications in these data 
a quick adjustment on the target may be secured. 



398 MILITARY TRAINING 

ADJUSTMENT FOR DIRECTION 

When direct laying is employed, the battery commander 
makes such changes in deflection as may be necessary to bring 
the fire of each gun to bear upon its proper portion of the target. 
When shots go wide of the target it should be more accurately 
designated. 

When indirect laying is employed, the error of the piece 
which is most nearly directed upon its proper part of the target 
is measured or estimated in mils and a corresponding correction in 
deflection is applied in the appropriate sense. 

A change in the deflection difference is based on the obser- 
vation of the preceding salvo. It should be made on the piece 
which, for that salvo, is nearest to its proper direction, or on 
which the deflection is changed. 

As adjustment progresses the fire may be either concen- 
trated or distributed. If observation is difficult, concentration 
upon the most prominent part of the target may be advisable; 
if at the same time a cross wind is blowing a point of adjust- 
ment to the windward of the target may be selected. 

If several batteries are adjusting simultaneously upon a 
single broad target, it is generally best for each to concentrate 
during the adjustment upon the corresponding part of its section 
of the target — for example, the windward flank. 

The simultaneous adjustment of fire by several batteries 
upon the same target should not be attempted unless it is pos- 
sible to distinguish clearly the shots of the different batteries 
firing; the adjustment should be made by one battery only and veri- 
fied by the others in turn. 

ADJUSTMENT FOR HEIGHT OF BURST 

For adjustment of time fire a low burst center giving a large 
percentage of bursts on graze is desirable. The opportunity is thus 
given to observe the bursts in air and bursts on graze. Moreover, 
considerable effect may be produced during the adjusting series, 
and by a small change in the corrector, passage to fire for effect 
may be quickly accomplished. 

When the mean point of burst is at a height appropriate 
for adjustment, about one-third of one-half of the shrapnel may, 
on account of errors of the fuse, of laying, etc., be expected to 
burst on graze. This indicates a mean height of burst from zero 
to 1 mil above the target. Wild shots should be disregarded, as 
;being probably due to incorrect laying. 

When indirect laying is employed, an error in calculating 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 39£ 

the site will cause a corresponding error in height of bursts. As. 
the cause of the latter error may not at first be known, adjust- 
ment of the height of burst by changing the corrector may be 
attempted. If the error in height of burst is not great, it may 
readily be allowed for in this way; but if it is seen that the neces- 
sary correction will exceed the limits of the corrector scale, the 
total correction which has been applied to the corrector must be 
transferred in the same sense to the site, and a return to a cor- 
rector setting near the normal must be made. Similarly, for direct 
laying, a change of site may be made instead of corrector, to avoid 
exceeding the corrector scale. 

ADJUSTMENT FOR RANGE 

Adjustment for range is usually the most difficult to obtain. 

The refinement to which fire for adjustment can be carried 
depends on conditions. Many targets are able to shelter them- 
selves from fire. Hence early physical effect must be obtained 
unless moral effect only is sought. In time fire there is necessarily 
a moment when adjustment must cease, for the most suitable 
height of burst for producing effect is not a suitable height for 
observing for range. For all those reasons, then, adjustment for 
range usually consists in determining two ranges, one of which is 
less than the true range of the target and one of which is greater. 
The determination of these two ranges is called bracketing the 
target. The difference between the two ranges is called the 
bracket. 

If the target is surely included within the limits of the 
bracket finally accepted, it may be reached more or less effectively 
by subsequent fire. The first consideration, then, is to determine 
that fire at a certain range is surely short of the target, and that 
fire at another and longer range is surely over the target. A sec- 
ond but very important consideration is to reduce the difference 
between those two bracketing ranges as much as possible. 

If the first range is short, the range is increased; if over, 
it is decreased and rounds are fired successively, increased or de- 
creased in range, as the case may be, until the target is bracketed. 
Having bracketed the target, the size of the bracket may be 
successively reduced by halving the last bracket obtained; that 
is, by firing at the mean of the last two bracketing ranges. As the 
depth of the bracket decreases, so should the number of obser- 
vations on which each limit is based increase. 

The amount of changes in range for obtaining the first 
bracket depends upon the accuracy of preparation of fire and 
the nature of the target. 
26 



400 MILITARY TRAINING 

When ranges are estimated or taken from a map on which 
the positions of guns and target cannot be accurately located, the 
first bracket should be obtained by changes of 400 yards. When 
an accurate range finder has been expertly used, or when the range 
has been accurately determined by other means, 200-yard changes 
are appropriate. 

In firing over friendly troops near the target the bracket 
may be obtained by smaller successive changes of range. 

If the sense of the burst is doubtful, or if the bursts are lost, 
circumstances must decide whether to change the range or to 
change only other firing data for the next round. If the smoke of 
the fire of other batteries has interfered with observation, a salvo 
concentrated upon some prominent part of the target may be of 
assistance. If the doubt was occasioned by the fact that the bursts 
were in air and high, it may be well merely to lower the point of 
burst for the next salvo. If a salvo is lost, the projectiles have 
probably burst wide of the target or in a ravine or behind some 
intervening cover. If the smoke of the bursts does not rise and 
become visible after a few seconds, the lay of the ground should 
determine whether to increase or diminish the range or merely to 
raise the corrector so as to obtain visible bursts in the air. Definite 
information may generally be most quickly obtained in such cases 
by securing time bursts just above the level of the crests or other 
cover. 

The trajectory may be brought upon the target by chang- 
ing the site or by changing the range setting. In the latter case, 
if the site is in error the fuse will be set for a range other than the 
true range to the target, and the projectile will burst too high or 
too low, as the case may be. Modifications of the corrector or of 
the site will in general be necessary to bring the mean point of 
burst to the desired height. If the error has been small, it may 
readily be overcome by a proper use of the corrector. 

In the accurate adjustment of time fire, not only the height 
but also the burst interval is important; for projectiles bursting too 
far in front of the target and those bursting in the air above it 
produces little or no effect. The burst interval is correct when 
both the range and the height of burst are correctly adjusted. 
Indications that such is the case are: (1) That the bursts on graze 
bracket the target; (2) that the mean height of burst is about 3 
mils; (3) that fragments from the air bursts strike the ground 
both in front and rear of the target, and that the pattern made by 
these fragments, as revealed by the dirt and dust knocked up, is 
close and dense rather than greatly extended; (4) that obvious 
effect is produced upon the target. If doubt exists as to the burst 
interval, it is best to lower the corrector and get a group of low 
bursts or bursts on graze. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 401 

At medium ranges a change of 4 mils in the site produces a 
change of about 100 yards in range; hence, if the site is materially 
altered, the adjustment of the range will have to be recommenced. 

At medium ranges a change of 4 points in the corrector 
produces a change of about 100 yards in burst range. 

If percussion fire is to be used for effect on material objects, 
called fire for demolition, very accurate adjustment of range is 
required. Such fire is effective at all ranges but, because the 
probable error in deflection increases and the danger space de* 
creases, while observation grows more difficult as the range be* 
comes longer, effect can often be obtained at the longer ranges 
only at the expense of much ammunition. 

Percussion fire may be said to be adjusted only when effect is 
plainly observed, or when, of many rounds fired at a single range, 
the number of overs is equal to or slightly greater than the num- 
ber of shorts. 



METHOD OF FIRE FOR ADJUSTMENT 

The method of fire depends on the target — its nature, size r 
condition and range; the method of laying, conditions of obser- 
vation; firing data already determined and other considerations. 

Fire by battery salvo has the advantages of increasing the 
chances of discovering abnormal errors of gun service and of 
observing more than one round, thus establishing quickly the basis 
for changes of direction, height of burst, and range. When the 
range has been accurately determined it increases the probability of 
obtaining both shorts and overs at the first salvo and effect on a 
wide front of the target. It also has the advantage of at once 
setting all of the trail spades. 

Fire by piece is appropriate to check a very doubtful deflec- 
tion and, in some cases, for fire for registration. 

Salvos insure the identification of individual rounds and, with 
the exception of distribution, more accuracy in observation of 
fire. They are favorable to accurate service of the piece. 

Volleys are faster than salvos and give better observation 
of distribution. 

Salvos usually commence on the leeward flank of the guns, in 
order that the burst of one round may not be obscured by the 
smoke or dust of the other. 

The rapidity of fire during adjustment will be controlled by 
the necessity of observing the shots and setting off the necessary 
corrections. Rapid and correct decisions and quick commands on 
the part of the battery commander will increase the rapidity of 
the adjustment of fire. 



402 MILITARY TRAINING 

The kind of projectile to be used in adjustment is ordi- 
narily the kind that is to be used for effect. The choice depends 
upon the nature of the target and its situation. 

During fire for effect time fire is, as a rule, employed against 
animate targets, aircraft, searchlights; percussion fire against other 
inanimate targets. During adjustment it may become necessary to 
change from time fire to percussion fire to lessen the probability of 
hitting friendly troops or for the purpose of narrowing the bracket. 

CLASSES OF TARGETS, APPROPRIATE METHODS OF 
FIRE AND BRACKETS 

Targets are classified with reference to their nature, as 
artillery, infantry, machine guns, etc. They are also classified ac- 
cording to their movement, or power to move, as fixed or station- 
ary, transient, and moving. All of these may, of course, vary as to 
size and as to degree of movement. 

Fixed, or stationary, targets are targets which are fixed to 
their position for at least a considerable time. Examples of such 
targets are buildings, trenches, artillery in position, troops held 
under cover by fire. 

Transient targets are those which while fully exposed to fire 
are likely to remain so for a very brief time. Examples of such 
targets are infantry skirmish lines, machine guns, observation 
parties. 

Moving targets are those which are changing their location. 
Examples of slowly moving targets are large bodies of troops 
on the march, infantry whether on the march or advancing to the 
attack, wagon trains on the march. Examples of rapidly moving 
targets are artillery in fast gaits, charging cavalry, cavalry at fast 
gaits, small bodies of mounted men, motor cars. 

Against fixed targets, salvos are ordinarily used during 
fire for adjustment, which is usually continued until a suitable 
bracket has been obtained. A bracket of 100 yards should ordi- 
narily be sought; either time or percussion fire is used, depending 
on the target. 

Against transient targets, salvos are usually appropriate 
during fire for adjustment, time fire being used. A bracket of 200 
yards is usually the narrowest that can be attempted. In extreme 
cases it may be necessary to assume a bracket of considerable 
depth, based on the observation of the first bursts. Volleys are 
used in fire for effect. Against instantaneous targets such as 
reconnaissance parties, no bracket is sought, but time fire is exe- 
cuted over a wide front, and great depth, at maximum rapidity. 

Against large targets moving slowly, such as heavy artillery, 
troops in defiles, wagon trains, etc., either direct or indirect laying 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 403 

may be used. In direct laying, volleys are usual during fire for 
adjustment, as this method gives the pointer more independence 
in the instant of firing, and he is better able to take advantage of 
the movement when the target is most visible. In indirect laying, 
salvos are usual during fire for adjustment. Time fire is used. 
A bracket of 200 yards should ordinarily be attempted. Volleys 
are used in fire for effect. 

Against rapidly moving or small moving targets, or targets 
likely to move rapidly — volley fire is usually appropriate, both in 
fire for adjustment and fire for effect. If the motion is in direction 
of the range, a bracket of 600 yards is usually the narrowest that 
can be attempted. Time fire is used. If the target is small, in- 
direct laying is usually ineffective; aerial targets come in this class. 

FIRE FOR EFFECT 

Every target attacked will present its own problem, which 
must be solved according to existing conditions, and not by adher- 
ing to any fixed rule. Having completed preliminary adjustment 
and opened fire for effect, observation is continued and such cor- 
rections are made as will serve to perfect the adjustment or meet 
changes in the location or formation of the target. 

RANGE IN FIRE FOR EFFECT 

It will seldom be possible to obtain an adjustment close 
enough to justify remaining at a single range during the delivery 
of fire for effect. The short and long limits of the bracket should 
be considered as inclosing an area to be covered, at successive 
ranges. This can be accomplished by using either successive in- 
crements or successive decrements so that the target will be cov- 
ered at one or more of the ranges used. The officer conducting 
fire may be able to form an opinion as to which are the most ef- 
fective ranges. The first range differences should usually be 100 
yards, but when the area has been narrowed as a result of ob- 
servation they may be reduced to 50 yards. 

In firing at moving targets the first range used should 
ordinarily be that limit of the bracket toward which the target is 
moving. The first range appropriate for other targets depends 
upon consideration of the purposes of the fire for effect, the con- 
ditions of observation, the position of friendly troops. 

In firing over friendly troops advancing to the assault, fire 
at the target should cease upon a suitable signal from the infantry 
that the fire is dangerous. The exact time depends on the range, 



404 MILITARY TRAINING 

terrain, and conditions of observations. The range may be in- 
creased to hinder the bringing up of hostile supports or to cause 
losses should the enemy fall back. At medium ranges over level 
ground the danger space to infantry from well-adjusted time fire 
extends for a distance of about 300 yards in front of the target. 
This distance becomes less if the ground rises toward the target, 
greater if it falls toward it. 

HEIGHT OF BURST (FOR EFFECT) 

A height of burst from 2 to 4 mils is theoretically best, 
the effect varying little between those limits and decreasing rap- 
idly outside. But a low burst is better than a high burst, and 
latest information from actual firing seems to indicate that a mean 
height of about 2 mils is generally most effective. 

DISTRIBUTION (FOR EFFECT) 

The fire of a battery is usually distributed over the front as- 
signed it for attack. When time fire is employed the following 
considerations are to be borne in mind: (a) If the front to be at- 
tacked does not much exceed 12 mils in width, it is sufficient to 
converge upon the center of this front, as the dispersion of fire, 
when a considerable number of rounds is fired, will provide for 
covering the full front, (b) Fronts which do not much exceed 35 
mils may be covered effectively by a 4-gun battery using dis- 
tributed fire, (c) If the front much exceeds 35 mils, it may be 
divided into sections and each section attacked in turn. 

In shrapnel time fire the right piece is directed not upon 
the right edge of the target but upon a point about 10 yards inside 
the right edge. To direct the left gun upon a corresponding point 
inside the left edge, the divisor of the front of the target is the 
number of guns firing, not that number decreased by one. 

When the mean height of burst of shrapnel is well adjusted, 
each gun is expected to cover effectively a front of 20 yards if 
one round is fired, 25 if two are fired. 

When percussion fire is employed, the nature of the target 
determines whether converging or distributed fire is to be em- 
ployed. 

If the target to be attacked has a continuous front, as walls, 
obstacles, etc., this front may be divided up into sections of 10 mils 
each and the sections attacked in turn, each gun taking its pro- 
portionate part. If the target has a much smaller front than 10 
mils, the fire may be converged upon its center. If the target 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 405 

consists of artillery, each gun may be assigned a corresponding 
gun, depending upon the amount of artillery available. 

METHOD OF FIRE (FOR EFFECT) 

The rapidity with which fire for effect should be conducted 
depends principally upon the tactical situation. After adjust- 
ment has been obtained the volume of fire may be increased, by 
increasing the number of pieces, or by firing in more rapid suc- 
cession than is practicable during the fire for adjustment, or by 
increasing the number of rounds in each volley. Rapidity of fire 
must never be so great as to prevent fuses being exactly set and 
the guns accurately laid, or otherwise to interfere with the work 
of the gun squads. Great rapidity of fire is permissible only for a 
short time. The expenditure of ammunition is otherwise too 
great. 

Volley fire is adapted especially to the attack of fugitive tar- 
gets that are more or less vulnerable. The special characteristic 
of this method of fire is its great flexibility and rapidity. The 
number of volleys to be fired, their range difference, the number 
of rounds in each volley, are all in the hands of the officer con- 
ducting the fire. By suitable manipulation of the sheaf he may 
readily shift the fire from point to point of the terrain, as neces- 
sity may require, and by adapting the bursts of fire to meet the 
crises of the action he may utilize the ammunition to the best ad- 
vantage. 

While salvos are adapted especially to securing the adjust- 
ment of fire, they may also be used for producing effect, especially 
with the idea of obtaining at the same time additional information 
on which to base a closer adjustment of the fire. They are em- 
ployed according to the principles of volley fire. 

Fire at will is employed solely for the close defense of the 
guns. Against a slowly moving enemy, such as infantry, the fire 
should be commenced when he has arrived within about 350 yards 
of the gun; against a rapidly moving enemy, such as cavalry, 
when he has arrived within about 800 yards; the purpose in both 
cases being surely to establish a fire-swept zone through which 
the enemy must pass in order to reach the guns. 

OBSTACLES— INTRENCHMENTS 

Many obstacles may be destroyed by light artillery, but 
always at a price of a large expenditure of ammunition; they are 
attacked by high-explosive shell or percussion shrapnel. 

Defenders behind stone walls may best be reached by demo- 
lition of the walls. 



406 MILITARY TRAINING 

Earthworks can only be damaged. The fire directed on 
them should be destined only for the defenders who are sheltered 
by them; percussion shrapnel or high-explosive shell will be best. 

WOODS 

If the borders are occupied, woods are attacked with time 
fire. When it is desired to reach troops concealed in the interior 
of a wood they are attacked with percussion fire. 

CAVALRY 

Cavalry is very vulnerable at a halt and when in close forma- 
tions. It protects itself from artillery fire through its mobility and 
dispersion. 

Time or percussion fire is used, and all measures are taken 
to increase the rapidity of fire. If the firing unit is not placed so 
as to have a direct view of the target, the sheaf is opened and 
fire over a deep bracket is commenced when the cavalry enters 
the area under observation. If direct laying can be used the tar- 
get is followed by all the pieces, a wide bracket is sought and 
then searched by volley fire, commencing at the limit which the 
target is approaching. 

The opportunity of firing on cavalry will be fugitive, the fire 
of short duration. The maximum rapidity of fire is essential 
whether by time or percussion. When cavalry directs its attack 
against a battery, the battery will act advantageously in estab- 
lishing a barrier by percussion or time fire in front of the enemy's 
line. 

ARTILLERY 

Artillery presents targets which widely vary in vulnerability. 

The greatest vulnerability exists from the commencement of 
the reconnaissance until the occupation of the hostile position is 
accomplished; that is, up to the moment that the enemy's artillery 
is ready to fire. Its retirement from under fire is also a most criti- 
cal moment, especially when the retirement is made by an entire 
unit. 

Against artillery in position, the first object is to gain the 
ascendancy over it by inflicting as much damage as possible upon 
the personnel. Immediate effective fire is particularly demanded if 
the enemy can be attacked at a disadvantage. Due to the diffi- 
culty, however, of reaching effectively the personnel of batteries 
provided with shields and posted in masked positions, the struggle 
between evenly matched artilleries will often be long drawn out. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 407 

If the enemy's artillery is temporarily overmatched, it may sus- 
pend its fire and shelter its personnel; but it must be expected to 
renew the struggle as soon as the pressure upon it is relieved. 
The aim must be to gain the superiority of fire by suitable con- 
centrations of effect on the part of our own artillery; the oppor- 
tunity may then be gained to destroy the enemy's materiel by well- 
adjusted shell-fire. 

If the pieces are not seen, fire for demolition cannot be em- 
ployed without waste of ammunition; but such artillery has never- 
theless a certain vulnerability to time fire. There are always ob- 
servers and members of the gun squad who are incompletely 
sheltered, and who are less so, generally, when the artillery is 
firing. The effect obtainable from time fire is increased when the 
batteries against which it is directed are under an oblique fire. 

A sufficient recession from the covering crest or from the 
mask renders an objective absolutely immune; for it is impossible 
to attack an indefinite depth of terrain. On the other hand, the 
greater the distance from the mask which the enemy is forced to 
take the more difficult become hostile communication and com- 
mand. 

The varying conditions indicate the following principles 
governing conduct of fire against an artillery target. If priority in 
occupation of position is obtained, careful observation is made of 
indications of the enemy's reconnaissance and occupation of posi- 
tions. At the moment of these operations time fire is opened 
through a large bracket, over a broad front, at maximum rapidity. 
This will be repeated, if necessary, the adjustment being refined. 
If priority of occupation is not obtained, a different procedure is 
advisable. 

When the pieces of the hostile artillery are visible, time fire 
should be used at first to reach the uncovered personnel and to 
produce a demoralizing effect. This effect is then extended to 
the personnel under cover by the use of time fire, the limits of the 
bracket being reduced as much as possible, and the front covered 
being limited to the actual front of the target. The effort is con- 
tinued to destroy the personnel and then the demolition of the 
materiel by percussion fire is attempted. Fire is delivered on all 
visible pieces as accurately as possible and continued until that 
result is obtained, if conditions justify the expenditure of the nec- 
essary ammunition. 

When the hostile pieces are not visible their presence may be 
disclosed by the flashes, by the dust raised by fire or by other 
indications. The method of attacking them is similar to that 
just described, except that study of maps and terrain must be 
made to establish the far limit of the bracket, the near limit 
being the covering mask, and that fire for demolition cannot 



408 MILITARY TRAINING 

be usually undertaken. If it proves impossible to reduce the 
limits of such a bracket, it is advisable to await the appearence 
of new indications. The firing unit remains in observation of 
the target and a minute search is made for its observers or its 
battery commander's station. If these are discovered, efforts 
should be made to destroy them. 

Fire for demolition requires great accuracy in range and 
direction, thereby necessitating careful observation of each round 
from each piece. Its employment is permissible only when the 
nature of the target indicates that fire for demolition must be 
carried out and when the number of batteries at hand is such as 
to limit the front to be attacked to about 100 yards per battery. 
If the target is such that fire for demolition is not admissible, a 
4-gun battery will give a sufficient volume of time shrapnel fire 
against an artillery target, however dense it may be, provided the 
front does not exceed 200 yards. 

INFANTRY 

Infantry, like artillery, offers targets of variable vulnera- 
bility. But while the artillery of the enemy once in place con- 
stitutes a definite target, the infantry target changes former di- 
mensions, density, and sometimes position from one instant to 
another. An artillery target may sometimes be destroyed; it is 
practically impossible to destroy a body of infantry, whose ele- 
ments avoid fire individually and may sustain fire almost without 
loss. 

Finally, it may be said that artillery is proportionally small 
in quantity, and that, by reason of the power of even a single 
piece, each unit or subunit which is seen or is firing is of suffi- 
cient importance to be attacked, while the infantry exists in very 
large numbers, is almost everywhere, but is in fractions of small 
importance. Because of their weakness these small fractions do 
not attract fire, or by their multiplicity oblige those who wish to 
fire against them to disperse their fire. Fire against infantry tar- 
gets will often fail to produce great losses, but other results may 
be expected. 

Against infantry in position and more or less protected 
by entrenchments the intensity of the fire should be regulated to 
suit the necessities of the case, as our infantry advances to the 
attack, being slow or ceasing entirely while the enemy is con- 
cealed or inactive, rising to great intensity when the crises of the 
action develop and the enemy exposes himself to meet them. 
Salvos may be used for the ordinary phases of the action, volleys 
for the crises, the object being to assist our own infantry by in- 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 409 

flicting as much damage as possible upon the enemy; by destroying 
his morale; by forcing him to keep under cover; and by preventing 
effective fire upon his part. 

A slowly moving target, such as infantry, or mounted 
troops impeded in their march, may be quickly bracketed by salvos 
and then attacked by searching fire. 

Infantry in march formation may be thus attacked, but im- 
mediate deployment on their part is to be anticipated, and the 
officer conducting the fire should be prepared to reach them, 
probably behind cover, with a well-distributed fire. 

Infantry moving to attack in deployed lines, a succession of 
thin lines, or in line of small columns may be met by volleys 
successively reduced in range as the infantry approaches. If 
their formation is in the line of small columns, the fire should be 
distributed so that a piece may bear upon each of the columns. 

At close ranges infantry will probably endeavor to advance 
by successive rushes from cover to cover. Such rushes may be 
met by volleys previously prepared for upon selected positions, 
evidently in the immediate path of the enemy. If the positions 
occupied by important bodies of the enemy during the intervals 
of advance are well defined, accurately adjusted fire may be 
brought to bear upon such positions, and the ground between 
successive positions may be covered by searching fire when im- 
portant movements of the enemy from one position to another 
are attempted. 

Machine gun groups have much the nature of infantry at- 
tacking, but they are of greater importance than small frac- 
tions of infantry on account of their great volume of fire. If 
they are discovered to be firing they should be attacked with 
time fire over a broad front and with a deep bracket. Under the 
best conditions of observation from a station near the guns the 
bracket cannot usually be reduced below 200 yards. Owing to the 
ability of the personnel to disperse and to seek cover, the fire 
must be rapid. Once forced to cease firing, the area containing 
the machine guns should be kept under close observation, with a 
view of preventing resumption of their service or their with- 
drawal for use elsewhere. 

AERIAL TARGETS 

Fire against targets in the air generally requires the assign- 
ments of particular units to the purpose, the digging of circular 
trenches about 36 inches deep for the trails to permit the use of 
high angles of elevation, and the organization of a system of 
lateral observation with means for sure communication between 
observers and battery commander's station. 



410 MILITARY TRAINING 

Captive balloons are very vulnerable within the limits of 
the trajectory and the action of the fuses. They have slight mo- 
tion within narrow limits, and are attacked by direct laying with 
time shrapnel. It is indispensable that the rounds be correct for 
deflection. Ranging is commenced, unless the range can be meas- 
ured, at the long limit of the fuse to ascertain whether the balloon 
is within time-fire distance, and the bracket is obtained and fire 
for effect conducted by the usual methods except that for effect 
the burst height should be greater than normal to insure wide dis- 
persion in the shrapnel cone. When a range finder is used, a 
bracket may be assumed on the basis of the first observation for 
range. 

Dirigibles and aeroplanes are vulnerable, but very difficult to 
hit, especially for ordinary field guns. Direct laying is used with 
time shrapnel. The battery is divided into two parts. Each fires 
separately, one beginning at the far limit, the other at the short 
limit, of an estimated bracket as wide as 200.0 or 3000 yards. Each 
fires volleys of one or two rounds at ranges differing by 200 yards 
the successive ranges approaching the center of the bracket. When 
a bracket has been covered or when lateral observations indicate 
that the target is out of the bracket the process is repeated. If the 
range finder is used, a narrow bracket may be attempted. 

As aircraft may readily change their direction, height, and 
speed, deflection and corrector changes will usually be necessary 
during firing. Essentials of success are rapidity and accuracy in 
service of the piece, skillful operation of the range finder, and, on 
the part of the officers conducting the fire, quick decision and 
command, and boldness in changing ranges without delay. 

TARGETS WITH RESPECT TO TERRAIN 

Targets may also be considered with respect to the nature 
of the terrain on which they are situated. 

An enemy entering the dead space existing in front of a 
battery cannot be attacked by ordinary means. Some effect may 
be obtained by an early burst at the minimum elevation of the 
piece necessary to clear the mask. If the corrector scale is not 
sufficient, the expedient may be used for increasing the site by 
successive increments of 5 mils each and by decreasing the range 
200 yards for each increment of 5 mils. This decreases the range 
to point of burst by an amount roughly corresponding to an equal 
change of the corrector. This kind of fire is appreciably effective 
only within very narrow limits. 

On a horizontal terrain with site 300, range 2000, the effect 
may be considerable, even when the target is under the highest 
part of the trajectory. If the range is greater than 2000 yards, or 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 411 

if the terrain falls off abruptly beyond the mask, the effect de- 
creases rapidly and ceases to be appreciable when the target 
has penetrated the dead space a very short distance. 

If a target is scattered over ground sloping toward the guns 
the points of burst may be kept at an effective height above the 
terrain by making simultaneous changes in range and corrector 
in the same sense; that is, if searching up the slope, by increasing 
the range and raising the corrector at the same time. 

If the area to be searched is not deep and the slope not 
great, a mean value of the site may be taken, and a corrector: 
used which will give low bursts at the near limit of the area if the: 
slope is away from the guns, and bursts slightly above the normal! 
if the slope is toward the guns. This method will always be used 
if great rapidity is desired. For searching long and steep slopes,, 
however, it is better to use the site of the near limit of the area, 
to be searched and vary the corrector from volley to volley or 
salvo to salvo, raising it if searching up the slope or lowering it 
if searching down the slope. 

A target marked by a crest may always be attacked as" 
though it had considerable depth. To overcome the effect of the 
slope of the terrain, increases of range must be accomplished by 
lowering of the corrector. The steeper the slope the less will 
the range be changed, and the more the corrector. 

Percussion fire of shrapnel may be very effective against 
animate objects beyond a crest on slopes giving bursts on rico- 
chet. At 3000 yards ricochet may be expected from slopes of 
50 mils or more. The slope most favorable for effect is one of 
about 115 mils. However, both ricochets and effect are greatly 
influenced by the character of the soil. When effect by such 
fire can be obtained, it is possible to avoid complicated changes 
of corrector to overcome the influence of slopes. 

NIGHT FIRING 

If searchlights are available, firing may be conducted against 
targets of all kinds the same as by daylight up to the effective 
range of the lights. It will often be necessary to fire as at in- 
stantaneous targets to take advantage of brief periods of illumina- 
tion. In any case preparation for fire should, if possible, be made 
before dark, and with the greatest possible accuracy. 

To permit of turning fire upon different targets or areas, 
direction is taken to a principal registration point. The angular 
distances from this point to the various targets or target areas 
are then measured or recorded, and also the breadth of front of 
each. If guns have been placed in position, it is well to verify 
the directions by registration shots. These data will be entered 



412 MILITARY TRAINING 

on a sketch; each target or area will be designated by a letter, 
care being taken not to use letters of similar sound, and opposite 
each target will be noted the range, site, corrector setting, deflec- 
tion from the registration point, and breadth of front. 

If the preparation cannot be made before dark, it is im- 
practicable to fire at all, except at illuminated targets. For this 
purpose an auxiliary observer on a flank is necessary, with whose 
assistance a broad bracket is obtained, and fire for effect opened 
upon the bracket with ranges differing by 100 yards. Ranges 
should be eliminated or added, according to the reports of the 
auxiliary observer. Star shells, if available, may be used for 
illuminating the target, the bursts being adjusted to come over and 
behind the target, thus showing the target silhouetted against the 
light. 

For indirect fire at night, stakes carrying lanterns may be 
provided as aiming points. • Similar stakes may be used by 
observers to fix the direction to targets. Sights must be illumin- 
ated. 

ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD 

The characteristics of Field Artillery are: 1. Great power 
concentrated in a relatively small tactical unit; (2) rapidity of fire; 
(3) long range; (4) ability to act from concealed positions; (5) 
limited mobility, especially in rough country, and where only man- 
power is available for transport; (6) ability in general to defend 
itself against a frontal attack, but weakness against a flank attack — 
though the dragmen (supports) assist materially in this regard. 

Employment of Fire. — The power of artillery should not 
be frittered away in desultory bombardments nor upon unim- 
portant targets. Its employment is to be adapted to the phases 
of an action, so that it may exert the strongest influence upon 
the important objectives and at the critical moments. 

The opportunities of striking an enemy while he is vulnerable 
are ordinarily intermittent and brief. They occur, for example, 
when the enemy moves from cover to cover, or when he exposes 
himself in order to contend effectively against our own troops. 

Suddenness of action is thus often a necessity. If the action 
is also by surprise, effect, especially the moral effect, is increased. 

The outburst of rapid fire called for will therefore be inter- 
mittent, depending upon the nature and phase of the combat. 

A prolonged deliberate fire, however, may be requisite for 
destroying material objects; for holding a sheltered enemy under 
subjection, preventing his supply and reenforcement, and preclud- 
ing his effective interposition in the engagement; for searching for 
an enemy's reserves, etc. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 413 

Opportunities for using flanking and oblique fire must be 
sought. 

These methods of action are made possible and effective by 
timely reconnaissance, by skillful selection and occupation of posi- 
tions, by careful preparation, and an efficient conduct of fire, and 
by thorough co-operation with other troops. 

Preparatory Dispositions. — Premature commitment of artil- 
lery to action is to be avoided. Readiness for action is secured 
and freedom of maneuver retained by posting artillery in or near 
suitable concealed positions, and making all preparations for 
meeting the probable phases of the action. 

To facilitate definite assignment of duties, batteries are 
classified as follows: 

(1) Counter Batteries are those specially designated to com- 
bat the enemy's artillery. 

(2) Infantry Batteries are those assigned to prepare and sup- 
port the infantry attack. They are further classified into batteries 
of preparation, which fire on the opposing infantry; and breaching 
batteries, whose mission is to open passages in the enemy's line, 
through which our troops may advance. 

(3) Batteries of the Counter Attack, to assist in defeating 
any counter attack the enemy may make. They are posted in 
observation or readiness. 

(4) Decoy Batteries, to draw the fire of the enemy's artillery 
which has not disclosed itself, or to divert their fire from the main 
attack. They are usually posted in an advanced position, at wide 
intervals, and make up for small numbers by great rapidity of fire. 

(5) Accompanying Batteries, to advance to the close support 
of the infantry attack. This may, or may not, involve actual 
movement forward, but refers rather to accompaniment by fire. 

THE USE OF SUPPORTS (DRAGMEN) 

After the guns are in position, the dragmen constitute the 
supports, and are deployed or held under cover in order to mini- 
mize losses, but near enough so that they can be readily called 
on to shift the position of the pieces or to support them against 
an infantry attack, especially a flank attack. Where there is no 
probability of such a situation arising, they may be formed into 
infantry companies and added to the firing line. But it must be 
borne in mind that the artillery thereby becomes practically im- 
mobile, and in the event of an unexpected change in the tactical 
situation, requiring the advance of the guns to attack a new target, 
or their retirement to avoid capture, neither situation can be taken 
advantage of. Moreover they become especially vulnerable, as 



414 MILITARY TRAINING 

there are now no men available for their support, or even for the 
replacement of casualties. 

It is better to consider the artillery support as a part of the 
infantry reserve, to be detached only in extreme cases; but since 
such cases are precisely the ones most likely to require the presence 
of the artillery supports at the pieces, the decision for such detach- 
ment should be made only after a careful consideration of the 
tactical situation, with an eye to eventualities. 

CHOICE OF POSITION 

The area within which the field artillery must take position 
depends on the plan of action, decided on by the commander of 
troops. The choice of position must be such as to make the best 
use of the terrain within these limits. 

Important considerations in the choice of a position are: (1) 
Obtaining an effective range; (2) Securing a large field of fire; (3) 
Concealment from view; (4) Facility of movement to the front, 
flanks, and rear; (5) Proximity of good locations for observing 
stations; (6) Favorable conditions for resupply of ammunition. 

Positions combining all of the above qualifications are seldom 
or never found. The choice as to which consideration carries most 
weight depends upon the tactical situation. 

By a suitable choice of positions and of observing stations 
the greater part of the terrain within range of the guns may be 
included within the field of fire, and the dead space reduced to a 
minimum. 

When not incompatible with the effectual accomplishment 
of the duty to be performed, concealment from view is always to 
be sought. This is true whether direct or indirect laying is em- 
ployed. By rendering the guns inconspicuous or entirely conceal- 
ing them their sustained service may be counted upon, while the 
difficulties of the enemy in locating his targets and adjusting his 
fire are increased. 

The principal means of concealment is the defilade of the 
guns from all points within the enemy's position. Complete con- 
cealment requires the flashes of the guns to be invisible from the 
enemy's position. Such concealment requires in daylight a defilade 
of about 12 feet. 

In the selection of a position it is necessary to determine 
the defilade which can be secured while keeping the trajectory, 
at the shortest range to be used, above the mask affording the 
concealment. 

When direct laying is to be used, the necessity for seeing 
the target through the sights fixes the position to one very near 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 415 

the line from the mask to the target. Similarly, little concealment 
is possible when very short ranges must be used. 

Positions which, from the enemy's point of view, are on the 
sky line are usually the most conspicuous. By placing the guns 
below the sky line, so that they will have a favorable background 
and by preventing movements of the personnel, a battery may be 
unrecognized even though it is in the open. It is important, how- 
ever, to have a crest, a hedge, or a clump of trees in front so as 
to increase the enemy's difficulty of observation and of exact loca- 
tion. In the absence of natural cover artificial means may be used 
to conceal the guns, as for example, by tying branches of trees to 
the wheels, etc., and thus breaking the outline. 

A position in rear of a crest, with a parallel crest of about 
the same height in front and some distance away, offers many 
advantages. The enemy is apt to mistake the crest nearest him 
for the one actually occupied and to consider shots falling between 
the crests as beyond his target. The trees, a hedge, standing grain, 
etc., 400 or 500 yards in front of the guns, and so that the line 
of sight just passes over them, may similarly serve to deceive the 
enemy as to the actual position. 

When indirect laying is to be employed, a position on a gen- 
tle slope just far enough behind the crest to insure the conceal- 
ment of the flashes best facilitates running the guns up to the crest 
should direct laying be called for. If the position is discovered 
by the enemy, however, and the crest is plainly seen by him, the 
guns are in a very vulnerable position, as shrapnel may be em- 
ployed to search such a reverse slope very effectively. 

The most advantageous position, from the point of view of 
concealment alone, is one more than 400 yards in rear of a covering 
mask, having flash defilade and hidden from the view of any 
auxiliary observers whom the enemy may push to the front and 
flanks. 

A position on the counter slope is frequently advantageous 
in reducing dead spaces, facilitating ammunition supply, and secur- 
ing suitable observation stations near the guns. 

Protection from observation by aircraft is obtained by post- 
ing the guns under trees, by placing brush or small trees around 
the guns, by providing an overhead screen of the same color as 
the surrounding terrain, and by any means of breaking the out- 
lines of the materiel. Complete immobility on the part of all the 
personnel during the time that hostile aircraft are in observation 
is also an important means of avoiding notice. 

Firing Over Friendly Troops. — Firing over our own troops 
is to be regarded as a normal procedure. 

Freedom is thus gained to post artillery so as to cover effec- 



416 MILITARY TRAINING 

tively the whole front of combat and to realize the power of con- 
centrating the fire of widely separated lines. 

Projectiles should clear friendly troops by at least 10 yards. 
Fire over them should not be conducted with elevations of less 
than 1000 yards, or when they are within 400 yards of the guns. 
These limitations are modified by the relation between positions 
occupied by the target, the friendly troops, and the guns. 

RECONNAISSANCE 

The duty of locating the enemy and of securing information 
concerning him devolves in general upon other troops than 
artillery. The artillery must, however, obtain for itself such special 
information as is needed to insure the proper posting and the 
effective employment of the guns to carry out the tasks assigned it. 
At the earliest opportunity the officer commanding the artillery 
reconnoiters and selects the positions for the artillery in accordance 
with the instructions which he has received and the tactical require- 
ments of the situation. He causes his immediate subordinate com- 
manders to accompany him or informs them when and where they 
are to report to receive their instructions. 

When a commander goes forward for reconnaissance he 
instructs the officer left in command on the following points, 
so far as may be desirable and practicable: (1) The tactical situa- 
tion; (2) whether or not the command is to follow at once; (3) 
the time and place for subdivision, if such subdivision is to be 
made; (4) the route to be followed; (5) the rate of march. Addi- 
tional instructions may be transmitted from time to time by 
markers, who should be left at places where uncertainty as to 
the route may arise or wb re difficulties are to be avoided. As 
soon as the position and the best method of approaching it have 
been determined upon, agents or scouts may be sent to meet bat- 
talions or companies and guide them by the most favorable routes 
to their respective positions. 

In undertaking a reconnaissance an artillery commander 
should have a clear idea in his mind of the general plan of action 
and of the task to be accomplished by the force under his com- 
mand. Unembarrassed by details, he should study the tactical 
situation and the lay of the ground, select the position with a view 
of carrying out his special mission, and arrange for the necessary 
preparatory dispositions. The details of securing information, 
etc., should be performed by reconnaissance officers and scouts. 

An artillery reconnaissance officer may be attached to ad- 
vanced troops, and if so he should, as soon as possible after the 
determination of the enemy's location, submit to the artillery com- 
mander a report giving all obtainable information as to the knemy 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 417 

and describing the most suitable position of our own artillery. 
This report should be accompanied by a sketch, showing the 
enemy's position, the position selected for our own artillery, the 
characteristics of the country intervening between the two, and 
such other important information as may be readily set forth. 
The report should embrace information such as the following 
relative to the position selected: (a) The various routes of ap- 
proach and their relative practicability, stating difficulties, if any; 
(b) possibility of approach under cover; (c) whether direct or in- 
direct laying is recommended; (d) cover afforded for guns; (e) 
need of providing artificial cover; (f) number of guns which maybe 
posted advantageously in the position; (g) facility for resupply of 
ammunition; (h) in case indirect laying is recommended, possi- 
bility of securing good aiming points and good observing stations 
and of firing over intervening obstacles. 

As to the enemy, the report should include information as 
to: (a) The most important and immediate targets; (b) location 
and strength of the various hostile bodies; (c) location or proba- 
ble location of the hostile artillery. 

ADVANCE TO AND OCCUPATION OF THE POSITION 

Artillery commanders habitually precede their commands 
to the position to be occupied. Before the arrival of his guns, 
each company commander should have determined exactly where 
they are to be posted. Ordinarily he remains in observation of 
the terrain and targets assigned him. If necessary, however, he 
meets his company at a short distance in the rear, and personally 
conducts it to its position. 

Reconnoitering parties, scouts, and other members of the 
headquarters detachment must operate so as to avoid indicating 
the position which is to be occupied. If exposure is necessary, it 
should not occur in the neighborhood of the chosen position. If 
the occupation of the position will be visible to the enemy, delay 
in establishing the guns may be fatal. In such cases it may be 
preferable to advance boldly to the position from which they can 
open fire immediately. 

When the circumstances permit, it is always preferable to 
unlimber under cover. If direct laying is to be employed, the guns 
are run up by hand, after unlimbering, until each pointer can just 
see his target through the sights. By requiring all individuals 
to keep under cover and by avoiding all movements on the crest, a 
position may readily be occupied without the knowledge of the 
enemy, securing the advantage of surprise as well as safety. 

If positions are to be occupied at night, the route and all the 
details of the movement must be determined in advance by recon- 



418 MILITARY TRAINING 

naissance during the day. It is usually desirable to post markers 
along the route to be followed before nightfall. Such markers 
must be at close intervals. Immediately after establishing the 
guns in position, communications are opened up with the observa- 
tion station. Observers should also be posted to provide security 
against close attack. 

As soon as possible after occupation, the preparation of 
artificial cover against fire and observation is begun. The first 
cover provided should be constructed with a view of its being 
developed into complete protection as the occupation of the posi- 
tion continues. Similarly, advantage should be taken of any lull 
in the action to complete the cover. If the dust from the dis- 
charge of the pieces rises so as to reveal the location of the guns, 
it may be reduced by wetting the ground, or covering it with wet 
branches, or other non-inflammable material. The plan to be 
followed depends on circumstances. 

CHANGES OF POSITION 

If guns are rendering effective service, changes of position 
in the midst of an engagement should be made only when some 
very distinct advantage will thereby be gained. Changes involve 
interruption of fire, necessitate dismantling and re-establishing 
communication, a fresh orientation of the command and a new ad- 
justment, and, if made in the view of a vigorous enemy, are apt 
to result in paralyzing losses. Nevertheless, as an action develops 
changes of position may be essential. Artillery commanders must 
anticipate and prepare for such movements. Reconnaissance of- 
ficers and scouts must be employed to reconnoiter and select 
routes, to remove obstacles, to perform such pioneer work as may 
be needed, and to prepare themselves to guide organizations over 
the routes selected. 

If a hasty movement is imperatively demanded, great losses 
may be avoided by skilfully using the cover afforded by the ground 
and by moving rapidly over spaces where exposure is inevitable. 
If the guns are under effective fire of the enemy's infantry or artil- 
lery, changes of position are apt to involve heavy losses, if the 
guns are in sight of the enemy. If the drag can be manned under 
cover, the losses due to the close order formation may not be 
great, as the movement can be rapidly executed. But if animal 
transportation is used, it is best to wait for a lull in the firing. 

Changes of position are usually in echelon, in order to keep 
up the fire and cover the movement of the unit which is changing 
position. For a single artillery company, however, the change is 
usually made simultaneously, unless it is necessary to cross a fire- 
swept zone. 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 419 

A change of position by certain batteries may be neces- 
sitated by the fact that the enemy has succeeded in locating them 
and in securing the ascendancy of fire. A short movement by 
hand during a lull in the fire may be sufficient in such cases. 

COMBAT 

The action of field artillery with an advance guard will vary 
with the mission. It should not occupy positions from which it 
cannot be withdrawn without a general engagement, perhaps not 
intended by the commander of the force. Its main duties are to 
break down any resistance to the advance of the other arms or 
to cover their retirement if necessary. 

Positions with as much cover as possible should be chosen, 
with preservation of complete* freedom of maneuver, while the 
guns themselves should be placed at wide intervals and used with 
great rapidity of fire, so as to deceive the enemy, if possible, as to 
the strength of the force opposed to him. 

Some means of transport, other than man-power, is impera- 
tive, if artillery is to be attached to the advance guard; otherwise 
its lack of mobility prevents fulfillment of its mission. 

THE ATTACK 

In general, when large forces are engaged, the attack pre- 
sents three principal phases: 1. The preparation. 2. The decisive 
action. 3. Securing the victory, or averting disaster in case of 
failure. The use of artillery in the attack will vary in conformity 
with these different phases. 

In the preparatory stage artillery has for its objectives those 
parts of the enemy's force which at the time most oppose the 
action of our infantry. Until our infantry comes within effective 
small-arms fire the principal target will, therefore, be the hostile 
artillery. As the progressive advance of our infantry brings them 
within effective rifle fire, more attention must be paid to the 
hostile infantry. Obstacles, such as walls and abatis, which im- 
pede the advance of our infantry should, if possible, be destroyed 
by artillery fire. 

The counter batteries acting from masked positions must 
dominate the enemy's artillery; the infantry or breaching batteries 
open upon the hostile infantry and obstacles. 

The artillery preparation for the infantry attack is, in gen- 
eral, carried on simultaneously with the infantry advance. If, 
however, the enemy has fully occupied his position, or the attack 
is able to form under cover close to the hostile position, and thus 



420 MILITARY TRAINING 

has only a short distance to advance, the preparation may take 
place both before and during the attack. During this special 
preparation the counter batteries continue or resume their fire 
on the hostile artillery. 

In the decisive attack a special preparation is necessary. 
The most rapid and intense concentration of fire of all the avail- 
able artillery is brought to bear upon the objective against which 
the infantry is to advance. 

As our attacking infantry reaches the danger zone of our 
artillery the commander of the infantry firing line should, by a 
preconcerted signal — such as the display at the firing line of a 
conspicuous and suitable flag — inform the artillery commander of 
the fact. The artillery then increases its range so as to impede 
the movement forward of possible hostile reserves, and to take 
the enemy in the rear in case he retreats, 

When the third phase of the attack is reached, accompany- 
ing batteries will be designated from the infantry batteries, whose 
mission will be to reach the captured position as soon as possible 
after the infantry, in order to pursue with their fire the retreating 
enemy and to aid in repulsing any counter attack. 

In case of reverse, artillery directs upon the enemy's attack- 
ing troops every gun which can be brought to bear, in order to 
destroy their morale and to assist the repulsed troops in the re- 
newed effort which may lead to victory. If the repulsed troops 
continue to be forced back, the artillery must cover their with- 
drawal. 

THE DEFENSE 

The defense requires, before all things, skillful utilization of 
the available ground in order to develop fire effect to the utmost. 

Exhaustive preliminary reconnaissance of the position, im- 
provement of communications within it, determination of the 
ranges, especially of those to probable artillery positions of the 
enemy and to points in the probable direction of the infantry 
attack, are advantages which the defense must utilize so far as 
time permits. 

In preparing positions which may be occupied, a most ex- 
tensive use is to be made of earth cover. If time permits, it is 
advisable to provide masks and to improve the field of fire by cut- 
ting down hedges and trees. It is of the greatest importance to 
place a large supply of ammunition in readiness in the immediate 
vicinity of the guns. 

As soon as the general direction of the enemy's attack is 
recognized, but if possible before the enemy brings his batteries 
into action, the fighting position is occupied. Sometimes flanking 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 421 

artillery fire can be employed with advantage to search dead 
angles before the fighting position. 

The commander of the troops will usually order the open- 
ing of fire. Firing at excessive ranges and upon small hostile 
detachments is to be avoided, for this assists the enemy in locating 
the guns. 

When the enemy's infantry advances to the attack, the artil- 
lery must make them their target regardless of the enemy's artil- 
lery fire, if necessary leaving cover for this purpose. If possible, 
the enemy's batteries should at the same time be held in check, 
but the repulse of the infantry attack must remain the most im- 
portant feature. 

If, even before the infantry commences, the enemy's artil- 
lery proves itself so superior that it appears hopeless to continue 
the artillery action, the batteries may temporarily seek cover from 
the enemy's fire. But as soon as the enemy institutes the decisive 
attack every gun must at once resume the struggle and engage the 
enemy's infantry only, heedless of the artillery fire. 

If, nevertheless, the attack succeeds, part of the artillery 
must prevent the advance of hostile batteries into the captured 
positions, part must concentrate its fire upon the hostile infantry 
which has penetrated, and, in co-operation with the reserves, expel 
the enemy from the captured position. This is one of the tactical 
situations in which steadfast endurance to the last is imperative. 

WITH THE REAR GUARD 

As the principal duty of a rear guard is to gain time, and as 
it should be able to withdraw without serious loss, it should be 
strong in field artillery. Positions should be selected so as to 
utilize the long range of the guns to force the enemy to deploy at 
the greatest possible distance; such positions must also afford 
sufficient facilities for withdrawing. In withdrawing, small 
changes of position should be avoided, the retirements from one 
position to another being over as great a distance as is consistent 
with delaying the enemy to the utmost. 

As with the advanced guard, some means of motor or animal 
transport is imperative, or the artillery cannot fulfill its mission. 

MACHINE GUNS 

Machine guns may be consolidated and the personnel or- 
ganized into machine gun companies and battalions, or may be 
separated and assigned to designated infantry and artillery com- 
panies. The former method permits greater co-ordination of 
effort, especially in major operations; the latter permits greater 



422 MILITARY TRAINING 

flexibility, especially in minor operations against poorly organized 
enemies. 

Whichever method of organization be adopted, the machine 
gun crews must be carefully chosen, and must be thoroughly 
familiar with the type of gun assigned to them, including the clear- 
ing of jams. The efficient handling of a machine gun under the 
varying conditions of service requires a high order of technical 
skill and dexterity, which can only be acquired by long practice 
with that type of gun. A lack of this experience leads to frequent 
interruptions in the fire, or total inability to function, possibly at 
critical moments, in addition to inefficient handling of the sheaf of 
fire. For this reason, machine guns should be permanently as- 
signed. 

When practicable, two machine guns are provided for each 
infantry company, and a similar number may be attached to each 
artillery company. These guns should always work in pairs, or 
within supporting distance of each other. Guns of different types 
should never be paired. 

TRANSPORT 

Every effort should be made to provide proper cart, or pack- 
mule transportation, for machine guns and their ammunition. 
Unless carriages are provided for the " heavy type " guns, the 
gun squad can transport them only short distances without the 
aid of special carriers. When carried by hand they are best trans- 
ported slung on light poles. The "light type " guns with their am- 
munition can be transported satisfactorily by the gun squad, but 
if the distance be long, only about 1200 rounds of ammunition can 
be carried with each gun. 

Where machine gun carts are furnished or can be obtained, 
the guns, with spare parts, tool kits, and ammunition supply com- 
plete, can be much more satisfactorily handled and transported. 
Two carts are provided for each squad. They are light, have 
great mobility, and will transport the gun and as much ammuni- 
tion as a pack mule is able to carry, with no increase in personnel. 

The machine gun squad, when forced to carry the gun and 
equipment, does so in the most convenient manner, dividing the 
load as much as possible, and shifting the different loads from 
one to another. 

ORGANIZATION 

A single machine gun, of whatever type, requires about one 
squad for transporting the gun, its equipment, spare parts, and 
ammunition. The squad is therefore the smallest unit of machine 
gun organization, 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 423 

The machine gun squad consists of the squad leader and 7 
men, as in an infantry squad. The front rank retains the num- 
bers 1, 2, 3, 4; the rear rank is re-numbered 5, 6, 7, and 8 respec- 
tively. The squad leader becomes gun captain. Numbers 1, 2, and 
3, constitute the gun crew, and become respectively the pointer, 
1st loader, and 2d loader. Numbers 5, 6, 7, and 8 constitute the 
support, and assist in transporting the gun and its equipment, 
spare parts, ammunition, etc., according to the type of gun and 
the equipment supplied, and in providing ammunition in action. 

Machine gun companies, etc., have an organization similar 
to that of corresponding infantry units. Thus the machine gun 
platoon consists of not less than 2, nor more than 4, machine gun 
squads; and the machine gun company of not less than 2, nor more 
than 4, platoons. At least three officers are necessary for each 
machine gun company, and, if practicable, there should be, in 
addition to the company commander, a junior officer for each 
platoon. 

When machine gun squads are attached to infantry com- 
panies, their post in line is 5 paces in rear of the line of file closers; 
in column, 2 paces in rear of the rear guide. They take no part in 
infantry drills as machine gun units. 

When present at ceremonies, machine gun companies par- 
ticipate in the same manner as artillery companies, so far as is 
consistent with the nature of their equipment. Machine gun 
squads attached to infantry companies are normally either tem- 
porarily combined into machine gun detachments, or become in- 
fantry squads of their own companies. 

The movements, signals, formations, and general rules, for 
infantry apply to machine gun units, so far as is consistent with 
the nature of their equipment, and except where otherwise pro- 
vided or obviously inappropriate. 

When machine gun squads are attached to infantry or artil- 
lery companies, they conform to the spirit of such commands as 
may be given for the company, without awaiting the specific com- 
mands applicable only to machine gun units. 

CONTROL OF FIRE 

The light Browning clip holds 20 rounds; the Benet clip, 
30 rounds; the Lewis magazine, 47 rounds; the Colt, Marlin, 
Browning heavy, and Vickers belts hold 250 rounds each. In 
any type of machine gun, it is of advantage (except at dense tar- 
gets at close range — say inside of 200 or 300 yards) to fire bursts 
of 5 to 30 rounds, depending on the conditions; checking the aim 
between bursts. The increased accuracy and steadiness more 
than compensate for the few seconds lost. 



424 MILITARY TRAINING 

An understanding of the following definitions is essential: 

(1) Point fire is more or less sustained fire, keeping the 
line of sight, as nearly as may be, on the designated aiming point. 
Point fire is used for ranging, also for normal rapid fire. 

(2) Effective beaten zone (E. B. Z.) is the horizontal 
area within which 75 per cent of the shots, so fired, fall. It is 
described at any range by giving its depth (measured in the 
plane of fire) and its width (laterally, or perpendicular to that 
plane), for that range. 

(3) Deep fire is for the purpose of increasing the depth of 
the E. B. Z., where the target covers considerable area, or the 
range is in doubt. It includes: 

(a) Vertical searching, or firing short bursts at ranges in- 
creasing or decreasing progressively by small amounts, from one 
limiting range to the other. 

(b) Bracketing, where two guns begin, one at the lower 
limiting range and searching up to the upper limiting range, the 
other gun starting at the upper range and searching to the lower. 

(c) Combined sights, where two or more guns fire at the 
same target with ranges differing by 50 or 100 yards (not more 
than the depth of the E. B. Z. for the range of target). 

(4) Broad fire is for the purpose of increasing the width 
of the E. B. Z., where the target has a broad front. It includes: 

(a) Traversing, or horizontal sweeping, by firing a small 
burst at one edge of the target, then shifting the point of aim 
slightly and firing another burst, and so on until the entire front 
of the target has been covered. 

(b) Swinging traverse, which is the same as above, except 
that the gun is trained laterally during the burst. It is used only 
on dense targets, at close range. 

CONDUCT OF FIRE 

In determining the method of fire, the following points must 
be considered: 

(1) The Probable Error in the Range. — The amount of 
ground to be searched is twice the probable error. Thus, with a 
possible 15 per cent, error at a range of 1000 yards, the depth to 
be searched will be 300 yards. 

(2) The Number of Guns Available. — If three guns are 
available, they can cover this depth (300 yards) with combined 
sights, 100-yard differences. If only two guns are available, the 
method of bracketing may be used. If only one is available, the 
method of vertical searching must be used. 

Combined sights are normally not necessary up to 800 
yards. From 800 to 1200 yards inclusive, use 100-yard differences; 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 425 

over 1200 yards use 50-yard differences. When using combined 
sights by guns in pairs, have 100-yard differences between pairs. 
Bracketing fire was much used by the Germans in the 
European war. It has a great moral effect, but was wasteful of 
ammunition. 

AUXILIARY AIMING POINTS 

If the target is poorly defined or difficult to describe, an 
auxiliary aiming point above or below the target may often be 
chosen, the shots being brought on the target by changing the 
sight elevation. This may be accomplished by several methods 
to be described; the principles involved are identical. 

Graticule Method. — This is the easiest method. A graticule 
scale is necessary, which may be readily constructed as follows: 

(1) Make a scale on a piece of cardboard or tin, with lines 
on it marked in the same manner, and at the same distance apart, 
as the 100-yard intervals on the rear sight. The scale so marked 
is used inverted, hence the figures must be made so as to be read 
that way. 

(2) Measure the distance from the front to rear sight of 
the gun. This is the distance at which the card must be held 
from the eye, and a knotted string will make it easy to get the 
distance correct. 

(3) If, as is likely to be the case, the distance between 
sights is greater than the distance the graticule card can conveni- 
ently be held away from the eye, the distance may be reduced as 
convenient, and the card reduced in the same proportion. 

(4) The method of use is as follows: Hold the card verti- 
cally at the correct distance from the eye, and so that the target 
to be hit comes at the line marked with its range. Then look for 
a prominent object to serve as an aiming point directly above or 
beneath the target. Say it is a hedge, and that it comes abreast 
the 1900-yard line. Then with the hedge as aiming point, and 
the sights set at 1900 yards, the target should be hit. The words 
" above " and " beneath " here refer to the angular distance away 
from the target, as seen from the firing point, and measured in a 
vertical plane. 

Mil Scale Method. — (1) In this method a mil scale is used 
instead of the graticule, and the vertical angle from aiming point 
to target is measured in mils. This angle is added or substracted 
(according to whether the aiming point is below or above the 
target) from the angle of departure for the range of target (taken 
from mil fire table), and the resulting elevation in mils is set 
on the sight, after reducing it to yards by means of the table. 

(2) A mil scale may be easily constructed by using a piece 
of celluloid, cardboard or metal 6 inches long, graduated in fiftieths 



426 



MILITARY TRAINING 



of an inch, with a hole in the center through which a string 20 
inches long is passed. When the scale is held the string's length 
from the eye, each division on the scale equals 1 mil. 

RANGE CARDS 

Machine gun fire is frequently ineffective, due to an incorrect 
determination of the range. 

Range cards show the targets and registration marks with 
the range of each from the machine gun position and are of 



Pr- 
i 
i 
r 

200 \— 

I 

I 



ENEMY TROOPS 



,2200 



H 1 1 1 

I If I t TROOPS 
t'*,*'l V 



A 




CHORCH 



— . 1 180O 



Wmi WooDS 
tmm-- 9 --- 



2000 



1600 



1300 




22001, 



ATTACK CARD. 



great assistance in reducing the errors and enabling the guns to 
materially increase the effectiveness of their fire. There are two 
kinds of range cards, namely, attack cards, and defense cards. 

The attack card is made as follows: A base line is drawn 
to represent the frontage. From this base line, a line is drawn at 
each side toward the position of the enemy. On these two side 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 



427 



lines are marked the ranges in yards; ranges on one side being 
from the enemy's position; on the other side, from our own. In 
the range card for attack, the ranges between those given can be 
estimated from those shown. 

The defense card: This card has no definite frontage. The 
first thing to do is to fix the point from which the ranges are 
taken; this point is then joined to the most prominent object in 
front. These two points are then joined by a heavy line (called 
the setting ray). The object of this. heavy line is to enable the 




X, Right end of No. 2 trench, midway between small tree on 
right, and ruined barn on left. 

DEFENSE CARD. 

fire unit commander to properly set the card so as to correspond 
with the country. 

TACTICAL USE OF MACHINE GUNS 



The machine guns of an attacking force are used to support 
the advance of the infantry to an assault position, in one or more 
}f the following ways: 

(1) Fire from the Flanks. — In every attack, flanks of certain 
elements get in the air (i. e., unprotected) on account of that ele- 
ment's having made greater progress than the troops on the right 
:>r left. Machine guns are very useful to protect these flanks 
igainst counter attacks, and also to assist the troops held up, by 
:overing their front. 

(2) Long Range Covering Fire. — Is most valuable and every 



428 MILITARY TRAINING 

opportunity for its use should be seized. Suitable ground, build- 
ings, etc., should be looked for, and covering fire given our in- 
fantry to the last practical moment. 

(3) Long Range Searching Fire. — The enemy's machine 
guns are the most likely weapons to hold up the attack. There- 
fore, every effort should be made to locate them, and to concen- 
trate the fire of our own guns upon them. It may sometimes be 
possible to use machine guns to systematically search places likely 
to be held by the enemy, by using indirect fire. This searching 
fire has great moral effect on troops subject to it. It requires, 
however, a large expenditure of ammunition, and favorable ground 
is necessary. 

(4) Fire from a Forward Position. — If guns are pushed for- 
ward, the ground must be carefully reconnoitered beforehand. 
There is no use in adopting this method unless concealment is 
possible for the guns and ammunition supply, 

(5) Securing Positions Won. — Important tactical points 
taken by advance of infantry should be made good by guns, and 
if the advance is checked, guns should be dug in or otherwise pro- 
tected. 

(6) Guns in Infantry Line. — The gun squads advancing in 
line must be extended to resemble the infantry, guns and tripods 
separated. If bunched they become a certain target for' the 
enemy's machine guns. The Germans were so impressed with the 
importance of machine gun fire, that they concentrated great 
volumes of fire on every point where the presence of the guns 
is suspected. 

(7) Organization for Attack. — The greater portion of guns 
available should be organized in order to work together and give 
the maximum effect, and the plans of the infantry commander 
should be understood as thoroughly as possible by the machine 
gun officer. 

(8) Oblique and Enfilade Fire. — It is of great advantage to 
secure a position from which a section of the enemy's line may 
be enfiladed. The fire of guns should be crossed so that oblique 
effects are obtained. Oblique fire is more effective than direct 
fire. If the enemy's line is gained and he is forced out of his 
position, machine guns must pursue him with fire as long as possi- 
ble and try to complete his defeat. They should also secure for 
themselves favorable positions to help in repulsing a counter at- 
tack should one be launched. 

MACHINE GUNS IN DEFENSE 

Open Fighting. — Machine guns assisting a force to hold up 
the enemy's advance, should be placed in commanding positions 



CONDUCT OF FIRE 429 

where their fire will not be masked; salients should be chosen and 
their fire organized so as to sweep the whole front. 

Concealment. — Guns must be placed so as to make it diffi- 
cult for the enemy to locate them, and only the numbers 1 and 2 
should be at the gun. There should be no unnecessary movement 
which would enable enemy's field glasses to locate positions. 

Alternate Positions. — Each gun should have an alternative 
position in view which can be reached without exposure. Some- 
times if the enemy searches round your position with artillery, he 
can be induced to imagine he has routed you, if you cease firing. 
It is well not to be too optimistic about this. It is better to move. 

Ammunition. — Ammunition must be brought to the guns 
under cover, and the supply must be ample for all requirements; 
gun crews being careful to reserve their fire except when neces- 
sary to check the advance. 

Fire Signals. — The control of guns in action at close range is 
most difficult. Guns are usually placed 50 yards apart if working 
in groups, and men must be trained to recognize at once a few 
simple signals from the officer in charge, otherwise it is necessary 
to pass verbal orders, and messengers passing to the guns may 
give away the position. This last method also causes delays. 

Protection. — Without interfering with the field of fire, guns 
may be protected as much as possible, either by artificial methods 
or by the nature of the ground. Cover from view is good, but 
cover from fire should be obtained also. 

Reserves. — Guns dug in lose, to a more or less extent, their 
mobility. Therefore it is not advisable to place all in position be- 
fore action is opened. A wise commander keeps a reserve which 
can quickly be brought into play to support threatened sections of 
his line; or to replace guns put out of action by breakdown or the 
enemy's fire. 

Detached Posts. — It is sometimes necessary to occupy a 
position at some distance from the defensive line, in order to 
cover dead ground, a bridge, road, defile, or spot from which the 
gun might be enfiladed by the enemy's machine guns. Such a 
position is very dangerous unless the post can be supported by 
fire from the main position, but the machine gun is much better 
than infantry, owing to the small space it occupies, and its large 
volume of fire. 

Rear Guard Actions. — A machine gun properly handled can 
greatly help the retirement of its own troops; successive positions 
may be selected and the enemy's advance delayed time after time. 
The moral effect of running into a zone of machine gun fire is very 
great. If the lesson is repeated, the pursuit is apt to slacken, as 
all the ground must be thoroughly reconnoitered to prevent fur- 



430 MILITARY TRAINING 

ther surprise. Roads may be made quite impassable and the enemy- 
forced to deploy. 

MACHINE GUNS WITH THE LANDING FORCE 

For landing operations and expeditionary duty, opposition 
by well-trained and well-organized troops is not likely to be en- 
countered. Machine guns, however, are very useful under the fol- 
lowing conditions: 

1. For use as boat guns in covering a landing, where cover- 
ing fire is impracticable from the ships. 

2. For clearing the streets in street fighting. 

3. For the defense of a small town or village held as a 
base by small columns operating in hostile territory. 

4. For use by small mobile detachments operating inde- 
pendently against hostile forces somewhat superior in strength. 

The use of machine guns in irregular operations and minor 
warfare produces a profound moral effect on the enemy. Their 
use reduces the amount of resistance offered and shortens its 
duration. 

SELECTION OF A POSITION 

Before a position is selected and occupied by the guns it 
must be reconnoitered by the machine gun commander in person. 

It is only when moving to the rear in delaying or rear-guard 
actions, when the machine gun commander's position is with the 
guns, that a subordinate may be sent to select a position. 

The following are, in general, the features to be sought in 
the selection of a position: 

In attack, when supporting the advance of the attacking 
line, effective range (1,500 yards or less); a clear view of the 
enemy's position; sufficient height above or distance from the 
flank of the firing line so as not to endanger or obstruct its ad- 
vance; facility for moving forward to within close range (600 
yards) of the enemy's position. 

In defense, an extended clear field of fire on which a good 
fire effect is possible up to within the shortest range; a firing line 
at right angles to the line of fire; cover obstructing the enemy's 
view; good communications laterally and to the rear. 



CHAPTER XVI 

GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES, THE ACCURACY 
OF FIRE AND CAUSES AFFECTING IT 

The introduction of smokeless powder and of accurate long 
range small arms made obsolete the old idea of battle fields. Conr 
cealed positions became the rule rather than the exception; changes 
of position involved speed and a minimum of exposure. The old 
type of weapon was useless under the new conditions and it was 
mechanically incapable of taking advantage of the fleeting mo- 
ments during which an enemy was exposed. The problem of bring- 
ing the field artillery weapon up to date was solved when the long- 
recoil carriage was perfected. On this carriage the gun recoils 
without objectionable derangement of its laying, returning after 
firing to a position so near its former one that it may be layed ac- 
curately without loss of time. 

Considerations Affecting the Design. — Without introducing 
the idea of mobility, gun power would be the ruling factor in the 
design of a light artillery weapon, hence the ordnance engineer 
would need little more than a reference to his designs of weapons 
intended for coast defense. Mobility, however, is a factor — an 
essential one — and for this reason the field artillery service finds 
itself restricted to that gun power which may be pulled from place 
to place by horses. That the power of the horse thoroughly domi- 
nates the situation may be discerned in an analysis of the light field 
artillery of all nations — the materiel is practically standardized. 
Although it is a fact that the field artillery weapon is limited by 
questions of mobility, it will be shown that, notwithstanding its 
necessarily curtailed power, it is rarely if ever used to the full 
theoretical limit. The questions of ammunition supply, observation 
of fire, loss of time not attributable to the materiel, etc., enter 
largely into its practical employment. 

Power of the Weapon. — Shrapnel is the principal ammunition 
used by the field artillery, and with the adoption of the high explo- 
sive shrapnel, or unit projectile, will be the only projectile for the 
light field weapon. As the particular function of the shrapnel is 
to carry a number of bullets to a distance from the gun, there to 
discharge them with killing energy, the gun should be designed 
28 



432 MILITARY TRAINING 

with a view to permitting the highest attainable shrapnel efficiency. 
The 3-inch field gun is admirably suited to the above condition. 

The maximum range of a service shrapnel is well in excess 
of 6,000 yards, up to which point its remaining velocity, when 
augmented by that due to the shrapnel bursting charge, is suffi- 
cient to produce killing effect upon horses and men. The initial 
velocity of the gun under consideration is 1,700 feet per second. 
Such velocity is small when compared with that of high-power 
coast-defense guns, but it is ample for the purpose. Little or no 
advantage would accrue from higher velocities as the projectile is 
deficient in power of penetration and too small for serious per- 
cussive effect against even temporary entrenchments. The limit of 
the necessary power of light field artillery has been reached when 
opposing personnel is being annihilated, when opposing materiel of 
like power is being destroyed, or when the fire from moderately 
entrenched position is being neutralized. 

Rapidity of Fire. — The questions of mobility and power hav- 
ing been treated, some consideration of the speed and facility with 
which the service weapon performs its function should follow. As 
previously stated, the important feature making for rapidity of fire 
is the return of the gun after firing to its former position. Any 
small derangement may be corrected by small and quick changes 
in the traversing and elevating mechanisms. By an examination 
of the breech mechanism, fuse setter and readily adjusted devices 
for laying, it will be seen that the idea of a rapid-fire machine has 
been mechanically expressed in the service 3-inch field artillery 
materiel. Fixed ammunition and easily set fuses also contribute 
to rapid fire. 

Pointing the Gun. — A gun must be pointed in such direction 
and elevated to such degree that a projectile fired from it will hit 
the target. In order to regulate the direction, a fixed line is estab- 
lished, and the axis of the gun is given such direction in relation to 
this fixed line as will result in hits on the target when the gun is 
properly elevated. The fixed line becomes the line from gun to 
target in direct laying and from gun to aiming point in indirect 
laying. The appliances provided for pointing and laying the 3-inch 
fieldpiece include line sights, the adjustable or tangent sight, the 
panoramic sight, and the range quadrant, all of which are fully 
described in the handbook. The sighting apparatus, except in case 
of the line sights, is attached to nonrecoiling parts of the gun car- 
riage and remains in place during firing. As the carriage does not 
move, the gunner, with elevating and traversing handwheels con- 
veniently at hand, finds the operation of sighting a continuous one. 

The elevation and direction are given by moving the cradle to 
which the sight and quadrant are attached. 

This system does not have the independent line of sight used 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 433 

by the French. In that system the elevation of the gun for range 
is made above the rocker or top carriage, while the angle of site 
is set off by moving the top carriage. This method necessi- 
tates the setting of an angle of site device for all direct as well as 
for indirect laying. 

Some form of telescopic sight is necessary, in view of the 
great range of the field gun and for the reason that indirect laying 
requires a sight permitting rapid laying of the gun when the target 
is hidden. These two requisites are combined in the panoramic 
sight, which is a telescopic sight so fitted with reflectors and prisms 
that the observer with his eye at an eyepiece fixed in position, may 
bring into the field of view any object upon the horizon, the image 
appearing magnified, but otherwise as if viewed directly by the 
unaided eye. Due to the fact that with the telescopic sight the 
image of the target or aiming point is in the same plane as the cross 
wires, this sight is more accurate than the tangent sight and re- 
quires less experience to use. 

The range quadrant is for the purpose of setting off the 
proper range during indirect laying. For direct laying the sights 
are generally used, but for indirect laying the range quadrant must 
be used, since the angle of site of an aiming point bears no fixed 
relation to that of the target. 

In order to take full advantage of the great range and ac- 
curacy of the service materiel and of the refinement of the sight- 
ing arrangements, a battery commander's telescope has been pro- 
vided. This telescope is of the general form of the panoramic 
sight, but more powerful, and, with its all-around motion in 
azimuth and limited motion in elevation, becomes a satisfactory 
angle-measuring instrument. The scales of the telescope, sights 
and range quadrant are so graduated that a reading may be trans- 
ferred from one instrument to another without computation or 
reference tables. 

Gunnery as Applied to Field Artillery. — The field artillery- 
man, in the practice of his profession, does not require a great 
knowledge of the mathematics of gunnery. As a matter of culture 
such knowledge is desirable, but it should not be sought at the 
expense of more practical knowledge. The materiel issued for use 
in the field artillery is the result of thoughtful design and thorough 
test and may be taken as representative, at least, of the best modern 
conception of such materiel. A battery of 3-inch field guns is a 
plant of no small importance, the proper management of which 
requires intelligence and unflagging zeal. Conditions are such that 
no absolute criterion of excellence can be established in the case of 
field batteries. But that battery which has been perfected in fire 
discipline and whose commanding officer comprehends minutely the 
purposes of each mechanism of fire and is an adept in applying his 



434 MILITARY TRAINING 

knowledge may be said to represent the aim of practical gunnery. 
Before such an organization can be evolved the materiel itself must 
be thoroughly understood. 

As ordinarily understood by practical artillerymen, the path 
followed by a projectile during its exterior flight from the gun to 
target is known as its trajectory. Such conception is quite com- 
plete in so far as the field artilleryman is concerned, as he has no 
control over that portion of the projectile's motion termed its 
interior flight. It will be assumed, therefore, that ammunition 
issued for use in the field artillery is of such nature that successive 
projectiles of the same type, fired under the same conditions, will 
have the same trajectory. While the assumption is not strictly 
correct, yet it is sufficiently true for purposes of discussion and, 
in the preliminary understanding of firing terms, should be ad- 
hered to rigidly. 

The range is the distance from the muzzle of the gun to the 
target. 

The line of sight is the right line passing through the sights 
and target or aiming point. 

The line of departure is the prolongation of the axis of the 
bore at the instant the projectile leaves the gun. 

The plane of fire, or plane of departure, is the vertical plane 
through the line of departure. 

The angle of site, or angle of position is the angle made by 
the line joining gun and target with the horizontal. 

The angle of departure is the angle made by the line of de- 
parture with the line joining gun and target. 

The quadrant angle of departure is the angle made by the 
line of departure with the horizontal. This is greater than the 
angle of. departure when the target is above the horizontal and 
smaller when the target is below the horizontal. 

The angle of elevation is the angle between the line joining 
gun and target and the axis of the piece when the gun is laid. 

The jump is the angle between the line of departure and the 
axis of the gun before firing. The gun and its carriage are made up 
of elastic parts which yield to a slight extent under the action of 
the firing stresses, the resulting effect being a small displacement 
of the axis of the piece after firing. The angle of departure is 
usually greater than the angle of elevation. 

The point of fall, or point of impact is the point at which the 
projectile strikes. 

The angle of fall is the angle made by the tangent to the 
trajectory with the line joining gun and target at the point of fall. 

Initial velocity is the velocity of the projectile at the muzzle. 

Remaining velocity is the velocity of the projectile at any 
point of the trajectory. 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 435 

The drift is the departure of the projectile from the plane 
of fire, due principally to the resistance of the air and to the pro- 
jectile's rotation. 

The Trajectory in Vacuo. — In order to understand the 
trajectory in air the motion of a projectile in vacuo is first con- 
sidered. Under this assumption all the variable incidents of service 
firing are avoided and the mind is left at liberty to form a concep- 
tion of the path followed by a mass projected into space and acted 
upon by the earth's attraction solely. The projection into space is 
accomplished through the action of the expanding gases of the pro- 
pelling charge, which action imparts velocity to the projectile. This 
velocity is known as the initial or muzzle velocity and is measured 
in feet per second. By assigning a definite value to the initial 
velocity and knowing the direction of motion at its orgin, the 
trajectory in vacuo becomes determinate and can be easily plotted. 
It should be noted that until the direction of motion is assumed the 
problem remains indeterminate. This direction of motion is re- 
ferred to a right line joining both ends of the trajectory, and 
makes with it an angle known as the angle of departure. 

It is known that a body falling freely drops a distance of 
approximately 16 feet in the first second after gravity begins to 
act. Thereafter the distance increases according to the following 
formula : 

S (distance dropped)=16f 2 

in which t stands for the number of seconds during which the body 
has been falling under the action of gravity. 

Except for the action of gravity the projectile would have 
proceeded along its original right line of departure. According to 
the law, however, its position at the end of any assumed second 
will be I6t 2 feet below the line of departure. 

It is generally known that a mass falling from rest under the 
action of gravity will cover a space of 16 feet in the first second. 
This can be demonstrated practically by dropping a stone and 
timing its fall. It will be found that the stone will drop 64 feet 
in 2 seconds and 144 feet in 3 seconds. 

From these facts we may proceed to the analysis of the re- 
lations existing between falling bodies and the earth. Under what 
conceivable law will a mass fall 16 feet in 1 second, 64 feet in 2 
seconds and 144 feet in 3 seconds? Certainly its velocity or speed 
can not be uniform, for during the second second it falls 48 feet and 
during the third second it falls 80 feet. We therefore reach the 
conclusion that a falling body gains speed as it falls. We know that 
the body which starts from rest or zero velocity falls 16 feet in the 
first second, hence during this second it must have averaged a 
velocity of 16 feet per second, or must have acquired at the end of 
this second a velocity of 32 feet per second. In the second second, 



436 MILITARY TRAINING 

since a force has the same effect on a body at rest or in motion, it 
again drops 16 feet, due to gravity; but it also drops 32 feet, due 
to the velocity it had at the end of the first second, or 48 feet. The 
body falls three times as far in the second second as it does in the 
first second, hence its average speed during this second is 48 feet 
per second; since it started with a velocity of 32 feet per second 
at the beginning of the second second, it must have acquired a 
speed of 64 feet per second at the end of the second second in order 
to have averaged 48 feet per second during that second. It will 
be seen, therefore, that a falling body has a variable speed which 
increases at the rate of 32 feet per second and that the velocity at 
any time may be found from the following formula: 

V (velocity at any time) = 32 t 

in which t stands for the number of seconds during which the body 
has been falling under the action of gravity. If the body had velo- 
city before gravity commenced to act it must be considered also. 
For instance, if a body is thrown vertically downward at a speed 
of 500 feet per second, at the end of the first second its speed will 
be 532 feet per second. Conversely, if a body is projected vertically 
upward at a speed of 500 feet per second, at the end of the first 
second its speed will be 468 feet per second; in other words, gravity 
adds to or subtracts from already existing vertical velocity at the 
rate of 32 feet per second. 

Rigidity of the Trajectory. — According to the principle of 
the rigidity of the trajectory, which can be demonstrated mathe- 
matically, the relations existing between the trajectory and the line 
representing the range, are sensibly the same whether the range be 
horizontal or inclined to the horizon, provided that the quadrant 
angle of departure is small. 

THE RANGE TABLE 

Due to atmospheric resistance to the projectile's motion, the 
trajectory in air differs from the hypothetical trajectory in 
vacuo. A proper conception of the latter assists in understanding 
the former. Motion in a resisting medium is merely a modified 
form of unresisted motion and, though its laws may be somewhat 
complex, yet, for any set of conditions to be met with in practice, 
they are readily deduced. Fired with the same angle of departure, 
a projectile resisted by the air will have a shorter range than 
the projectile in vacuo; the latter has no force acting upon it 
except that vertically downward and due to gravity, whereas the 
former is continuously retarded by the pressure of the air in front 
of it and the friction of air on its sides. In the table below is 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 



437 



found a comparison of certain elements of the trajectory in air 
with the trajectory in vacuo. The trajectories in vacuo have been 
computed for the five angles of departure corresponding to ranges 
in air of 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000 and 5,000 yards. 





Angle of 
departure. 


Muzzle 
velocity. 


Range. 


Maxi- 
mum or- 
dinate. 


Time of 
flight. 


Air 


/ 

1 11.2 

1 11.2 

2 56.7 
2 56.7 

5 12 
5 12 

7 54.2 
7 54.2 

11 10.1 
11 10.1 


Ft. seconds 
1,700 
1,700 

1,700 
1,700 

1,700 
1.700 

1,700 
1,700 

1,700 
1,700 


Yards. 
1,000 
1,245 

2,000 
3,089 

3,000 
5,434 

4,000 
8,200 

5.C00 
11,440 


Feet. 
17.3 
19.4 

93.1 
J19.2 

257.0 
370.9 

536.0 

853.8 

975.0 
1,694.0 


Seconds. 
2.07 




2.20 


Air ' 


4.46 




4.75 


Air 


7.83 




9.63 


Air 


11.25 




14.61 


Air 


15.12 




20. 5& 







Some idea may be formed of the resistance of the air, when 
it is seen that a range of 8,200 yards in vacuo corresponds to 4,000 
yards in air. 

Range Tables. — Range tables set forth in a convenient form 
certain facts pertaining to the trajectory of a projectile in air. 
Such tables are usually based upon actual firing at the proving 
grounds. For instance, the shrapnel range table was prepared 
approximately as follows: A sufficient number of shrapnel fused 
with the service fuses of the same lot were secured for the test. 
Ten rounds each were fired to burst on impact at ranges approxi- 
mately 1,500, 2,500, 3,50Q, 4,500 and 5,500 yards, and all the incidents 
of firing were carefully observed. The angles of departure and 
the muzzle velocities of the rounds in each group were as nearly 
as possible the same. The ranges were accurately measured and 
at the close of the firing it became known that certain angles of 
departure would assure certain horizontal ranges. Having five 
ranges accurately determined by firing, the range table was com- 
pleted by interpolation according to known mathematical methods. 
The range table is the basis for graduation of the rear sight and 
the range quadrant. The probable behavior of fuses, which ordi- 
narily are supposed to be adjusted so as to burst in air, is likewise 
determined by experiment, as the graduations on the fuse and on 
the fuse setter depend upon the range of shrapnel to its bursting 
point. 



438 MILITARY TRAINING' 

AMMUNITION FOR THE LIGHT FIELD GUN 

The ammunition available for use with field guns at present 
is of three kinds, i. e., common shrapnel, high-explosive shell, and 
high-explosive shrapnel. Shrapnel is the principal projectile of 
present field artillery and in the form of high-explosive shrapnel 
will become the only projectile. 

Common Shrapnel. — An examination of the design will show 
that the modern shrapnel is a projectile which carries a number of 
bullets to a distance from the gun, where they are discharged with 
killing energy over an extended area. The shrapnel is made of an 
exceptionally strong drawn steel case, which remains intact upon 
the explosion of the bursting charge. Formerly the shrapnel case 
ruptured at the instant of time burst, hence failed to give the 
accurate spread of bullets so easily noticeable in the more recent 
product. For the purpose of facilitating observation of fire, a por- 
tion of the matrix surrounding the shrapnel balls is of smoke- 
producing material. The advantage of having a point in the shrap- 
nel's trajectory made visible, as well as being able to observe 
some of the dust thrown up by the balls upon impact, is obvious. 

The fuse used in the shrapnel is the 21-second combination 
fuse, model of 1907, and is arranged so that if the projectile fails to 
burst in flight it will burst upon graze or soon after. The fuse may 
be set at zero, whereupon the shrapnel will burst at about 20 feet 
from the muzzle of the gun. The common shrapnel is essentially a 
projectile for attacking personnel, and has little or no effect against 
walls or even light entrenchments. Used in an attack of a field- 
work of even temporary type, its function is to keep down the 
defenders until the infantry can advance sufficiently to warrant a 
rush on the position. 

High-Explosive Shell. — Due to the fact that common shrap- 
nel was without sufficient effect when used against walls, trenches, 
light cover, and the enemy's materiel, it became necessary to adopt 
a high-explosive shell. The shell bursts upon impact against the 
obstacle or after having penetrated. In theory the shell is merely 
the vehicle for the transportation of some high explosive to be 
made effective upon impact. As a matter of fact, the quantity of 
high explosive in a 3-inch shell is so small that the effect of deto- 
nation is much less extensive than might be supposed. A typical 
use of high-explosive shell is found in its employment against the 
guns of an opponent's battery which has been silenced temporarily 
as the result of overpowering shrapnel fire. 

High-Explosive shell may be used to demolish overhead and 
head cover as a preparation for subsequent shrapnel fire. 

High-Explosive Shrapnel. — Notwithstanding the fact that 
shrapnel is the principal projectile for the field artillery, it will be 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 439 

seen that certain functions of the high-explosive shell are also 
necessary. The high-explosive shrapnel has been designed to em- 
body as fully as possible the good features of the common shrapnel 
and the high-explosive shell. The high-explosive shrapnel, without 
fuse, is practically the same as the common shrapnel, so far as its 
construction goes. Actually the only essential difference is the 
substitution of an active for an inert matrix. The matrix surround- 
ing the balls in a common shrapnel is resin and mono-nitro-naph- 
thalene; in the high-explosive shrapnel the matrix is tri-nitro- 
toluol, a high explosive. 

The fuse of the high-explosive shrapnel, in so far as the time 
action is regulated, is the same as the 21-second combination fuse, 
model 1907. The essential difference is that for the percussion- 
ignition effect in the common shrapnel fuse a percussion-detona- 
tion effect has been substituted. 

The high explosive shrapnel affords the following advant- 
ages: (a) It is a single-type projectile, hence obviates the difficulty 
of supplying two forms of ammunition. Heretofore much discus- 
sion has taken place regarding the proportion of shell to shrapnel. 
The problem, though indeterminate when two forms of projectiles 
are considered, is solved by the introduction of the single type. 

(b) The high-explosive shrapnel when employed as time 
shrapnel projects, in addition to the balls, a high-explosive head. 
This high-explosive head should be effective against the carriages 
of opposing artillery. Also it should facilitate observation of fire. 

(c) High-explosive shrapnel has considerable shrapnel effect 
when bursting on impact, whereas common shrapnel is practically 
harmless unless striking on hard ground. 

It should be understood that the high-explosive shrapnel is a 
compromise projectile, justified unquestionably by the resulting sim- 
plification of ammunition supply. The shell effect of the single- 
type projectile is slightly inferior to that of the high-explosive shell, 
and the number of balls contained in its case is fewer than in the 
common shrapnel. 

CALCULATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE 

For direct laying, few, if any, computations are necessary. 
The aiming point is the target itself and the deflection set off on 
the sight compensates for drift and wind. No correction for angle 
of sight is necessary, due to the fact that the range is set off on the 
rear sight shank, after which the line of sight is directed upon the 
target. 

When indirect laying is employed it becomes necessary to 
determine the horiontal angle between the axis of each piece, prop- 



440 MILITARY TRAINING 

erly directed upon its target, and the line joining each panoramic 
sight and the selected aiming point. The angle of site from gun to 
target must be determined and the guns must be located in such 
manner that their fire will clear the mask and otherwise conform 
to the nature of the particular problem. Firing data are determined 
at the observing station and there transformed for use at the 
guns. 

Deflection of any Piece. — The solution of this problem has 
for its aim the determination of the horizontal angle in mils be- 
tween the line of sight and the axis of the piece, so that the fire 
of this piece may be toward and in the direction of the assigned 
target. In the general problem any position may be chosen for 
the gun, aiming point, target,, and observing station. The angular 
quantities entering the solution are obtained at the observing sta- 
tion by means of the battery commander's telescope, the battery 
commander's ruler, or by handbreadths; linear elements entering 
the solution are measured or estimated. In the usual case the de- 
flection of the right piece is determined and a deflection difference 
calculated, which, if applied in arithmetical progression to the de- 
flection of the right piece, gives the proper deflection for the piece 
considered. 

RAPID CALCULATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE 
TRAJECTORY 

As is the case with other professions the practice of which 
is based upon the intelligent application of natural laws, field artil- 
lery has its empirical rules. Such rules are more or less closely in 
accord with mathematical facts, the departure from such facts being 
in the form of close approximations easily remembered and quickly 
applied. All the elements of the trajectory in air may be com- 
puted with any desired degree of accuracy, but such computations 
can not be made quickly even under the most favorable conditions. 
Due to certain interesting relations between various elements of 
the trajectory, approximations sufficiently close for practical pur- 
poses may be carried in the head without the necessity of using 
range tables or logarithms. 

Units of Measure. — The yard is the usual unit of distance. 
The unit angle is the mil. 

The true mil is a thousandth part of a radian, or practically 
1/1570 part of a right angle; the mil adopted is 1/1600 part of a right 
angle,, and is smaller than the true mil by approximately 4 seconds 
of arc. 

Based upon the assumption that 6,400 mils equals 360 de- 
grees, or 21,600 minutes, degrees may be converted into mils by 
first reducing the degrees to minutes and then multiplying by 0.3. 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 441 

Example: The angle of departure 5° 12', corresponding to 
a horizontal range of 3,000 yards, equals 312 minutes, or 93.6 mils. 
Actually, the angle in mils should be 92.4 which does not vary 
greatly from that given by the approximate method. 

The converse of the above rule is true, and mils may be 
transformed into minutes by dividing by 0.3. 

ACCURACY OF FIRE AND CAUSES AFFECTING IT 

There are two principal causes affecting the accuracy of 
field gun fire: Errors committed by the personnel charged with 
the various incidents of fire, and irregularities in the materiel sup- 
plied by the Ordnance Department. 

Errors Committed by the Personnel. — In order that the 
projectile from any gun may hit the target the gun must be fired 
at a certain angle of departure, depending upon the range and 
upon the relative level of the gun and the target, and must be 
given such direction to the right or left of the target as to neu- 
tralize the deviation of the shot from the plane of fire due to the 
drift and wind. In shrapnel fire the fuse must be set to function 
at the proper height and at the proper distance in front of the 
target. 

Whether the laying be direct or indirect the accuracy of 
fire depends upon the correct manipulation of the instruments for 
laying and fuse setting. The battery commander is resp6nsible 
for the correct adjustment of his instruments before firing; and 
during target practice or combat the platoon commanders and 
chief of sections supervise the service of their guns, the latter 
watching particularly to see that sights, quadrants and fuses 
are properly set. It must be understood that before the broader 
moves in the artillery game may be played with confidence, and 
before the commander can utilize the wonderful flexibility of his 
fire, he must train his organization in the manipulation of the few 
instruments of precision with which the guns are equipped. When 
the machine is perfect within itself, its commander will realize his 
reward in the possession of a fighting unit of enormous power, 
susceptible of accurate and flexible direction. 

Based upon the analysis of many rounds of shrapnel am- 
munition, fired at proving grounds, we may safely conclude that 
where the gun has been accurately laid in elevation and for direc- 
tion range errors will be negligibly small. This refers particularly 
to bursts upon impact with the ground and only in a general way 
to air bursts, which latter action does not depend solely upon 
the proper laying and fuse setting. 

Irregularities in Materiel. — The gun and ammunition are 
subject to the usual errors found in manufactured products. Com- 



442 MILITARY TRAINING 

pared with commercial articles the accuracy and regularity of 
their construction is remarkably high, due principally to the weli- 
drawn specifications furnished by the Government and to the care- 
ful inspection of all materiel and the manner of converting it into 
war supplies. 

Any error existing in a new field gun is negligible. A gun 
which has had a projectile burst in its bore may be deformed or 
scarred; or it may pass its accuracy life after having been fired 
many rounds. A premature burst is a very rare occurrence, and, 
in so far as the gun itself is involved, should not be viewed with 
concern. The elastic strength of the field gun is in excess of the 
force of an explosion of any one of its service projectiles. The 
accuracy life of a field gun is a long one, and perfectly acceptable 
results should be obtained with a gun from which 2,000 rounds 
have been fired. 

In the projectiles themselves will be found the chief sources 
of error not attributable to errors in laying and fuse setting. Dif- 
ferent projectiles of the same type may not weigh the same. In 
fact, the Ordnance Department, for reasons of economy of manu- 
facture, finds it necessary to tolerate a variation of 1 per cent, 
from the prescribed weight of the service 3-inch 15-pound shrapnel. 

The center of gravity of a projectile may lie slightly off its 
longer axis. This would affect its accuracy. Roughness of the 
projectile would increase the resistance of the air to its motion 
and any error in the dimensions of its rotating band would affect 
its muzzle velocity. 

The muzzle velocity is a variable due to well-known causes. 
The powder of different charges may be of different tempera- 
tures; its burning may not proceed identically each time; again, 
the varying weights of the projectiles and variations in the dimen- 
sions or deformation of the rotating band, all tend to vary the 
actual muzzle velocity from that chosen as the standard. In prac- 
tice the errors due to all of the above causes, acting simultaneously, 
are very small. No serious error will be committed in assuming 
the behavior of the mean of many shots to be that of any one of 
them. 

The shrapnel, set for time burst, is subject, to another set of 
errors due to irregularities in manufacture and the various condi- 
tions of its service. The handbook contains a description of the 
service combination fuse. The time element of this fuse regulates 
the point of burst of the shrapnel for any given trajectory. The 
time trains are formed of compressed meal powder and burn 
with a great degree of regularity. Due to atmospheric conditions 
during the pressing of the trains and due to small variations in 
moisture content of the powder from day to day, the time ot 
burning to any fuse setting is found to Be slightly variable. The 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 443 

concussion primer does not act precisely the same at all times 
and the powder pellets, whose function it is to transmit the flame 
from primer to upper train and from upper train to lower train, 
give small variations which do not seem to yield entirely to re- 
finements in the fuse; these irregularities together with the usual 
range errors (variations in the elements" of the trajectory) are 
responsible for what is known as the dispersion of points of 
burst. The dispersion of service fuses is carefully determined at 
several ranges for each lot of 1,000 fuses. For the maximum 
range of about 6,500 yards the average dispersion in all lots of 
recent manufacture is about 110 yards. In other words, for the 
same range and fuse setting the range difference between the 
shortest and the longest burst is 110 yards. 

Accuracy and Probability of Fire. — As a result of inaccu- 
racies due to faulty materiel and to errors committed by the per- 
sonnel, two successive rounds rarely, if ever, fall in exactly the 
same place. In practice this means that the trajectories of a 
number of projectiles fired under as nearly as possible the same 
conditions do not coincide, but form a cone about the mean trajec- 
cory as an axis. This cone is called the sheaf of fire, the ground 
section of which is an ellipse, with the longer axis in the direction 
of the range. In determining the accuracy of a gun at any given 
range and under any special conditions, a number of hots are 
fired under the given conditions. The firing is done in such 
manner as to make the circumstances governing all rounds as 
nearly alike as possible, and the point of fall of each shot is 
plotted, usually with reference to the assumed origin. 

THE SINGLE SHRAPNEL 

The attack of personnel would be a very diffcult matter 
without shrapnel. The high explosive effect of percussion shell is 
restricted to a very small area, whereas the shrapnel, burst prop- 
erly in air, distributes a large number of projectiles, each one of 
which is capable of killing a man or horse at reasonable distances 
from point of burst. 

The Bursting of Shrapnel.— The shrapnel case is the vehicle 
for transfer of the shrapnel balls from gun to bursting point. At 
this point the powder charge in its base is ignited and the balls are 
driven out with increased velocity. After the time burst each 
shrapnel ball pursues its own trajectory, depending upon its ve- 
locity and initial direction. The projectile has a motion of rotation 
due to which the balls are thrown away from the trajectory which 
the shrapnel would have followed had it not burst in air. The 
paths of all the shrapnel balls taken collectively form a cone called 



444 MILITARY TRAINING 

the cone of dispersion. The ground section of this cone is an 
irregular oval with its longer axis approximately in the plane of 
fire. The dimensions of this section will vary with the angle of 
fall, the height of burst, the slope of the ground, and the relation 
between the linear and rotational velocities at instant of time' 
burst. 

Angle of Opening. — The angle at the apex of the cone of 
dispersion may be computed in the following manner: At the 
instant of time burst the projectile has a remaining velocity in 
the direction of the range and a rotational velocity about its own 
longitudinal axis. The balls are given an additional velocity by 
the base bursting charge. Each ball upon emerging from the 
shrapnel case has a velocity in the direction of the range equal to 
the sum of the remaining velocity of the projectile and that velocity 
imparted to it by the bursting charge; in a direction normal to 
and away from the trajectory it has velocity due to the projectile's 
rotation. 

The Ground Section. — The ground section of the cone of 
dispersion may be computed, but it is simpler to construct it to 
scale. The point of burst should be located on cross-section paper; 
then, from the proper relations, the angle of opening is determined 
and laid off in such manner that it will be bisected by the trajectory 
continued. The ground section is known as the zone of dis- 
persion. . 

By locating the points in which the limiting bullets of the 
cone of dispersion pierce the horizontal plane the horizontal zone 
of despersion may be constructed. Such drawing would show the 
influence of the ground upon the depth of effect of a shrapnel. If, 
for example, it be supposed that the ground at the target has an 
upward slope Of 5°, it is necessary only to construct the points in 
which the outer bullets pierce the inclined plane. These points 
limit the new zone of dispersion. It may also be seen from such 
drawing how the width of the zone of dispersion falls off with 
small heights of burst. For height of burst greater than the normal 
the zone of dispersion will be wider. In the latter case the danger 
of going over the target at short intervals of burst will be greater 
also. 

The curve of the descending branch of the trajectory dimin- 
ishes the effect, and especially the depth of effect, of shrapnel. The 
flatter the trajectory the greater the depth of effect. 

A study of the ground section of cones of dispersion should 
be made in connection with the effective ranges of shrapnel balls. 
It will be found that many balls impacting near the outer limit of 
a ground section are ineffective, due to lack of man-killing energy. 

The Corrector. — The rate of burning of different fuses of 
the same lot will be found to be fairly uniform, though it will prob- 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 445 

ably vary slightly from that upon which the fuse setter range-ring 
scale is based. 

Before considering the function of the corrector, let it be 
supposed that a fuse setter, without corrector, is being used and 
that fire is being conducted with the type lot of fuses, upon the 
behavior of which the fuse setter range-ring scale is based. If, for 
instance, the target is on the same horizontal plane as the guns, 
it will be found that, neglecting the inherent errors of the fuse and 
assuming normal atmospheric conditions, the shrapnel bursts will 
be seen in the horizontal plane through the gun; in other words, no 
matter what the range may be, the fuse will act at the end of that 
range under the conditions assumed. If the target and gun are not 
on the same level, and the gun is given an angle of site elevation in 
addition to the elevation for range, the shrapnel burst will occur 
in a plane containing the gun and target and perpendicular to the 
plane of fire; this would follow from a consideration of the theory 
of the rigidity of the trajectory. Due to fuse errors the bursts, even 
with the type lot, will not occur precisely in the plane in question, 
but above and below it in equal numbers. 

With other lots of fuses, the majority of bursts, due to a 
probable variation in rate of burning from the type lot, will occur 
below or above the plane, depending upon whether the time of 
burning is too long or too short as compared with the type lot. 

The fuse setter was so constructed that corrector 27 would 
put the bursts in the plane for the type lot of fuses under normal 
conditions. As each division of the corrector graduations corre- 
sponds to a change in the height of burst of the shrapnel equal to 
one one-thousandth of the range — that is, to 1 mil — it will be seen 
that the division 30 corresponds to the normal height of burst (3 
mils) for fire for effect, if all conditions are normal. 

In case the fuses of any lot burn longer than those of the 
type lot, corrector 27 would not correspond to a burst in the plane 
through gun and target. The corrector would have to be increased 
by a number of points equal to the number of mils beneath the 
plane at which the shrapnel were bursting. If, for instance, the 
sense of the bursts was 4 mils below, the corrector should be raised 
to 31 for bursts in the plane and to 32 for the prescribed 1 mil 
height of burst for fire for adjustment. 

Having determined the corrector corresponding to bursts in 
the plane through gun and target and perpendicular to the plane of 
fire, as long as atmospheric conditions are normal no further ma- 
nipulation is necessary except the proper increase for firing for 
effect, no matter what the range may be. 

If, however, atmospheric conditions are not normal, an 
alteration in the corrector setting will be necessary. The corrector 
will perhaps vary at different ranges; usually, however, this varia- 



446 MILITARY TRAINING 

tion for any probable set of conditions will be very small. Hence 
it may be stated as a practical working rule that the corrector for 
one range is good for all. 

This rule works satisfactorily for the changes of range used 
in bracketing, and also generally for greater changes of range in 
shifting to a new target, although in the latter case a slight re- 
adjustment of the corrector may be required. 

RANGING 



Ranging is the most difficult as well as the most important 
part of the adjustment of fire. Skillful ranging at difficult targets 
requires a great deal of practice in observing the bursts of pro- 
jectiles. 

From the nature of its service, field artillery can not have 
the stationary appliances of the coast artillery for determining 
ranges accurately and for making allowances for all conditions of 
wind, barometer, etc. Furthermore,, the shrapnel is its principal 
projective and the hitting of a bullseye is not to be sought. 

Methods of Procedure. — For the field artillery the process 
of ranging is one of trial shots and the method of procedure for a 
battery is as follows: 

The captain first observes the target and estimates the dis- 
tance of it from his guns. This estimate may be made with the 
eye or by the aid of a portable range finder. He then fires at the 
estimated range and observes whether the projectiles burst short 
of or beyond the target. 

Supposing the bursts to have been short of the target, he 
next fires a round with increased range, the amount of increase 
being such as will probably include the sum total of all of the 
range errors of the gun and ammunition, and of the personnel, 
including the error that has been made in estimation of the dis- 
tance to the target. 

* If this second round is over, a bracket is said to be estab- 
lished; any other trial ranges which he will need to use will be 
included within the limits of this bracket. 

The most logical range for him to use for his third trial is 
the one midway between the first two, since, whether the third 
round be short or over, he will have eliminated the ranges in one- 
half of the bracket from the necessity for further trial. 

He continues to halve the bracket last obtained until he has 
narrowed it down to the needs of the case, but he should never try 
to get a bracket smaller than the error of his guns. 

Having obtained the desired bracket, he then verifies it by 
firing a sufficient number of rounds at the short and long limits. 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 447 

A single round is never to be trusted for deciding a short or an 
over which is near the target, since that one round may be an ab- 
normal one, and the waste of ammunition which would result from 
firing for effect with the erroneous data thus obtained will, in the 
end, more than equal the expenditure required to verify the bracket. 
Furthermore, the time lost in firing at an erroneous range before 
the error is discovered can not be replaced. 

A battery salvo is generally sufficient to verify each limit 
of the bracket. If, during the bracketing process, any of the rounds 
be observed to produce effect upon the target, the captain may 
abandon his bracketing process for the time being and fire addi- 
tional rounds at the same range. If these rounds do not indicate 
that the range has been found, he proceeds with the bracketing. 

The amount of increase of the range for the second trial 
round is laid down as 400 yards. This has been fixed upon as the 
result of much experience, as the amount necessary to cover all 
probable range errors. It is also a number which is readily sub- 
divided several times without giving a quotient which is not an 
even division on the scales. 

Ranging by Time Bursts. — Ranging by means of percussion 
projectiles is often very difficult on account of lost rounds. 

One of the most annoying things is a deep ravine in front 
of the target, whose existence has not been discovered. Rounds 
falling into such a ravine may be sensed as over, either because they 
are not seen at all or because the smoke, when it does rise into 
the view, is so thin that the target is seen through it and judged 
to be in front of it. 

Another cause of lost rounds with percussion fire is soft, 
marshy ground which swallows up the projectiles, while still 
another is ground covered with dense brush or tropical growth 
which imprisons the smoke. 

If the first rounds fired are lost, the battery commander is 
all at sea, and if he sticks to percussion fire has to feel aimlessly 
about until he gets a burst that can be seen. 

Until the adoption of the present fuse setter, ranging was 
habitually done with percussion projectiles, but that instrument 
supplies a ready means for avoiding the pitfalls of percussion 
ranging. 

The theoretical effect of the fuse setter is to place all of the 
bursts in a plane passing through the gun and the target and 
normal to the plane of fire. The corrector furnishes means of 
adjusting the heights of burst so as to bring them into this plane, 
if conditions are not normal, or to any desired distance above such 
plane for ranging or for fire for effect. The theoretical result of 
placing the burst in this plane for ranging is that the bursts appear, 
relatively to the target, as percussion bursts would appear if the 



448 MILITARY TRAINING 

target and guns were on level ground. The distances of the bursts 
from the target are then quite independent of the actual form of the 
ground. 

This system is practicable only with a fuse which burns with 
reasonable regularity, and a fuse setter in which the setting is 
always that due to the range, modified by the corrector for the 
various conditions of the firing. 

While theoretically the effect of the fuse setter is to place 
all of the bursts in one plane, it will be readily understood that in 
practice many bursts will be a little above or below this plane. 
The mean point of burst of a series of shrapnel can, however,, be 
brought into this plane. If the average variation of the fuse is 
small, the smoke of burst, spreading out in all directions from the 
bursting point, will conceal the target, or the target will appear 
silhouetted against it if the direction is properly adjusted. More- 
over all bursts, whether air or percussion, that appear below a 
target which is on a crest are manifestly short. The only rounds 
which the observer may not judge as short or over are those burst- 
ing so high that no portion of the smoke ball reaches down to 
the target. 

As the bracket is narrowed down and the bursts occur near 
the target, a certain proportion of the bursts will be on graze, due 
to the fact that the ground approaches the zero plane at this point; 
any irregularities of burst cause a certain percentage of the fuses 
to burst below the plane. 

Percussion bursts may also occur at other points along the 
range where the ground is near to or above the zero plane; unless 
such percussion hits bracket the target, they do not indicate that 
the proper range has been obtained. 

Height of Burst for Ranging. — In practice, time bursts for 
ranging are placed above the zero plane, so that they will appear 
at a height of one mil above the target as seen from a point near 
the guns. 

The adoption of the one-mil height of burst of fuses during 
the ranging process is based upon the following analysis: To 
assist observation the smoke ball must be silhouetted against or 
silhouetted by the target; at short and medium ranges the one-mil 
height is admirably suited to such purpose, as the diameter of 
the smoke ball immediately after the time burst is about 4 yards. 
At long ranges the one-mil height of burst is theoretically too 
large. An incident to the practice of using the one-mil height of 
burst in ranging is the resulting shrapnel effect. 

For short and medium ranges this slight elevation of the 
bursting point does not produce an undue percentage of bursts too 
high for purposes of observation, but for long ranges it may be 
advantageous to use a little lower corrector, as the one-mil height 



GUNNERY AND 'EXPLOSIVES 449 

of burst at such ranges corresponds to a greater distance above 
the plane; furthermore, observation is more difficult on account of 
the distance. 

In adjusting the mean height of burst to any plane, account 
must be taken of the percussion bursts as well as of the air bursts, 
since the percussion bursts would have been low-time bursts with 
the ground out of the way. The occurrence of an average of 
one percussion burst in four shots is an indication that the proper 
height of burst for adjustment has been obtained. 

Estimating the mean height of burst by observing only the 
air bursts of a group of shots which also contains percussion hits 
is an erroneous method. 

The proper method of observing the mean height of burst i? 
similar to the method of observation of the range. That is, the 
observer should endeavor to determine whether the mean point 
is above or below the desired plane. When all of the bursts of 
the group are in the air and are closely grouped, it then becomes 
practicable to make a good estimate of the amount of correction 
necessary. 

If fuses are poor ranging with time fire will be less satis- 
factory, but some advantage may still be gained from it, since 
with a low corrector, a portion of time bursts will still be seen 
and many of the lost rounds which would result from percussion 
ranging will still be avoided. 

Ranging with time fire has also the advantage that during 
the bracketing process the action of the fuse is observed and cor- 
rected, so that the proper corrector for fire for effect will be known 
as soon as the range is obtained. As time fire is used for effect in 
the majority of cases, this is a considerable advantage. 

Observations on air bursts from auxiliary stations on the 
flanks of the line of fire give more reliable information than do 
similar observations on percussion bursts. The location of the per- 
cussion burst is dependent upon the form of the ground, whereas 
that of the time burst is independent of the form of the ground. 
Furthermore the percussion bursts are dependent upon the laying 
of the gun in elevation. If, for example, a gunner (having mis- 
understood the range) laid 100 yards too high, the percussion burst 
would be farther from the gun than it should be, and even if the 
firing were over level ground, the burst interval reported by the 
observing party would not be that due to the range ordered at 
the guns. If, on the other hand, a time burst be considered, it will 
be seen that the effect of the form of the ground will be elimin- 
ated, and that the effect of the faulty laying will be to place the 
burst higher in the air, but with the same burst interval that it 
would have had if the gun had been correctly laid. The burst 



450 MILITARY TRAINING 

interval reported will be correct and the gunner's error will be 
detected. 

Large errors in fuse setting are rare and are easily de- 
tected, while ordinary variations in setting are very small, so that 
variations in burst interval due to the fuse are reduced nearly to the 
error of the fuse itself. 

The error of the fuse now in use is about equal to the error 
of the gun; therefore, since the error of the gun and of the gunner 
and the influence of the form of the ground on the burst interval 
are eliminated in ranging with time bursts, the error of the fuse 
only being introduced, much better results should be obtained from 
this method. 

In all ranging the officer conducting the fire should depend 
first of all on seeing whether the ball of smoke produced by the 
bursting projectile is short of or beyond the target. 

There are other means of judging the range, such as ob- 
serving the strike of shrapnel case, noting the dust knocked up by 
shrapnel balls, etc. All such indications are dependent on the 
conditions of the ground about the target and should be considered 
only as secondary matters to be noted when it can be done with- 
out diverting the officer's attention from the main reliance. 

Officers whose firing experience is confined to a single firing 
ground are prone to place too much reliance on such of these 
secondary indications as are continually available on that ground. 

EXPLOSIVES 

The power due to the action of which the projectile is pro- 
pelled from the gun is present in the powder charge contained in 
the cartridge case. 

This powder is ignited by means of a percussion primer, is 
converted into gas, and in the act of expanding forces the projectile 
through the bore of the gun with a rapidly increasing velocity. 
In the case of propelling charges the combustion is gradual, gas 
being evolved by the burning powder during all or nearly all of 
the time of passage of the projectile through the bore of the gun. 
In the 3-inch field gun this time amounts to about two-tenths of a 
second, or that during which a stone would fall about 8 inches 
under the action of gravity. 

Nature of Combustion. — The phenomena of combustion are 
found variously illustrated in nature. The more noticeable pro- 
cesses in which a combustible is combined with a supporter of com- 
bustion are attended with a production of heat or light, or fre- 
quently both. There are processes of combustion involving con- 
siderable time, as an example, the decay of a tree; such action 
is as truly combustion as is the burning of gas or coal. 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 451 

When the hydro n and carbon of which combustibles are 
mainly formed are so °ted as to commence to combine with 
atmospheric oxygen, the process is a gradual one. The air in the 
immediate vicinity is first utilized, and as the oxygen it contains 
is expended, more rushes in until all the hydrogen is converted 
to water, and the carbon into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. 

Nature of an Explosion. — If by any means the supply of 
the supporter of combustion be increased, combustion is rendered 
more rapid and consequently more violent. Generally speaking, 
explosion may be defined as a sudden and violent increase in the 
volume of a substance. Chemically, explosion is the rapid con- 
version of a solid or liquid to the gaseous state, or the instanta- 
neous, or nearly instantaneous, combination of two or more gases 
accompanied by increase of volume. 

Certain compounds contain a considerable quantity of oxy- 
gen, with which they are very ready to part when heated, and if, 
therefore, one of these materials be intimately mixed with a readily 
oxidizable substance, it is clear that combustion will be more 
rapid than in the case where oxygen must be obtained gradually 
from the air. Explosion is, therefore, produced by a very rapid 
combustion. 

Effect of Confinement. — If an explosive mixture or an ex- 
plosive compound be ignited and left to burn in air, in the usual 
case an appreciable time will be necessary for its combustion. The 
burning surfaces, exposed to the air, will be relieved from their 
hot gases as soon as formed; these burning gases will have no 
tendency to penetrate the mass of the explosive, but will blow away 
along the easiest path. 

If, however, such mixture or compound be confined in a 
closed vessel, a high degree of pressure is soon set up. This 
pressure increases the rate of burning, the burning in its turn 
increases the pressure, and so on, the result being that the process 
of combustion is completed in a time almost inappreciably small. 

Detonation. — In the process of combustion the chemical 
reaction takes place slowly, whereas in explosion such reaction 
occupies a smaller time. An explosion starts with the explosion 
of a single particle and takes place progressively from particle to 
particle until the phenomenon is complete. Detonation is effected 
with greater rapidity than is explosion; apparently there is no 
progression from particle to particle, but an instantaneous con- 
version of all of the explosive compound into gases. 

The difference in the rapidity of reaction has given rise to 
the division of explosives into two groups, high explosives and 
progressive explosives. The principal high explosives in general 
use are nitroglycerin, the dynamites, guncotton, picric acid and its 
salts, trinitrotoluol and the fulminate of mercury. The various 



452 MILITARY TRAINING 

gunpowders are progressive explosives. Gunpowder is a term 
covering charcoal and smokeless powders used as propellants in 
service or sporting weapons. 

Charcoal Powders. — The black gunpowder used as a base 
charge for shrapnel and in the preparation of igniters is a mechani- 
cal mixture of niter (potassium nitrate), charcoal and sulphur in the 
proportions, approximately, of 75 parts niter, 15 charcoal, and 10 
sulphur. Niter furnishes the oxygen in the above mitxure and char- 
coal is the combustible; sulphur is used in gunpowder to lower the 
point of ignition of the mixture and to give density to the grain. 

In the manufacture of black powder the ingredients are inti- 
mately mixed, incorporation taking place in a wheel mill, under 
heavy iron rollers. A cake is formed by pressing, then broken up 
into grains. The grains are rumbled in wooden barrels where they 
are glazed, either alone or with a small quantity of graphite. The 
powder is thoroughly blended to overcome as far as possible 
irregularities in manufacture. 

Black meal powder used in the manufacture of time trains 
for fuses is a charcoal powder, usually of slightly different per- 
centages of niter, sulphur and charcoal, and in some cases con- 
taining a slowing ingredient as, for instance, barium nitrate. 

Smokeless Powders. — There are two classes of smokeless 
powders used in service, nitroglycerin powder and nitrocellulose 
powder. Both classes of powders are made from guncotton. The 
nitroglycerin powder is so called from the fact that it contains a 
certain amount of nitro-glycerin — in our small-arms powder about 
30 per cent, by weight. The principal merit of smokeless powder is, 
of course, its invisibility, such advantage more than counterbalanc- 
ing its increased cost and time consuming complexities of manu- 
facture. The length of time required for the drying of guncotton 
powders has caused much concern. In time of war this operation 
would greatly retard the output of powder. • 

The materials and processes employed in the manufacture of 
smokeless powder are prescribed by the Ordnance Department in 
rigid specifications, and the manufacture in all its stages is under 
careful inspection. The proof of the powder consists of tests made 
to determine its ballistic qualities, its uniformity and its stability 
under various conditions. In the 3-inch field gun a muzzle velocity 
of 1,700 feet per second must be obtained with a pressure not ex- 
ceeding, approximately, 30,000 pounds per square inch; the extreme 
variation in velocity must not exceed 1 per cent, of the required 
velocity. 

Form and Size of Grains. — The most desirable form of 
powder grain is one which gives off gas slowly at first, starting the 
projectile before a high pressure is reached, and then with an in- 
creased burning surface and a more rapid evolution of gas main- 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 453 

taining the pressure behind the projectile as it moves down the bore. 
Carrying out this idea of a proper grain, the cannon powder in 
our service is formed into cylindrical grains with seven longitudinal 
perforations, one central and the other six equally distributed mid- 
way between the center of the grain and its circumference. In 
other services cannon powders are made into grains of various 
shapes. Cubes, solid and tubular rods of circular cross section, flat 
strips, and rolled sheets are among other practicable forms. 

Generally speaking, the length and diameter of the grain 
vary in powders for different guns, the size increasing with the 
caliber of the gun. It has been found that the rate of burning of 
powders is affected by their density; this principle is utilized in the 
manufacture of time trains for fuses and in delay action primers. 

Manufacture of Smokeless Powders. — Generally speaking, 
the manufacture of either of the two classes of smokeless powders 
involves the same functions, i. e., that of nitrating some supporter 
of combustion and forming the resulting substance into grains 
properly designed for the weapon for which intended. In nitro- 
cellulose powder short cotton fiber furnishes the carbon or com- 
bustible, whereas glycerin furnishes a part of the combustible in 
the nitroglycerin powders. Guncotton or nitrocellulose is formed 
by acting upon cotton with nitric and sulphuric acid; the function 
of the latter acid is to combine with such water as might otherwise 
dilute the nitric acid, thus preventing the proper nitration of the 
cotton. The nitrated cotton is then placed in a solvent (usually 
ether-alcohol or acetone), by which process it is colloided or 
formed into a tough, horny mass. The colloid is pressed through 
dies containing pins, which form the perforations in the powder 
grain. The colloid comes through the dies in long strings, having 
the appearance of macaroni; these strings are cut up into grains 
which are sent through a process for removing and recovering the 
solvent. After drying to a certain standard a lot is ready for proof; 
such proof consists in an inspection of the physical dimensions of 
the grain — length, diameter, thickness of web, density, strength to 
resist compression — as well as firing tests to determine its velocity 
for certain pressures and charges, and a laboratory test to deter- 
mine its composition and probable behavior in storage. 

Flashless Powders. — In recent years the belief has grown 
that military powders should be not only smokeless but flashless as 
well, so as not to disclose the position of a firing unit. The ordi- 
nary forms of smokeless powders are not usually flashless. Smoke- 
less powder has a very high temperature of explosion, and when the 
projectile leaves the gun the strong luminous flash, together with 
unburnt slivers of powder coming out with the blast, are clearly 
visible for great distances. 

Other Progressive Powders. — The manufacturer of military 



454 MILITARY TRAINING 

powders has had no easy problem to solve; the nitrocellulose and 
nitroglycerin powders have been not altogether satisfactory, in that 
their stability is not beyond question, except for comparatively 
short periods of time and under good storage conditions. By ex- 
treme care the manufacturing processes have been brought to a 
great degree of refinement; investigation has led to the adoption of 
certain stabilizers or indicators of stability; fundamentally, however, 
there are objections to the use of nitrocellulose for service powders. 
This material is complex, and therefore liable to form unstable com- 
pounds; under the influence of heat or moisture the nitrocellulose 
is most apt to decompose. The question of a war reserve of pow- 
ders, based upon nitrocotton or nitroglycerin, is limited by their 
tendency to deteriorate, whereas the problem of supplying such 
powders in times of stress is greatly affected by the time consumed 
in manufacture and drying. Manufacturers, inventors and powder 
experts have been, and are now, engaged in solving the problem of 
military powders; almost every supporter of combustion has been 
variously combined with different combustibles in the hope of ulti- 
mately discovering a proper powder. 

Firing a Field Gun. — When the percussion primer in the 
base of the cartridge case is fired a flame is shot into the pro- 
pelling charge. This flame, assisted by a small charge of black 
rifle powder placed in front of the propelling charge, causes ignition 
of the powder grains. As gas is evolved the pressure rises until it 
becomes sufficient to move the projectile against the resistance of 
the rifling; the projectile begins to move, and its motion is acceler- 
ated by the pressure of the increasing and expanding powder gases 
until a maximum speed is attained at or near the muzzle. 

HIGH EXPLOSIVES 

For military purposes high explosives are used to produce 
demolitions: 

(a) At relatively long distances from our troops; the ma- 
terial to be destroyed being in the actual or probable possession of 
the enemy. 

(b) Within our lines; the material to be destroyed being in 
our possession and the destruction necessary in order to cause loss 
or annoyance to the enemy or to facilitate our own progress. 

In the first case it is usual to employ high explosive pro- 
jectiles, delivering them at gun ranges for effect upon impact; in 
the second case it is usual to carry the explosive to the desired 
point, where it is used. 

Except when absolutely necessary, artillery must not be used 
for purposes of demolition other than those in which the object to 



^ 



GUNNERY AND EXPLOSIVES 455 

be accomplished is the exposure of personnel or the destruction 
of other artillery. 

Military High Explosives. — High explosives for military use 
should be: 

(a) Stable and not easily affected by reasonable variations of 
temperature and moisture; shell fillers should not form unstable 
compounds (metallic salts). 

(b) Insensitive to the usual shocks of transportation; shell 
fillers should be safe under the action of firing stresses and should 
not detonate merely as a result of impact against obstacles. 

(c) Not difficult to detonate with properly designed deto- 
nators. 

(d) Quick enough to give good results when confined; shell 
fillers should cause the projectile to break into fragments just 
sufficiently large to put a man or horse out of action. 

(e) Convenient in form and consistency for packing and 
loading and for making into charges of different weights. 

Shell Fillers. — In our service picric acid, explosive "D," 
and trinitrotoluol are used as shell fillers. High explosive shells 
contain explosive "D," with a small charge of picric acid surround- 
ing the detonator. High explosive shrapnel has a matrix of tri- 
nitrotoluol, which is detonated upon impact by the preliminary 
detonation of mercury fulminate, and picric acid; trinitrotoluol 
may also be detonated with a fulminate detonator augmented by 
a small amount of trinitrotoluol in loose crystals. 

Picric Acid. — Picric acid, or trinitrophenol, is produced by 
acting upon phenol with nitric acid. As a shell filler it may be 
pressed into the explosive cavity or melted and poured in; as it 
forms unstable metallic salts, it must not be assembled in pro- 
jectiles until the cavity is thoroughly coated with a non-metallic 
paint. Picric acid is the basis of many of the foreign shell fillers, 
as for instance, melinite, lyddite, shimose, ecrasite, etc. The 
difference in composition consists usually in the addition of an in- 
gredient (camphor, nitro-napthalene, dinitrotoluene, etc.), to reduce 
the melting point. 

Picric acid has been used by various powers for military 
demolitions. Like guncotton, it can be detonated completely even 
when wholly unconfined, whereas gunpowder and many other ex- 
plosives, including those that contain ammonium nitrate, must be 
well tamped or confined, otherwise they do not produce a satis- 
factory result. Picric acid is therefore eminently suitable for 
carrying out hasty demolitions. But it suffers under two serious 
disadvantages: it has an inconveniently high melting point, and 
it is liable to form compounds with metals, especially lead and 
iron, which are dangerously sensitive. 



456 MILITARY TRAINING 

Trinitrotoluol. — Trinitrotoluol is produced by acting upon 
toluene with nitric acid. In its pure form it may be used as a 
shell filler without fear of the formation of unstable compounds; 
hence it has been selected as a matrix surrounding the shrapnel 
balls. Its use is general in high explosive shrapnel. 

Other Military Explosives. — There are a number of satis- 
factory high explosives for military use other than as shell fillers. 
These explosives conform to the requirements as to stability, etc. 
The one most easily obtained when needed would probably be used. 
Such explosives are guncotton, nitroglycerin, the dynamites, rack 
a rock, etc. 

Gun cotton or nitrocellulose is formed by acting upon cotton 
with nitric acid; nitroglycerin is formed by acting upon glycerin 
with nitric acid. Due to the danger involved in the transportation 
of nitroglycerin, an absorbent was found for it so that it could be 
transported in solid form. When such absorbent is inert, it adds 
nothing to the force of the nitroglycerin; when an active absorbent, 
as for instance potassium nitrate, is used, the explosion is more 
violent. 

Rack a rock is one of the so-called safety mixtures; in reality, 
the components for the manufacture of this high explosive are 
transported separately to the place where needed; at this place the 
mixture is made. The components are powdered chlorate of potas- 
sium and nitrobenzene; the chlorate being carried in small cloth 
cartridges, to be dipped into the nitrobenzene before using. 

Fulminate of Mercury. — This high explosive is used in de- 
tonators and is formed by the action of nitric acid upon the metal 
mercury. It is a very powerful explosive and is the basis of the 
manufacture of numerous types of blasting caps and detonators. 
Used in service detonators, it is combined with an alcoholic solution 
of shellac and assembled under a pressure somewhat exceeding the 
probable pressure resulting from the shock of discharge. When the 
shell filler is properly confined and the detonator correctly pro- 
portioned the detonation should be perfect; dense black smoke is 
a characteristic of such detonation. 

Lead nitride has been proposed as a substitute for mercury 
fulminate; both trinitrotoluene and trinitromethylaniline have been 
used in the manufacture, of detonators. 



CHAPTER XVII 

TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE AND PRO- 
DUCTION OF MAPS FOR MILITARY NEEDS 

Under this designation is included all suitable means for 
obtaining and recording all needful information of a terrain in the 
shortest possible time, and within the limits of accuracy required 
for the operations of troops in the field. 

Also, the interpretation of a record when made, to determ- 
ine from it the favorable or unfavorable effect of the terrain, for 
the purpose of directing military operations with reference thereto. 

The information to be obtained in a topographical recon- 
naissance may be grouped under the headings of time, cover, re- 
sources and nomenclature. The map should permit a determination 
of the time which a column will require to pass between any two 
given points by showing the distance between them and the condi- 
tion of the road or country which must be traversed, as regards 
its effect on the rate of march; the accidents of ground which will 
afford cover to the army or to the enemy; the location, quantity, 
and quality of water, fuel, grass, etc., and should give to each 
feature its local name. The last requirement is of great import- 
ance and is the one most often neglected. 

The fundamental topographical operation is the determina- 
tion of the direction and distance of one point from another point. 

The direction of one point from another is composed of two 
elements: First, the angle made by the line joining the two points, 
with a vertical plane passing through one of them. This angle is 
measured in a horizontal plane and is called the azimuth; second, 
the angle made by the line joining the two points, with a horizontal 
plane passing through one of them. This angle is measured with 
a horizontal plane passing through both points, and for conveni- 
ence is called the gradient. 

Azimuths. — As an infinite number of vertical planes may 
pass through a given point, it is necessary to select one as the ori- 
gin of azimuths. In topographical reconnaissance the plane se- 
lected is that of the magnetic meridian at the point. Its direction 
in a horizontal plane is the line of rest of a freely suspended 
and balanced magnetic needle, and this line is the origin of azi- 
muths. 



458 MILITARY TRAINING 

From this origin azimuths are measured in degrees of arc 
from to 360, passing from the north point through the east, south, 
and west to north again. Azimuths of 0° to 90° are in the north- 
east or first quadrant; those of 90° to 180° are in the south- 
east or second quadrant; those from 180° to 270° in the southwest 
or third quadrant, and those from 270° to 360° in the northwest or 
fourth quadrant. 

Azimuths are bearings between stations taken in the direc- 
tion of progress of the reconnaissance. Bearings taken in the oth- 
er direction are called back azimuths. If the stations are numbered 
in the order they are occupied, a bearing from a lower to a higher 
numbered station is an azimuth, and a bearing from a higher to a 
lower numbered station is a back azimuth. 

The method of stating azimuths described above is that com- 
monly used in surveying when direction is maintained by carrying 
an azimuth. It is the simplest to understand and use, and permits 
the angle between any two lines to be read at a glance. 

There are other ways of expressing azimuths, adapted to 
special conditions or circumstances. In astronomical work and 
tables the azimuth is reckoned from the south, through W., N., 
and E., 360° to south again. Any astronomical azimuth differs 
from the corresponding survey azimuth by 180°. 

A special method of azimuth measurement has been adopted 
for use in the fire control of field artillery. The unit, called a mil, 
is the arc whose length is one one-thousandth of the radius. By 
computation this arc is 3\437-{-. This length is not commensurate 
with the length of the circle being contained in it 6,283.24 times. 
For convenience of graduation, the circle is divided into 6,400 equal 
parts, assumed to be mils, the angular value of each of which is 
3'. 375, differing from the computed value by nearly 2 per cent., 
which error enters into all determinations and is neglected. 

Each change of 1 mil in azimuth, corresponds to a change in 
position in a direction perpendicular to the line of sight of one one- 
thousandth of the range. This method reduces all elements of fire 
control to functions of the range. 

The compass is the standard instrument for the determina- 
tion of azimuths in topographical reconnaissance. It consists of 
case, needle, card, pivot, and stop. 

The card may be fixed to the case or movable, attached to 
the needle and revolving with it. The stop raises the needle from 
the pivot and clamps it against the glass cover. A good compass 
must have a needle sufficiently magnetized to settle accurately and 
a pivot free from rust and roughness. If the needle becomes too 
weak, it may be remagnetized by rubbing gently from pivot to 
point on a permanent or electro magnet, each end of the needle 
to be rubbed on the pole which attracts it. In returning the needle 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 



459 



for another stroke, carry it a foot or more from the magnet. The 
pivot may be polished with Putz pomade or similar substances on 
a soft stick. 

A needle loses part of its magnetism if kept for a long time 
out of the plane of the magnetic meridian. In storing a compass, 
care should be taken to place it in the case or on the shelf with the 
N. end of its needle pointing north. 

Dip. — The earth's magnetic poles are beneath the surface, 
and the end of a symmetrical needle is drawn downward out of 
the horizontal plane so as to point to the nearest pole. This dis- 
placement from the horizontal plane is called dip, and is measured 
in degrees of arc. The dip increases generally with the latitude. 
Immediately over a magnetic pole the needle stands verticle, or has 




STANDARD COMPASS. 



a dip of 90°. Near the equator, where north and south poles exert 
an equal influence, the needle may be horizontal, or the dip 0. 

For reading azimuths the needle must be kept in a horizontal 
plane, which is done by a small movable counterweight. For con- 
siderable changes in latitude, as in passing from the United States 
to the Philippine Islands, the counterweight requires adjustment 
to keep the needle horizontal; and in passing from the northern 
to the southern hemisphere, the counterweight must be changed 
to the opposite side of the pivot. 

There are two adopted forms of compass for topographical 
reconnaissance, one of the fixed and one of the movable card type. 
In the box compass the card is fixed and graduated counterclock- 



460 



MILITARY TRAINING 



wise from N. 360° to N. again. The E. and W. points, if marked, 
are reversed. The stop is operated by opening and closing the 
lid. The lid is hinged parallel to the north and south line, and 
when open its upper edge forms a convenient line of sight. The 
needle when stationary can be read to the nearest degree by the 
eye, and to half a degree with a reading glass. Another pattern 
which has been issued has the lid on an E. and W. side, and the 
sighting line is a fine line drawn across the lid. 

Some of the box compasses in use are graduated clockwise. 
Care must be taken in using these. The true azimuth is 360° minus. 



Luminous Patch 
for Night Work. 




Horse hair 
let into glass 
-window to 
take sight on. 



Index finger painted on 
revolving glass lid used 
for Night Work. 



•Check Spring for 
Steadying Card. 



SERVICE LUMINOUS PRISMATIC COMPASS. 



the reading of the needle. The actual reading of such a compass 
should never be recorded; the corresponding azimuth only should 
be set down. It will be safer to add a rough graduation in the 
proper direction. 

The service luminous prismatic compass is of the mov- 
able-card type. It is read through a reflecting inverting magnify- 
ing prism. The prism revolves on an axis and is over the circum- 
ference of the card for reading, and against the edge of the case 
for carrying. It slides up and down in the support which attaches 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 461 

it to the case, which motion permits it to be focussed on the scale. 
The focus for each observer should be determined when the com- 
pass is resting on a level surface, and not thereafter varied. If, 
when so adjusted, the scale is out of focus when the sight is taken, 
it shows that the card is not horizontal, and the case must be tilted 
until the scale comes into focus. The needle may be compensated 
for dip by a bit of sealing wax stuck on the underside of the card. 
The leaf sight folds down for carrying, and in so doing stops the 
needle. 

In the usual form, the metal cover goes on outside the leaf 
sight when folded down. When the compass is used, the cover 
is removed and placed for convenience on the bottom of the case, 
where it fits closely. In another pattern, the metal cover has a 
window in it opposite the prism, and is not removed when sighting. 
The leaf sight folds down outside the cover and is not protected. 

Compass Errors. — The magnetic and true meridians gener- 
ally do not coincide. The angle which the needle makes with the 
true north at any place is called the declination of the needle, or 
magnetic declination at that place. For latitudes of 60° and less 
the declination ordinarily varies between limits of 20° east and 
20° west. For high latitudes the declination is greater and more 
irregular. 

There are daily and secular variations of declination at every 
place, but they are too small to have any bearing on the class of 
work now under consideration, and for purposes of topographical 
reconnaissance the declination at any place may be considered con- 
stant for the period of the survey. 

A close watch must be kept for the change in declination 
from place to place, and for local disturbances of the needle due 
to the proximity of magnetized substances, natural or artificial. 

Change of declination or normal direction of the needle 
should be checked frequently. If a change is observed, it is cer- 
tain to have taken place gradually, and, if desired, may be distrib- 
uted among the courses run, though the change will seldom be 
great enough in a single day's work to make its distribution practi- 
cable. 

Abnormal deflections of the needle, due to local disturbances, 
are sudden and erratic and should not be distributed among all the 
courses, but only among those in which there is reason to believe 
the disturbance occurs. 

A simple way to detect — not measure — such disturbances is 
to take frequent back azimuths. If the position of the needle is 
normal at both stations, the azimuths and back azimuth will differ 
by 180°. If there is local attraction on the course, it will usually be 
stronger or cause a greater deflection at one station than at the 
other, and the azimuth and back azimuth will not differ bv 180°. 



462 MILITARY TRAINING 

Another way is, when taking the bearing to a station, to se- 
lect a well-defined point beyond and on the same course. On ar- 
riving at the new station, take a bearing from there to the selected 
point ahead. If it is the same as the first bearing to that point, 
there probably is no local disturbance. If the two bearings to the 
same point differ there probably is local disturbance. 

A course in which local attraction is detected or suspected 
should be noted, and if, on closing, an azimuth correction is nec- 
essary, it should be applied to the suspected courses. 

Gradients. — There can be but one horizontal plane through 
a given point, and it may be determined by the spirit level or plumb 
line without serious error. Gradients are measured by taking the 
angle of the line of direction with a horizontal line through the 
point. 

Gradients are commonly called grades or slopes and are ex- 
pressed in degrees, as 1°, 2°, 3^°, 6%° slope, etc. 

Each angle corresponds to two slopes, one up and one down 
from the initial point. Rising grades may be recorded with a -f- 
before, or an R after the number of degrees; falling grades with — 
before, or F after. On a map, general slopes are indicated by 
an arrow pointing in the direction of the drainage, with the gradi- 
ent written beside it, thus 4 * y . Road grades are indi- 
cated by an arrowhead at top and bottom of the grade, the one at 
top pointing toward the road and the one at bottom away from 

it, thus I 



Gradients are also expressed by the relation between the 
change of elevation — rise or fall — and the corresponding hori- 
zontal distance. This relation is stated in various ways. 

By the rise in feet per 100 feet horizon or the foot rise as 
a percentage, as "the slope is 4 in 100, or 4 per cent." 

By the foot rise for 1 mile of horizontal distance; as "the 
grade is 50 feet," or "a 50-foot grade." This method and the 
preceding are commonly used for railroad track grades. 

By the number of feet horizontal corresponding to 1 foot 
rise; as 3 to 1, 10 to 1. This method is commonly used for slopes 
of embankments and excavations when less than 45°. 

By the foot rise corresponding to 1 foot horizontal; as, 1 on 
1, 6 on 1. This method is commonly used for slopes of embank- 
ments and excavations, etc., from 45° to 75°. 

By the number of inches horizontal corresponding to 1 
foot rise; as, 3 inches to the foot, 1 inch in the foot. This method 
is commonly used for gradients of 70° and over and is called 
batter. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 463 

Clinometer. — The clinometer is an instrument adopted for 
measuring gradients with the horizontal plane indicated by a 
spirit level. It consists of a sight tube, with a graduated vertical 
arc fastened to it, and a level tube with an attached index arm, 
revolving about a horizontal axis through the center of the vertical 
arm. The base of the sight tube is a plane parallel to the line of 
sight. Under the center of the level tube is an opening in the sight 
tube, inside of which is a mirror occupying one-half the width of 
the sight tube and facing the eye end at an angle of 45° with the 
line of sight. A horizontal wire extends across the middle of the 
sight tube in front of the mirror. When the bubble is brought to 
the center, its reflected image seen from the eye end appears to be 
bisected by the wire. 

The central position of the bubble indicates that the level tube 
is horizontal, and the reading of the index arm upon the arc is the 
angle between the axis of the level tube and the line of sight. This 
reading should be 0° when these lines are parallel. The vertical arc 
is graduated each way from 0° at its middle point. The index arm 
has a double vernier whose smallest reading is 10' of arc. Gradients 
of more than 45° are difficult to measure on account of the fore- 
shortening of the level tube as reflected in the mirror. 

When the vernier is set at 0°, the instrument may be used as 
a hand level to locate points at the same elevation as the eye. The 
graduation on the inner edge of the vertical limb corresponds to 
the ordinary fractional method of indicating slopes, as 1 on 2, 1 on 
10, etc. This scale should be read on the forward edge of the 
index arm, or in some forms on a special index mark on a shorter 
part of the arm. 

A type of hand level designed for slope readings is now gen- 
erally preferred to the clinometer. This hand level has horizontal 
lines on the object glass, either reading degrees or per cent. With 
the per cent graduations it is possible to obtain differences of eleva- 
tion without the necessity of using tables of degrees for differences 
of elevation, but the degree graduation is suited for use with the 
existing scales of slopes, and is generally preferred. 

The determination of gradients by the plumb line is quicker 
and simpler, but less precise, than with the clinometer, though 
exact enough for ordinary purposes. If a line of sight be taken 
along the edge of a board and a line be drawn on the board 
perpendicular to the sighting edge, this line, when the board is 
held in a vertical plane, will make the same angle with the plumb 
line that the sighting edge makes with the horizontal, or, in 
other words, will indicate the gradient. 

Elevations. — From the slope and distance the elevation of 
a point above an assumed plane of reference may be derived. The 
30 



464 MILITARY TRAINING 

difference of height of any two points is known by comparing 
their elevations above a common plane, called the plane of refer- 
ence, or datum. 

The plane of reference is taken low enough so that no point 
of the area to be covered by the reconnaissance will be below it. 
This makes all elevations positive. Knowing the height of a point 
above this plane of reference, the elevation of any other point may 
be obtained by taking the gradient and distance to that point, 
deriving from them the difference of height between the two 
points, and adding this difference to the elevation of the first 
point if the gradient is rising, or subtracting it if the gradient is 
falling. 

The elevation for a given gradient and distance depends 
upon whether the distance is measured along the gradient or along 
the horizontal. Distances paced are along the gradient. Those 
measured with a chain will also usually be on the slope, though 
sometimes care is taken to hold the chain horizontal, in which case 
the table for horizontal distances is to be used. Those determined 
by intersections or scales from a map are along the horizontal. 
Barometric Leveling. — The weight of the atmosphere at sea 
level is 14.703 pounds per square inch, equal to the weight of a 
column of mercury 29.92 inches high, or a column of fresh water 
34.7 feet high. 

The aneroid barometer records the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere in inches, the same as a mercurial barometer, the reading 
being taken from a pointer moving on a circular scale. The cor- 
responding elevation in feet is also shown on the dial of the 
aneroid barometer. 

The pressure of the atmosphere varies with the altitude 
above sea level, and it also varies with the moisture, temperature, 
and latitude, which do not depend upon the altitude. 

In measuring altitudes with the barometer these other causes 
of variation must be eliminated so far as possible. It is best done 
by simultaneous observation at both stations. If the stations are 
not far apart all disturbing conditions will be substantially the 
same at each and therefore eliminated, except temperature, which, 
with considerable difference of altitude, will always be less at the 
upper than at the lower station. 

If simultaneous observations can not be made, the stations 
should be occupied with as little interval of time between as pos- 
sible, and better results will be obtained if the time of observation 
can be so chosen as to take advantage of calm, bright, dry weather. 
When the hygrometric conditions are very uniform an ane- 
roid read at intervals on a day's march over a rough country will 
give a fairly good idea of the profile. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 



465 



Use of Compass. — A good needle requires time to settle 
even when the case is firmly supported, and the user should 
cultivate the knack of catching it at the middle of its swing, which 
is the desired reading. If the compass can be supported, it is 
always better to do so. Then the sight can be carefully taken and 
the position of the eye changed to read the needle. Wait till the 
swing gets down to 4° or 5°, which it will usually do in a few 
seconds. Then catch the highest and the lowest readings on the 
same swing and take their mean from the true reading. If the 
first swings are very large, catch the needle with the stop near 




"081 

COMPASS AND AZIMUTH CARD. 



the middle of the swing and release it quickly. This will suddenly 
check the swings and shorten the time in which the reading can 
be taken. 

In using the box compass without a support, hold it suffi- 
ciently below the eye so that the swing of the needle can be seen. 
Point the edge of the lid in the required direction, catch the 
needle with the stop in the middle of a swing and hold it stopped 
until the reading is taken. Stop readings are less accurate than 
sight readings, as the needle may be displaced slightly when off 
the pivot. When the stop is used, press it quickly and firmly. 



466 MILITARY TRAINING 

Always sight a fixed-card compass from the south end of the 
card and read the north end of the needle. 

With the prismatic compass the stop is not used except to 
check the swings. Utilize a support if practicable. The prism 
having been adjusted for focus, adjust the case so as to bring the 
scale into focus, and when the swings become small, read the 
extremes and take the mean. 

Compasses for night marching are not very reliable. They 
iiave the dial rendered luminous by a paint. After exposure to 
the sun or strong daylight, they give off light, at first rather 
strong, but rapidly diminishing in intensity. After a few hours 
they are not bright enough to be of much use. 

The surest preparation for night marching is a provision for 
illuminating the compass by ordinary means without allowing the 
light to be seen. 

Distances passed over are ordinarily measured by the stride 
of a man or a horse, or by the revolutions of a wheel. Distances 
not passed over are determined by intersection, or are estimated. 
Pacing on Foot. — The length of a man's pace at a natural 
walk is about 30 inches, vai*ying somewhat above and below. Each 
sketcher must determine his own length of pace by walking 
several times over a known distance. An unnatural stride should 
never be taken. Knowing the length of a pace or step, the meas- 
urement of a distance is only a matter of counting steps. The 
counting may be done mentally, and with practice becomes a 
subconscious operation, leaving the attention free to take note of 
surrounding objects and conditions. The greatest danger is of 
dropping one hundred paces. It is better to keep a tally of the 
hundreds. A pace tally is issued for use when desired. It is the 
size and shape of an ordinary watch. 

On level ground, careful pacing will give distance correct 
to 3 per cent, or less. The normal length of space decreases on 
slopes. The decrease varies with the slope and with the direction, 
whether ascending or descending. 

Pacing Mounted. — The average walk of a horse is a mile in 
16 minutes, or 3Y\ miles per hour, making 120 steps, covering 110 
yards per minute, the step being 0.916 of a yard, or 33 inches. 

The average trot is a mile in 8 minutes, or 7y 2 miles an 
hour, making 180 steps, covering 220 yards per minute, the 
length of step being 1.22 yards or 44 inches. 

It is generally found more convenient in pacing, both on 
foot and mounted, to count the steps of one foot only, and multi- 
ply the number counted by the stride of one foot, which is twice 
the length of step given above. In this case, the number counted 
is doubled for use with the tables and scales. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 467 

Timing. — Counting the steps of a horse diverts the attention 
more than is desirable, and it is better to determine distances in 
mounted reconnaissance from the time occupied by the horse in 
passing over them. The rating is done by ascertaining the time 
required to pass over a known distance. Time and step ratings 
should be taken together by counting and timing at once. Ratings 
should be taken before the reconnaissance, if possible, but for 
short stretches of hasty work, the average given above may be 
used without serious error. 

Horses travel better in pairs, and two men should be sent 
out together, one to do the sketching and the other to give his 
entire attention to taking the time and keeping his horse at a 
regular gait. It is better to rate the pairs together. If it has not 
been done, take the rate of the timer's horse. 

When a sketcher is traveling with a party and must keep 
their gait, an occasional count of his horse's steps for a minute or 
two gives a special scale for use in plotting. 

The speed of a horse over road grades, even in moderately 
hilly countries is not affected by the slope sufficiently to make an 
allowance necessary. Distances up and down grades measured by 
timing in mounted reconnaissance requires no correction. 

The Walk Is the Normal Gait for Reconnaissance. — If 
greater speed is necessary, the timer may go on while the sketcher 
is taking angles and plotting; the latter taking the trot or the 
gallop and overtaking the timer just before he reaches the next 
station. This method should be used only when the required 
distance can not be covered at a walk. If circumstances require 
short distances to be covered at a trot or gallop, the times may 
be reduced to walking time by multiplying by 2 for the trot and 3 
for the gallop. 

The odometer is an instrument for recording the number of 
revolutions of a wheel. The adopted form is in a leather case, 4 l /> 
inches in diameter by 2 l / 2 inches thick. It is attached by straps 
to the front wheel of a wagon. To read, the case is opened, the 
registering train withdrawn, and the number of revolutions read 
from the scale. Multiply the diameter of the wheel by 3.1416 for 
the circumference; multiply the circumference by the number of 
revolutions for the distance traveled by the wagon. 

The bearings of the odometer must be kept free from grit 
and may be oiled with fine oif used sparingly; gummy oils or 
grease must not be used. If good oil is not to be had, rub the 
bearings with a soft lead pencil. 

Odometer readings are valuable as a rough check on a day's 
march. They are not accurate, but are free from large errors. 
Two instruments on the same wagon will not always agree. On 



468 MILITARY TRAINING 

heavy roads, mud or sand, there is a slip, sometimes positive and 
sometimes negative. 

Number of revolutions per mile, of odometers attached to 
wheels 36 inches to 48 inches diameter: 
Diameter of wheel. Revolutions. 

36 inches 560 . 2 

37 inches 545 . 1 

38 inches 530.7 

39 inches 517.1 

40 inches 504.2 

41 inches 491 . 1 

42 inches 480.2 

43 inches 469.0 

44 inches 458.4 

45 inches 448.2 

46 inches \ . . . * 438.4 

47 inches 429. 1 

48 inches 420.2 

Size of wheels of some military wagons: Ambulance, 36 T A 
inches; ponton (light) tool and chess, 42^ inches; escort, 44-)^ 
inches; ponton (heavy), 45 inches; Army six, 47 l /s inches. 

Estimation of distances is a knack which may be cultivated 
by practice to a degree of accuracy far beyond that which is at 
first attainable, and quite sufficient for the location of many objects 
off the traverse line. Short distances are more closely estimated 
than longer ones; those on a level, than those up or down hill. 
When the intermediate ground can be seen, the estimation will be 
closer than when it can not. 

A rough estimate of distance may be made from the velocity 
of sound, as by knowing the time that elapses between seeing and 
hearing the discharge of a gun, or the fall of an ax. Note the 
time in seconds and multiply by 400 for the distance in yards. 

Distances across water are usually underestimated. The 
distance of the visible horizon on water in miles is 1.225 V ~H, H 
being the height of the observer above the water surface in feet. 

A cartridge or other small heavy object fastened to a string 
10 inches long and allowed to swing through a small angle or arc 
will beat half seconds approximately. 

The location of a point by intersection is done by taking 
azimuths to it from two known points. As each of these azimuths 
when plotted must pass through the unknown point, it must be 
at their intersection. 

An observer at an unknown point may locate himself from 
two visible known points by taking an azimuth to each. From the 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 



469 



known points plot the corresponding back azimuths and they will 
intersect at the point of observation. This process is called resec- 
tion. It is subject to errors of local attraction. 




iimi.mimriM.il. lll i l .Mi l , l .t.. l r(. ll .i l ,. l r ll .i., ll iM ll i,M.i. l Mi lll fi 



TOPOGRAPHY BY SELF-CONTAINED RANGE-FINDER. 



The accuracy of a location by intersection is affected by the 
relation of the azimuths and of the distances. The greatest accu- 
racy results when the azimuths differ by 90° or 270° and the 



470 MILITARY TRAINING 

distances are equal; in which case the two azimuths and the 
base from a right-angled triangle. A difference of azimuths of 
less than 30° or more than 330° should be avoided. 

Errors in length of the base, or distance between the known 
points affect the distances in the same proportion. If the base 
is 5 or 10 per cent, in error, both the distances will be in error in 
the same direction by the same percentage. 

The protractor is an angular scale of equal parts used for 
plotting azimuths. That adopted for reconnaissance is the rec- 
tangular form. It is graduated on one face from 0° to 180°, and 
on the other, from 180° to 360°. ' The graduation is clockwise on 
both faces. It has a scale of inches and tenths along one edge and 
may be used as ruler, scale, triangle or parallel ruler. 

To plot a given azimuth from a given point, draw a meridian 
through the point. If the azimuth is less than 180°, lay the pro- 
tractor down face up with the center at the point and the edge on 
the meridian, 0° to the north. Make a pencil dot on the paper at 
the proper graduation on the edge of the protractor. Move the 
protractor so that one of its edges passes through the two points 
and draw a line, which will be the desired azimuth. 

If the azimuth is more than 180°, lay the protractor down 
face up, 360° to the north, and proceed as before. The moving of 
the protractor after setting off the angle and before drawing the 
line may be avoided by adding a counter-clockwise graduation to 
the protractor. The sum of the two graduations at any point will 
be 180°. Place the center of the protractor and the given azimuth, 
read on the counter-clockwise graduation, on a meridian, and slide 
the protractor up or down, keeping the two points on the meridian 
until one of the long edges passes through the given point, when 
the azimuth may be drawn along that edge. 

A semicircular protractor is usually double graduated, in 
opposite directions from 0° to 180°. With this form an azimuth 
may be laid off and the line drawn along the diameter without 
moving the protractor. Lay the protractor down with the center 
on a meridian. If the azimuth is less than 180° place its number 
of degrees on the counter-clockwise scale on the meridian, north 
of the center. If it is greater than 180°, subtract its number of 
degrees from 360 and place the difference on the clockwise scale 
over the north end of the meridian. In either case slide the pro- 
tractor up or down, keeping the center and the graduation on the 
meridian until the diameter passes through the point, when the 
azimuth may be drawn along the diameter of the protractor. 

The scale of a map is the ratio between dimensions on the 
map and the corresponding dimensions on the ground. If the 
lengths on the map and ground were expressed in the same unit, 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 471 

the scale ratio would always be expressed by "the number of 
ground units corresponding to the map unit. If 1 inch (map) 
corresponds to 120,000 inches (ground), the ratio, or scale, is 
plainly l-r-120,000, or as usually described, 1 to 120,000. This frac- 
tion is called the representative fraction, and designated R. F. 
But ground distances are so much greater than map distances 
that they are ordinarily expressed in a large unit, which makes the 
scale ratio less apparent. If 1 inch (map) equals 10,000 feet 
(ground), the scale is still 1 to 120,000 because 10,000 feet equal 
120,000 inches. The map unit is almost always inches. Hence, 
a good rule for obtaining the scale ratio is to reduce the given 
number of ground units to inches, which will indicate the ratio. 

Another method of stating scales, much employed in mil- 
itary map making, is to take ratios which will give Yz, 1, 2, 3, 6, 
12, or 15 inches on the map to 1 mile on the ground, and call the 
scales y 2 , 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, or 15 inches to the mile. Such scales can 
be put into terms which express the ratio by dividing 63,360, the 




TRIANGULAR SCALE. 

number of inches in 1 mile, by the number of inches given in the 
scale. Thus, 1 inch to 1 mile equals 1-^-63,360; 2 inches to 1 mile 
equals l-r-31,680; 3 inches to 1 mile equals l-i-21,120, etc. 

The scale ratio is true for all units. If a scale ratio is 
1-^9,600, 1 inch (map) =9,600 inches (ground); 1 foot (map) 
=9,600 feet (ground); 1 meter (map)=9,600 meters (ground), etc. 

When the scale of a map is changed, as by reduction or 
enlargement, the R. F. changes too, and hence the ratio should not 
be given on maps which are to be reproduced. A linear scale 
should be drawn on every map. This will be enlarged or reduced 
with the map and will always be true. Such a scale is also very 
convenient for taking distances from the map. 

A scale might be constructed by drawing a scale of inches 
on the map and placing opposite the divisions the numbers ex- 
pressing the equivalent ground distances. It is customary, how- 
ever, because more convenient, to take the numbers at intervals 
of 10, 100, or 1,000 or multiples of them, and make the divisions 



472 MILITARY TRAINING 

of the line correspond. A scale should be divided into a convenient 
number of equal parts called primary divisions. The zero should 
be between the first and second primary divisions, counting from 
the left. The primary divsions are numbered from the zero to the 
right. The primary division on the left of the zero is subdivided 
into smaller parts, called secondary divisions, and these are num- 
bered from the zero to the left. The secondary are usually l /$ or 
Vio of the primary divisions. To take off any distance from such a 
scale, put one leg of the dividers on the primary division next be- 
low the distance sought, and the other leg on the secondary divi- 
sion corresponding to the remaining figures. 

A series of points connected by azimuths and distances is 
called a traverse, and the operation of determining the azimuths 
and distances is called traversing. The latter term is usually ex- 
tended to include all azimuths, distances and elevations taken while 
running such a line. A traverse line with elevations along it may 
also be called a profile, and when the traverse is run for the ex- 
press purpose of taking the elevations, the operation is called pro- 
filing; and the line on the ground and the plot of it on paper, are 
called profiles. Distances in topography are so much greater than 
elevations that both can not conveniently be represented on the 
same scale. It is usual to take a scale for elevations called the 
vertical scale, much larger than the scale of distances, or horizontal 
scale. The ratio of the two scales is called the distortion or ex- 
aggeration. Ten or 20 feet to the inch is a common scale for ele- 
vations. If the horizontal scale is 3 inches to the mile, the resulting 
distortions are 176 and 88 times. Both scales should always be 
written below every profile. Angles on a distorted profile are also 
distorted, and gradients can not be plotted or read with an ordi- 
nary protractor. 

Fieldwork. — Measurements and additional notes may be re- 
corded and afterwards plotted on a map, or may be plotted on a 
map as taken, or the two operations may be combined, as circum- 
stances demand. A written report also is often required. 

A road sketch consists of a map of the road with a narrow 
belt of country on either side. If roads, parallel and intersecting, 
are not too far apart, the road sketches may be combined into a 
fairly good map of the entire area. 

The road itself is, if practicable, traversed with the degree of 
precision required for topographical reconnaissance. If the coun- 
try is open, so that long sights are possible, a trained observer 
gets better work by the use of the prismatic compass and clino- 
meter. For shorter courses, when the object is of sufficient im- 
portance to use a chain for distances, the prismatic compass and 
clinometer should also be used and the readings taken with the 
greatest care. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 



473 




ROAD SKETCH. 



474 MILITARY TRAINING 

Side features are, if important, located by intersection; oth- 
erwise by estimation. A convenient method is to estimate the dis- 
tance of an object when it bears at right angles to the course, and 
plot it from that- point. In such case the azimuth is denoted by 
R or L. Thus, house 300 R would mean a house at a distance of 
300 units to the right, on a line at right angles to the course through 
the point where the observation was taken. 

Traversing with Compass and Notebook. — Rule a column Y\ 
of an inch wide down the center of each left-hand page of the 
notebook. Select for the starting point some object or point which 
can be identified by description. Standing at this point, sight 
with the compass toward some object — tree, stump, telegraph pole, 
or stone — that will serve as the second station of the traverse line. 
Note the reading of the compass and record it in the center column 
of the notebook, at the bottom of the first left-hand page, making 
also the symbol for O 1. Observe and record also the azimuths of 
any other objects which are to be located from O 1. All the obser- 
vations taken at this station are written in order in the central 
column from the bottom upward and are bracketed together with 
the station symbol. The name of each object is written on the 
same horizontal line with its azimuth, on the right side of the 
page if on the right of the traverse, and on the left side of the page 
if on the left of the traverse. If elevations are to be obtained, ob- 
serve the gradients from O 1 to the several objects and place each 
in the notebook next to the corresponding azimuth. 

Proceed toward O 2, counting paces. Halt when necessary 
to sketch and measure offsets to objects on either side of the 
course, to take bearings of intersecting roads, paths, streams, etc. 
When a halt is made, a mark is scored on the ground, the distance 
in paces from the last O recorded in the central column and the 
desired notes made. Distances along the main line, azimuths, and 
gradient angles only are recorded in the central column. All de- 
scriptive matter relative to side objects is placed outside of that 
column on the side corresponding to that where the objects lie. 
Return to the scored mark and resume the pacing, beginning with 
the number recorded at the halt, so that the total count of paces 
at any point shall be the number taken since leaving the last O. 

The center column of the page is taken to represent the line 
actually paced and to be without width, so that offsets in the side 
sketches are shown measured from the sides of the column and 
not from its center. 

On reaching the second O, record its distance from O 1; draw 
a horizontal line across the page; write © 2 in the center column 
above the line, and continue as before to O 3. 

When opportunity offers, take bearings on distant bends of 
the road, spires, towers, hilltops, tall trees, etc., and enter the an- 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 475 

gles in the center column with the name of each object written 
beside its bearing. Endeavor to get bearings of the same distant 
object from several stations or from two stations at some dis- 
tance apart. These, when plotted, should intersect at a common 
point if the observed bearings are correct and the compass has 
not suffered local disturbance. It is not to be expected in work of 
this grade that an exact intersection of more than two bearings 
can be obtained except by accident. 

When a sketcher at any point of the traverse finds himself 
in prolongation of a line that defines or bounds a feature of the 
country, such as a fence, the edge of a wood, a reach of shore line 
of river or lake, a gully, canyon, or ridge, a face of a building, or 
a stretch of road or railroad, its bearing should be taken. The same 
rule should be observed when important features come into range 
with each other from a point on the traverse. A valuable check 
on the relative positions of such features is thus obtained. 

If a traverse line is interrupted by any obstacle that inter- 
feres with the measurement of distance, its width should be esti- 
mated and the pacing resumed on the other side; or, if for greater 
exactness, make an offset, perpendicular to the traverse line if pos- 
sible, long enough to clear the obstacle, continue the traverse par- 
allel to the original course and return to the latter after passing 
the obstacle by a second offset parallel and equal to the first and in 
the opposite direction; or, locate points on the farther side by inter- 
sections. 

The best method of plotting is to plot the traverse lines and 
the check bearings first. Then any error discovered by means of 
the latter, or by closure on the initial or other known point, can 
be more readily corrected. When the traverse line has been ad- 
justed, the details on either side are plotted in and do not have to 
be changed. 

The topographic field notebook is designed to facilitate the 
foregoing method of traversing. In addition to the central column, 
it has columns on either side in which to record the offset distances, 
each of which is put down on the proper side of the central column, 
avoiding the necessity of using the letters R and L, and elimi- 
nating the liability of mistakes in confusion of the direction. 

The opposite right-hand page is ruled in 1 inch squares, and 
has a full-circle protractor graduated to degrees printed on it. 
This page facilitates a hasty plot of the traverse with respect to 
which many details can be sketched in more clearly and certainly 
than they could be recorded in writing. At the bottom of the page 
are scales of tenths and eighths of inches. The alternate pairs of 
pages are plain ruled for notes and memoranda. 

Traversing with Compass and Drawing Board. The obser- 
vations are taken as in traversing with a notebook and compass, 



476 



MILITARY TRAINING 




M 

J I I I ii I iii) 



SCALE I I I I I I I I I I 

SCALE I ...... . t i > > . ■ ■ l-J 



TOPOGRAPHIC FIELD NOTEBOOK. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 477 

but the traverse line and such offsets as come within the limits 
of the sketch are plotted at once; that is, the map is drawn as the 
observer proceeds over the ground. A great advantage of this 
method is that any large error in measurements is likely to be de- 
tected by the eye, as the map is compared with the ground, and 
errors can be corrected on the spot. The plotting scale of equal 
parts should be prepared beforehand to suit the scale of the map.. 
If this scale can be pasted or drawn on the edge of the protractor 
opposite the angular graduation, it is a convenience. 

The sides of the sheet of paper should be lettered N, E, S r 
and W to correspond with the points of the compass. If the paper 
is ruled or water-line, the lines are taken parallel to the magnetic 
meridian. 

Having observed the azimuth at O 1, draw through the point 
designating that station a line having the observed azimuth. Azi- 
muth lines are erased finally as a rule, and hence should be lightly 
drawn and with a fairly hard pencil. Prolong this line in the di- 
rection of O 2 far enough to surely reach that O. If other azi- 
muths are taken at O 1, plot them also, and note on each the object 
to which it bears. If the distance to the object is estimated, it 
may be laid off on the azimuth and the position of the object 
plotted at once. 

Proceeding toward O 2 to take any desired side shot, halt 
abreast of the object, plot the distance from O 1 on the course, 
estimate the distance to the object, and plot it in at that distance 
opposite the point plotted on the course and on the proper side. 

Arrived at O 2, lay off the entire distance from O 1, and 
plot and mark O 2. Erase the azimuth line beyond O 2; take and 
plot any other desired azimuths. If any of them are to points pre- 
viously sighted to, make the intersections and plot and mark the 
points. In plotting azimuths to side objects, it is better to draw 
only a short part of the line near the object to avoid confusion of 
lines on the sketch and especially near the station. 

Traversing with Oriented Drawing Board. — A drawing is 
said to be oriented when so placed that its true meridian is parallel 
to the true meridian on the ground. When using magnetic azi- 
muths, making the magnetic meridians — map and ground — parallel, 
may be accepted as a proper orientation. When a map is oriented, 
with any given point vertically over the corresponding point on 
the ground, a ruler held on the point or station on the map, and 
pointed in the direction of any object gives the azimuth of that 
object on the map. No angular measurements need be made. A 
compass is not necessary, but it is very convenient, as it affords 
the quickest means of orienting the map. 

To run a traverse by this method, assume on the map the 



478 MILITARY TRAINING 

initial point and the magnetic meridian, selecting them so that the 
general direction of the traverse coincides with the longest di- 
mension of the paper. Place the board over the first station; lay 
the compass on it with the north-and-south line parallel to the 
assumed meridian, and turn the board until the needle reads north. 
The board is then oriented, and must be in this position whenever 
a sight is taken. It should also be level, as nearly as can be de- 
termined by the eye. 

Place a ruler on the station point of the map and sight it 
in the direction of any object which it is desired to plot. Draw a 
line along the edge of the ruler and on it lay off to the adopted 
scale the distance of the object if known or assumed. When all 
the desired azimuths have been taken from the station, sight the 
ruler to the second station and draw its azimuth, and then proceed 
to that station, pacing the distance. Arrived at the forward sta- 
tion, plot the paced distance, orient the board over the station, 
and proceed as before. If any of the objects taken at the first sta- 
tion can be seen from the second, new azimuths may be taken to 
them which will locate them by intersection. 

Traversing with Sketching Case. — The sketching case is a 
compact device for traversing by the oriented-map method. The 
simplest form issued to the service, is usually called the cavalry 
sketching case. The compass is set into the board, and a movable 
index is provided which can be revolved to place it parallel to the 
assumed meridian on the map. When the needle is brought paral- 
lel to the wire the board is oriented. The needle may be parallel 
to the index wires, but end for end, or 180° out of its true position, 
in which case the sketcher is turned completely around. Such a 
mistake is so great and so obvious that it needs no preventive, but 
a sketcher may note at the outset whether the N or S end of the 
needle is toward the stud which moves the wires and keep it in this 
position. 

The . Engineer Department has designed a standard recon- 
naisance equipment based solely upon the plane-table method. 
All forms of sketching board, with ruler attached to the board, 
have been discarded. The design and plan of assigning the equip- 
ment to the several arms of the service has been approved by the 
Secretary of War. The outfit is divided into equipment, which is 
permanent, and supplies, which are expendable. The complete out- 
fit is: 

Equipment 

1 alidade. 1 holder, timing pad. 

1 board, sketching. 1 pace tally. 

1 chest, sketching outfit. 1 pencil pocket. 

1 clinometer, service, with case. 1 tripod, wood, folding. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 479 

Supplies 

12 celluloid, sheets. 6 pencils, drawing, H. 

2 erasers, rubber. 2 pencils, green. 

6 pads, timing. 2 pencils, red. 

72 paper, sketching board, sheets. 2 protectors, pencil point. 

2 pencils, blue. 2 tape, adhesive, rolls. 

The approved distribution is one outfit, as listed above, to 
each regimental and battalion headquarters of infantry, cavalry, 
and field artillery, and three to each engineer tool wagon, giving 
six per company or three per mounted company. Headquarters of 
higher engineer units and division or chief engineers not attached 
to engineer units receive normally three such outfits, but division 
and chief engineers may receive a larger number if they so requi- 
sition. 

A Road Reconnaissance should procure the following data: 

The Road. Gradients, especially the steepest; width of 
roadway, if paved, width, kind and condition of paving; width and 
depth of side ditches, and whether wet or dry; if not paved, char- 
acter of soil, sand, clay or gravel; kind of fences and width be- 
tween them. The sketch should also show where the road is in 
embankment or cutting; where wagons can not double or pass, and 
where foot troops can not march along the side between the wagon 
track and the fences. 

Bridges. Material of piers and abutments; type and ma- 
terial of superstructure, as girder, truss, arch, suspension, wood, 
steel, stone, etc.; width of roadway, and clear headroom; safe 
load. Of bridges over the road, clear width and height; over 
streams, the nearest bridges above and below and whatever in 
formation can be obtained about them. 

The Country. Character of cultivation or natural vegeta- 
tion; areas and density of timber, underbrush, vines, especially 
poisonous ones; marshes and fords, kinds of fences, nature of soil; 
general configuration of surface, especially high hills, long ridges 
or valleys, bluffs or slopes too steep to scale, and practicable 
routes to their crests. 

Streams Crossed. Name, width, depth and surface velocity 
in swiftest current; velocity noted as sluggish, moderate, quick or 
swift; elevation of high-water marks in relation to the road; which 
bank is the higher at crossing and above and below, and how 
much; accessibility of water for stock; fords at or near crossing; 
length, depth and steepness of approaches; levees or embank' 
ments, height and thickness on top; if navigable, to what distance 
above and below and for what class of vessels — steamers, flatboats, 
rowboats. 

Towns and Villages Passed Through. Name, location on 
map, and population. Names of streets to be traversed. Ma- 



480 MILITARY TRAINING 

terial, as stone, brick, frame, log; size, 1, 2, 3 stories, and dis- 
tribution close or scattered of the houses in those streets; gradients 
of intersecting streets ; location of railway depots ; post, telegraph 
and telephone offices; of drinking fountains and watering troughs; 
of elevators, storehouses, or other accumulations of food or forage; 
of blacksmith, wagon, and machine shops. 

When ordered to make a complete examination of a town 
or village, note besides the foregoing, location and size of princi- 
pal buildings, halls, court and school houses, churches, banks, jails 
and their ownership; sources, maximum quantity and distribu- 
tion of water supply; sanitary conditions and disposal of wastes; 
location of railroads, depots, freight houses, sidings, etc.; for all 
roads entering from the surrounding country the same informa- 
tion as scheduled above for streets; location and extent of open 
spaces, and of large, substantial buildings standing apart; location 
and extent of high ground with range, especially that from which 
streets can be enfiladed. 

Railroads Crossed. Name, gauge, single or double track, 
sidings and loading platforms at point of crossing; crossing at 
grade, over or under; distance and name of nearest station each 
way; direction and distance of nearest roundhouse, shops, etc. 

River Reconnaissance. — Designate the banks as right or left, 
the right bank being that on the right hand when looking down 
the stream. If, when standing on the bank facing across the 
stream the current flows from left to right, the observer is on 
the right bank; if from right to left, he is on the left bank. 

If the stream is navigated, pilots and residents will know 
distances by channel between landings with sufficient accuracy 
for the purpose of a field reconnaissance. In making a traverse 
along the banks of- the river, it may be desirable to cross from 
one side to the other to save distance or avoid obstacles. When 
a crossing is to be made, at two or three stations from the point 
of crossing select a point on the other side and take an azimuth 
to it. From the last station take another azimuth to the selected 
point, locating it by intersection. If the conditions prevent an in- 
tersection, take an azimuth from the last station to the point on 
the opposite bank and estimate the distance. 

The Valley. General configuration, heights of limiting 
ranges, and positions of passes or roads crossing them; command- 
ing ground from which a stretch of the channel of considerable 
length can be enfiladed by artillery; forest growth on or near 
banks; soil and cultivation of the valley; roads parallel to river, and 
means of access to them from the river. 

The Stream. Its width, depth and velocity; navigability, as 
for steamboats, flatboats, rowboats, rafts, and head of naviga- 
tion for each; nature of obstructions to navigation and possibility 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 481 

of removing or avoiding them; season of high and low water; 
average rise and fall; rapidity of rise and fall and causes; amount 
of drift; character of banks and relative command. Quality of 
water; amount and kind of sediment borne; usual period and 
thickness of ice. 

Tributaries and Canals. Width, depth, navigability and 
means of crossing. Nature and purpose of canals; dimensions and 
lifts of locks; time for lockages; means of destroying locks and 
effect of destruction; floating plant found. 

Bridges and Fords. As in road report. Also for bridges 
note position of the channel and navigable width between piers; 
height of arches and lower chords above the water at different 
stages; dimensions and operation of draw spans. Note the exact 
position of fords and the marks on both banks by which they may 
be found; length, width and nature of bottom; velocity of current; 
position of deep holes; aids to crossing. Fords should not be 
more than 4 feet 4 inches for cavalry, 3 J / 2 feet for infantry, and 2 
feet 4 inches for guns and ammunition. Note nature of approaches 
to bridges and fords; width of roadway, slopes, soil, effect of 
weather and traffic. Note especially the defensibility of bridges 
and fords. 

Ferries, Boats, and Other Means of Crossing. Position of 
ferries; approaches and practicability for horses and loaded 
wagons; sizes, number and kinds of boats; method of propulsion; 
sites for military bridges or ferries; character of site for construc- 
tion, use and defense; proximity of islands and tributary streams; 
approaches and slope of banks; width of river and maximum sur- 
face velocity of current; materials for the construction or repair 
of boats, bridges or ferries. 

Inundations. Places suitable for inundations by damming 
or obstructing a narrow bridge span, or by cutting a levee or dike. 
Note raised roads on ground liable to natural or artificial inunda- 
tions and the safest route to follow by known landmarks when the 
road is overflowed. An extensive inundation 2 feet deep on level 
ground is a serious obstacle unless the roads are very sound and 
marked by trees, posts, etc. Even when so marked a dip in the 
roadbed of 3 or 4 feet may render the road impassable. A railroad 
bed is soon washed out even by a slight overflow. 

Reconnaissance of a Railroad. — The Line. Local name; 
terminal points and distances between stations and other points; 
gauge; single or double track; condition of roadbed, ties and rails; 
drainage and liability to overflows or washouts; facilities for re- 
pair; condition of right of way for marching troops along the line. 

Tunnels and Bridges. Number and location; dimensions; 
strength of bridges; means of destroying and repairing of block- 
ing traffic. 



482 MILITARY TRAINING 

Rolling Stock. Number and nature of engines and cars 
available; capacity for transporting troops between given points; 
facilities for constructing armored trains, as spare rails, old boilers, 
etc., location and capacity of shops and store yards. 

Stations. Name and location; facilities for entraining and 
detraining troops with wagons and horses; platforms on through 
line and sidings; ramps; side tracks, number and capacity; turn- 
tables; water tanks; fuel supply; storage facilities: Derricks or 
cranes; cross-overs for teams and pedestrians. Facilities at hand 
for hospitals, camps, depots; for feeding men, heating coffee, 
watering horses during temporary halts. 

Other Communications. — Telegraph lines; number and loca- 
tion of stations; number of wires; connections; parallel highways, 
roads; rivers or canals; means of access from same to railroad; 
junctions and crossings of other lines; relative elevation; facilities 
for laying temporary switches and sidings at stations or between 
crossing lines. 

Defensibility. Heights commanding line of road; defense of 
stations; defense of road and telegraph lines against raiding 
parties; structures exposed to demolition; defense and attack of 
same; defiles and river crossings. 

Reconnaissance of Wood or Forest. — Note all roads and 
paths, and all hills, ravines and streams within the wood or 
skirting the edges; kinds of trees, density and growth; underbrush, 
prevalence of poisonous shrubs and vines; marshy or large open 
spaces; practicability of forming new roads by cutting; creation 
of obstacles by felling trees; if there are no roads traverse the 
shortest practicable path between the point of entrance and point 
of exit, and mark boulders or blaze trees, set stakes, or otherwise 
indicate this path, and also give compass bearings of the route to 
be followed. Note the exterior forms of the woods, whether parts 
of the edge flank other parts; connection with neighboring pieces 
of wood by scattered trees or clearings; undulations of the ground 
that would give cover to attacking force or to defenders. 

Reconnaissance of Mountains. — Note the number and posi- 
tions of passes through the mountains, of roads and trails leading 
to these passes, their condition, practicability and means of repair; 
steepness of slopes on the sides of roads; means of constructing 
additional roads; water courses, their direction, nature and time of 
floods; means of crossing. Note ravines and open glades on moun- 
tain sides, lookout points, and good signal stations; note time and 
duration of snowdrifts on roads or passes; depth of drifts and pos- 
sibility of removing them or of traveling on the surface of the 
snow. Note extent and nature of forest growth. 

Reconnaissance for a Camp or Winter Quarters. — Note a 
location, elevation and area; sanitary features, such as drainage, 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 483 

dryness and general character of top soil; proximity of swampy 
ground or stagnant ponds. 

Communications. Sufficiency of existing roads and paths, 
maximum grades, probable condition under heavy traffic and in 
bad weather, location and kind of materials available for improve- 
ment or repair, railroad or water communication and terminal fa- 
cilities of same. 

Water and Fuel. Location, kind and quantity of fuel at 
hand; quality and quantity of water; facilities for filling water carts, 
for watering animals and for washing and bathing; nature of sup- 
ply, as wells, springs, running streams and its reliability. 

Shelter and Conveniences. Proximity of trees, brush, wood, 
hay and straw for huts and bedding; of markets; of towns and 
villages. 

Defensibility. Location of outposts and guards; location 
and character of defensive positions in or near the camp; force re- 
quired to hold positions which may command the camp. 

Reconnaissance of a Position. — This problem usually in- 
cludes the selection of the position, and is therefor tactical as well 
as topographical. Certain relations and conditions must be ob- 
served in the selection, and the extent and degree in which they 
are found must be clearly shown on the map or in the report. 

The length of the position, or its development along the 
firing line, should be proportional to the force available for its 
occupation. Exact rules can not be given, but 5,000 infantry per 
mile or 3 men per yard is the usual estimate. 

Impassable nature features — a river, mountain, or stream — 
form the best flank. Lacking these, a wood, a deep ravine,, a cliff 
or a high hill will serve. Even with these features absent a flank 
may be strengthened by the construction of a strong earthwork, 
but the general rule obtains that natural weakness of the flanks 
must be made up by a greater number of men, or by the substitu- 
tion of cavalry for infantry in case the ground favors the move- 
ments of mounted troops. 

If the flanks are naturally strong the line should be with- 
drawn to make the entire position re-entrant; if the flanks are 
naturally weak the connecting line should be held straight or 
advanced so as to make the position straight or salient. 

The depth of the position, or its extent in rear of the firing 
line, should afford natural cover for supports, reserves and trains, 
which may require a total depth of 800 to 2,400 yards, but a short 
position may be relatively shallower than a long one. Three or 
four parallel ridges, 300 to 600 yards apart, with the intervening 
ground practicable, form an excellent position. If the first ridge 
is somewhat higher than the rest, so much the better. Whatever 
cover there may be for the component parts of the force, whether 



484 MILITARY TRAINING 

natural or artificial, fences, ditches, trees, etc., should be shown 
or described. If digging is necessary, its amount and the character 
of the soil should be stated. 

Strong points in front of the line, which may be occupied 
as outposts, should be shown. Communication should be free in 
every direction, concealed so far as possible from the enemy's 
view. 

Artillery positions are required when that arm is represented 
in the occupying force, as will usually be the case. They should 
permit the guns to sweep all ground in fro^t of the positions over 
which the enemy can advance, to the limit of effective range. 
Every point in front of the position and within range which com- 
mands any part of it is an element of weakness. 

Ranges at which the enemy can be seen and reached by ar- 
tillery fire; the points beyond rifle range covered by such fire and 
its relative command of adverse artillery positions should be 
shown or described. 

If possible similar information should be obtained of the 
ground likely to be occupied by the enemy in forming for attack, 
or in taking up a counter position. 

A position occupied by an enemy must be reconnoitered 
from a distance, and few details can actually be seen. Valuable 
inferences may be drawn by remembering that the enemy has 
probably chosen his position in accordance with the principles 
above given. Especial attention should be given to the flanks and 
the feasibility of turning one of them. 

A position sketch is usually on a scale of 6 inches or 12 
inches to the mile. It is found most convenient and expeditious to 
make it by the compass and drawing-board method, or the method 
with oriented board alone. The traverse includes the fewest poinfs 
from which the entire area can be seen, often only two, and all 
other features are located by intersections from these points. 
Elevations may be taken by slope board or clinometer, the height 
of the first point occupied being arbitrarily assumed if not known. 

Contouring is a method of exhibiting relief of ground by 
means of lines so drawn on a map as to indicate points of equal 
elevation. The lines so drawn on a map and the corresponding 
lines on the ground are called contours. The word contouring 
is applied to the field work directed especially to obtaining data 
for drawing contours. 

The difference of elevation of points in adjacent contours 
is called the contour interval, and is usually constant for all the 
contours on the same map. The horizontal distance between con- 
tours, measured in a radial direction with reference to the curva- 
ture of the contours is referred to as contour distance. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 485 

The theory of contouring is that no inadmissible error will 
be made by supposing the slope of the ground from a point in one 
contour to the corresponding point in the next, or along the con- 
tour distance, to be a straight line. The less the contour interval, 
the less error will be made. 

If contour distances decrease with elevation, or the contours 
become closer as they go higher, the slope is concave, and points 
between contours are lower than the straight line joining corre- 
sponding contour points. If the contours become closer as the 
ground falls, the ground is convex, or lies above the straight line 
joining corresponding contour points. A point of inflection, or 
change from convex to concave is at the point where the contour 
distance is less or greater than those on either side of it. Equal 
contour distances correspond to uniform slope. 

One contour does not necessarily join all the points of the 
same elevation on the map but only those which have a continuous 
series of points of the same elevation joining them. It may 
require several contours to take in all the points of a given eleva- 
tion on the map. Parts of the same contour appear as separate 
when the ground over which they could be connected is not on the 
map. The selection of the points to connect in one contour is the 
difficult part of the process and can not be done correctly without 
thorough knowledge of the principles of the method and a good 
idea of the general shape of the ground to be contoured. In 
military reconnaissance only enough elevations can usually be taken 
in the field to guide one who has seen and studied the ground in 
drawing the contours. 

For equal contour intervals the map contours are closer 
together as the slope is steeper. It follows that for steep slopes 
the map contours approach each other very closely, and for a 
vertical wall or cliff they coincide. Ground contours can not 
cross, but map contours may cross in the very unusual cases of 
a cave or a bluff overhanging by an amount which can be shown 
on the horizontal scale. This is so rare that it is usual to say that 
map contours can not cross. 

Maximum ridge and minimum valley contours go in pairs. 
A single lower contour can not lie between two higher ones, or 
a single higher between two lower. When two adjacent contours 
have the same elevation, the ground between them will be still 
lower if they are valley, or still higher if ridge contours. 

Contours are designated by their heights above a datum 
plane. The height is expressed in feet, except when the metric 
scale is used, when contour intervals are in meters. The eleva- 
tion of each contour should be shown in figures at points close 
enough together to allow the eye to run from one to the other 
with ease. It is best to break the contours and write the numbers 



486 MILITARY TRAINING 

between the ends. If written alongside, the numbers should 
always be on the higher side of the contour. 

Straight contours are very rare. They may be determined 
by locating any two points, or by locating one point and ob- 
serving the azimuth of the line. Simple curved contours are more 
frequent than straight ones, but are not often found of any con- 
siderable length. They may be determined by fixing 3 points; or 
by 2 points with the radius estimated; or by 1 point with the center 
assumed. The typical contour is a wavy line, alternately salient 
and re-entrant, and may be determined with the precision needful 
for hasty reconnaissance by fixing the extreme points of the con- 
vex and concave portions. 

Looking at contours from the higher side, the salient parts, 
or those concave to the observer, correspond to the ridges, and 
the re-entrant parts, or those convex to the observer, to the valleys. 
The valleys are also lines of drainage. Hence, half of the points 
necessary to determine a wavy contour lie on drainage lines, as 
indicated by rivers, creeks, brooks and rivulets, and by ravines or 
other depressions dry at most seasons. 

The slope of a drainage line grows less in the direction of 
flow. Tributaries or branches are usually steeper than the main 
stream at their junction, and also increase in slope toward their 
sources. Generally, in a limited area, the sources are at nearly the 
same elevation. 

If enough elevations were taken on stream lines the concave 
parts of the contours would be fairly well determined, but the con- 
vex points would still be in part uncertain. It is known that they 
are convex and salient, but not how much. This information is 
supplied by elevations taken along the ridges, crests, or divides 
which lie between adjacent drainage lines. The typical profile 
of a crest is a reversed curve, flat and convex between the sources 
of streams, flat and concave near the junctions of streams, and 
steepest in the middle, with the inflection at the steepest point. 
The form of crests is not so regular as that of valleys, and less 
use can be made of it. It should be kept in mind as a basis of 
comparison, so that actual forms can be more readily remembered. 

The field work of contouring an area which has a sufficient 
relief to exhibit drainage lines clearly may begin by traversing 
these lines, with gradients taken by clinometer or slope board. It 
is most convenient to begin where collected drainage leaves the 
area to be mapped, and follow each valley to its source. 

If the valley is open and the flanks of the ridges on each 
side can be seen, time may be saved by taking level sights from 
some of the contour points on the drainage line to points on the 
ridges as far advanced as possible, usually where the line of sight 
is tangent to the hill. This gives two points near the apex of the 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 487 

salient from which the contour may be drawn often as well as by 
a point at the apex. If this can be generally done, it may not be 
necessary to run out the ridges. 

If hill points can not be taken from the valley traverse, the 
ridge lines must be run out. They must be connected in plan 
(distance and azimuth) and in elevation with the drainage lines. 
When drainage and ridge lines are plotted on the map, the contour 
points, if not actually observed, may be interpolated and the con- 
tours drawn. 

The symmetry of adjacent contours is obvious from the in- 
spection of any contoured map, and this relation may be utilized, 
where one contour has been well determined, to draw the one on 
either side of it from a very few points, often but one. If the con- 
tours are wavy, they are generally a little farther apart at the con- 
cave and convex points than at the reversion points between them. 
If the contours are not wavy, they are generally parallel. 

If the relief of the ground is so slight that the drainage and 
ridge lines are uncertain, the field work of contouring is best done 
by taking elevations at points arbitrarily selected. Such points are 
usually in straight lines running in the general direction of the 
steepest slope. The points are plotted on the map, the correspond- 
ing elevations written near them, and the contours are interpolated, 
assuming that the surface of the ground between observed points 
is a straight line. The closer the points are together, the less error 
is involved in this assumption. 

If the country is comparatively flat and unbroken, profiles 
may be run along roads and paths, and contours sketched in on 
each side so far as they can be seen. Then by going over the in- 
tervening ground and observing its shape, the portions drawn can 
be joined with the eye with sufficient accuracy. 

In towns and villages profiles along intersecting streets and 
the study of the intervening space furnish data for approximate 
contours. 

Slope Equivalents. — Actual distances between contours on 
a map depend on the contour interval, the scale of the map, and 
the gradient. For any given map the contour interval and scale 
are constant, and the distances between contours depend on the 
slope alone. On any map with contours at equal intervals each 
gradient has its corresponding contour distance, which is called its 
equivalent. A line subdivided to show the equivalents of various 
gradients on any map is called a scale of slope equivalents for that 
map, or simply the scale of slopes, and by applying such a scale 
to the distance between two successive contours the slope of the 
ground between them may be read ofT. 

For different map slope equivalents vary with the ratio be- 
tween the contour interval and the scale. A scale of slope equiva- 



488 MILITARY TRAINING 

lents may be constructed for a given ratio and will be true for all 
maps having that ratio, no matter how much the scales may vary. 
The ratio may be taken as the fraction of an inch on the scale 
of the map corresponding to the contour interval. If the scale of 
the map is 500 feet to the inch and the contour interval 1 foot, the 
ratio is %oo or 0.002, which is the fraction of an inch corresponding 
to 1 foot on a scale of 500 feet to the inch. If the scale is 1,000, 
5,000, 10,000, or 50,000 feet to the inch, and the corresponding con- 
tour interval is 2, 10, 20, or 100 feet, the ratio in each case is %oo 
and the contour interval corresponds to 0.002 inch on the scale of 
the map and a scale of slope equivalents corresponding to the 
ratio applies. 

In the absence of contours relief may be indicated by 
hachures, which are short parallel or slightly divergent lines run- 
ning in the direction of the steepest slope. Hachures should be 
used only to indicate areas which present slopes steep enough to 
offer cover or become obstacles. 

The reconnaissance with a moving column requires the si- 
multaneous work of a number of sketchers and must be so organ- 
ized that each sketcher shall do his full share in the time allowed; 
that the sketches and reports shall be turned in about the same 
hour, and that the assigned ground shall be thoroughly covered 
without unnecessary duplication. 

A good sketcher on foot can take about 10 miles of road in 
a day, or can keep up with a slowly advancing column. A good 
sketcher mounted can cover 15 miles a day steadily, or in an 
emergency 20 or 25 miles, and can keep up with infantry on a 
forced march or. with cavalry marching at ordinary rate. 

The reconnaissance for a column should include besides the 
road traveled the nearest parallel road on each side and all con- 
necting roads between them. Each mile traversed by the column 
on the main road will thus involve 2y 2 to 5 miles of sketching. 

If a reconnaissance is to be made when a force is not in mo- 
tion, the area to be covered will usually be so large and the time 
allowed so short as to make it necessary to combine the work of a 
number of sketchers. 

If any map is available, the area to be reconnoitered should 
be outlined on it and subdivided into as many parts as there are 
sketchers, the parts to be made equal, not in size necessarily, but 
in amount of work and time required, the important point being 
that all the parts shall be finished at the same hour. 

Each of these parts is assigned to a sketcher, with full in- 
structions as to the amount and class of work to be done, the scale 
to be used — which should be the same for all — and the place and 
hour at which the sketch must be turned in. If practicable, each 
sketcher should be given a tracing or copy of enough of the map 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 489 

to show the boundaries of his own task and the adjacent features 
of those next to his. 

The area to be mapped may be divided up in any convenient 
way, but it is best to use roads, fences, streams, or other well- 
defined lines as much as possible. Lacking these, compass courses 
passing through well-defined points will answer. 

In a road sketch one man should be assigned to the main 
road or that on which the column is marching. Others are as- 
signed to such parallel and intersecting roads as it may be neces- 
sary to map. So far as practicable, side parties should leave the 
main road by an intersecting road, traverse a short stretch of par- 
allel road, and return to the main road by another cross road. 

Compilation. — The sketches when turned in are consolidated, 
usually by pasting them in their proper relative positions on a 
large sheet of paper, or else by pasting them together at their edges 
so that corresponding features will join. If one of them does not 
exactly fit, as will often happen, the adjustment is best made by 
cutting the sketch into two or more pieces and moving them with 
respect to each other so as to absorb the discrepancy. Thus, if a 
piece of road is half an inch too short, cut it at three or four places 
on lines perpendicular to the road and separate the pieces by a 
sixth or eighth of an inch. If too long, overlap the pieces instead 
of separating them. If a road or other feature is out of azimuth, 
make a cut through one of its ends and swing it into place. These 
operations may be combined. 

Reproduction. — As many copies of the map will be made as 
circumstances may require. The first step is to divide the map 
into sections of convenient and usually equal size, and make a 
tracing of each. The size of the sections will usually be deter- 
mined by the method of reproduction to be used and the size of 
the apparatus at hand. Time will be saved if there are not more 
sections than there are men available to trace, supposing that all 
the tracers are of approximately the same speed. If one of them 
can work two or three times as fast as the average, two or more 
sections should be reserved for him, the idea being that the work 
will be done in the shortest time if so arranged that all finish at 
once. With fairly expert sketchers, it will be possible to have 
each ink his work before turning it in. A useful expedient in case 
of great haste is to make the sketches themselves transparent by 
oiling and fasten them together for use instead of a tracing. 

The tracing made, further processes depend upon the time 
available and whether the work can be done in daylight or must 
be done at night. Of processes requiring sunlight, the most reli- 
able, simplest, and quickest is the blueprint process. The prepared 
paper may be purchased in rolls of 10 or 50 yards. It should be 
put up in tin foil and each 6 or 8 rolls should be in a sealed tin 



490 MILITARY TRAINING 

case; it will then keep in good condition for a long time. If neces- 
sary to sensitize the paper in the field the following solutions must 
be prepared: 

Ounces, 

fc., « , . A S Citrate of iron and ammonia 2 

Stock solution A | Water \\\ g 

c . , ,u; -n \ Red prussiate of potash 2 

Stock solution B j Wat( £ ; _ 3 

For use mix 4 parts of A with 3 parts of B. 

Unprepared paper may be purchased in 50-yard rolls. To 
sensitize the paper a sheet of the desired size is cut from the roll 
and placed on a flat surface; the mixed solution is applied with a 
sponge to the upper surface in a smooth, even coat, care being? 
taken not to wet through to the back of the paper. The sheet is 
hung up in a dark room until dry, when it is ready for use. Only 
enough paper for a day's use is sensitized at one time, for it does 
not keep well. 

The exposure takes from four to eight minutes in bright 
sunlight, varying with the intensity of the light and the trans- 
parency of the tracing. Under other conditions than sunlight a 
much longer exposure is required; sometimes an hour or more. 
Care must be taken that the paper is not taken from the frame 
before it has been sufficiently exposed. When the margin pro- 
truding from under the tracing has a greenish-bronze color, open 
one part of the back of the frame and observe the print. The 
lines should stand out sharp and distinct on a gray background. 
Take the print from the frame and place it in a tray containing 
water sufficient to fully cover the print. Rinse it until the lines 
stand out in clear white, then hang up to dry. It is to be remem- 
bered that the fresher the paper is the slower it will print and the 
quicker it will wash out; the older the paper is the quicker it will 
print but the slower it will wash. 

Additions and alterations may be made to blueprints with 
a 10 per cent, solution of oxalate of potash used as an ink. If it 
shows a tendency to run, add a very little mucilage. Common 
soda may be used, but the lines have a yellowish cast instead of 
the pure white which the potash gives. Additions and alterations 
of a drawing are conveniently made by inking the lines of a blue- 
print with waterproof liquid India ink and removing all the blue 
color by the potash or soda solutions. The black lines then remain 
on a white ground. They take well in photographing, and by 
treating the paper with oil, it becomes transparent enough for 
contact printing, being used in place of a tracing and in the same 
way. 

Brown prints. — Next in point of simplicity for daylight use 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 491 

is the brown-print process. It is in many respects the most satis- 
factory of the copying processes. The paper is purchased pre- 
pared. 

After exposure for about two minutes in bright sunlight, the 
margin protruding from under the tracing turns from its original 
light yellow to a reddish-brown color. The print is then taken 
from the frame, immersed in water, and thoroughly rinsed on both 
sides, when the lines come out in perfect white on a sepia-brown 
ground. It is then immersed in a fixing bath made from the salt 
which accompanies each roll of the paper (2 ounces of fixing salt 
to 1 gallon of water); this makes the print permanent and also 
darkens the sepia-brown color, the lines remaining white. After 
fixing the print must be thoroughly washed for 20 to 30 minutes 
and then hung up to dry. 

The brown color being impervious to light makes this paper 
very valuable for negatives which may be used to produce positive 
copies, either with the blue or brown print papers, yielding an 
exact reproduction of the original in either blue or brown lines 
on a white background. In making the positive prints from the 
brown-paper negatives the time of exposure is somewhat longer, 
since the brown-process paper is not as transparent as tracing 
cloth or tracing paper. Even very fine lines of the original are 
reproduced with surprising distinctness, due to the fact that in 
both manipulations the original is in direct contact with the sensi- 
tive side of the paper, so that no light can enter sideways under 
the lines. 

By making several negatives and printing from them simul- 
taneously the rate of reproduction may be largely increased. 

For printing by artificial light bromide papers are used. 
A contact print from the tracing has clear white lines on a very 
dark-brown ground. The contrast is clear and agreeable. Altera- 
tions made be made with a sharp red pencil, which makes a legible 
line, or by scratching through the emulsion, which makes a white 
line. A print can be obtained quickly from the light of three 
candles at 12 inches distance. 

To develop bromide prints make a stock solution of hydro- 
chinon, 150 gr.; sodium sulphite, 360 gr.; water, 12 oz. 

For use, to 1 oz. of stock solution add 1 dr. rodinal and 8 oz. 
water; or, make stock solution of metol, 150 gr. ; sodium sulphite 
crystals, 2]/ 2 oz.; sodium carbonate crystals, 3]/ 2 oz.; bromide 
potash, 8 gr.; water, 20 oz. For use, add 1 oz. stock solution to 
4 oz. water. 

Acetic acid is used to clear bromide prints after develop- 
ment and to stop the action of the developer, 16 oz. water to 1 dr. 
acetic acid. 



492 MILITARY TRAINING 

For fixing bromide prints use hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.; 
water, 6 oz. A little alum added to the fixing bath in hot weather 
hardens the film. 

A bromide print may be made transparent by oil and used 
for contact printing by artificial light. It will be better, though 
not essential to secure a paper for negatives thinner than that 
usually supplied for prints. 

The cycle of operations for quick reproduction by the bro- 
mide process is as follows: 

From a tracing or transparent drawing make, say, 3 to 5 
negatives. Make them transparent and start printing from all of 
them. If the sketchers are in by 5.30 p. m., the negatives can be 
ready for printing by 7 p. m., and after that prints can be turned 
out at the rate of 15 per hour from each negative. It should not 
be difficult to have all that are needed for the next day done by 
9 p. m. 

Transfer processes. — With the hectograph the drawing is 
made in a special ink and pressed face down on the surface of a 
gelatin compound in a metal pan. When the paper is pulled off 
the drawing appears reversed on the gelatin surface. A piece of 
blank paper pressed on the surface and then withdrawn shows the 
drawing direct in purplish lines. Fifty to 100 impressions may be 
taken. Each print is covered with a thin film of the compound 
and is sticky, curly, and very stubborn. The process is at best only 
a makeshift, but it is the easiest of all to improvise and the simplest 
to operate. For quick work several pans should be provided, as 
each must be washed after use and should not be used again until 
well dried. 

The hectograph compound is made of: 

Parts. 

Glue or gelatin 100 

Glycerin 400 

Water 400 

Kaolin, 50 parts, or some fine inert light-colored powder 
may be added with advantage. The ingredients require prolonged 
mixing at 200° F., which is best obtained in a salt-water bath, 2 
ounces salt to 1 pint water. 

The ink is made of: 

Parts. 

Nigrosine black 1 

Glycerin 4 

Water 14 

Writing or drawing is done with a fresh, clean steel pen. 
The surface of the compound is moistened lightly with a brush or 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 493 

sponge and allowed to nearly dry, when the copy is laid smoothly 
on face down and rubbed to a good contact throughout, eliminating 
all air bubbles. The paper is allowed to remain two or three 
minutes and then removed by starting one corner and pulling 
parallel to the surface. The sheets for impressions are put on and 
removed in the same way, except that they are left on but few 
seconds. 

With the black autocopyist the drawing is made in a special 
ink and transferred to a parchment sheet held in a special frame. 
This process is free from some of the objections to the hecto- 
graph, but it is more difficult to work. The copies are in printer's 
ink, are permanent, and very satisfactory. 

Landscape Sketching. — Free hand sketching can not take 
the place of topography, but it is a valuable adjunct and should 
be practiced by every soldier who has any aptitude for pictorial 
drawing. 

A sketch differs from a photograph only in that it shows in 
sharp outline a limited number of the larger and characteristic 
features easily seen and understood, while the photograph shows 
all details, many of them so minute that they are lost in a mass of 
confused forms, with the form lines, other than the sky line, rela- 
tively inconspicuous. All the lines of a perfect sketch exist in a 
photograph, but close scrutiny is often necessary to find them. 
If sought out and traced, however, a perfect sketch results. Trac- 
ing from photographs is excellent practice. 

Hydrography. — Depth of water and character of bottom are 
determined by sounding with a pole or with a lead and line. The 
sounding pole may be improvised, or of permanent form. A con- 
venient one is 10 feet long, octagonal in section, tapering slightly 
from middle to ends, divided into feet which are painted alternately 
white, and black or red. There sho'uld be an iron shoe at the bot- 
tom, heavy enough to make the rod stand erect when free in deep 
water. Such a rod is convenient to use in water 9 feet or less 
in depth. 

If a sounding lead is not furnished, any compact weight may 
be used. The sounding line should be of braided hemp or cotton, 
Y$ to l / 2 inch in diameter and tagged with cloth or leather. The' 
tagging depends on the depth to be measured, and degree of pre- 
cision required. Cloth of different colors may be used for different 
units, and leather tags may be distinguished by cutting notches or 
punching holes in them. The line should be thoroughly wet. 
stretched, and allowed to dry. It should then be wet again and 
tagged while wet. The zero of the graduation is at the bottom of 
the lead or weight. A lead and line are best connected by a raw- 
hide thong passing through an eye in the lead and an eye made in 
the end of the line. 



494 MILITARY TRAINING 

Soundings are usually referred to a plane parallel to the 
water surface, horizontal except in flowing streams. The plane 
usually selected is the water surface itself if stationery, or one of 
its positions if variable, so that soundings will indicate approxi- 
mately the actual depths of water. The elevation of the water sur- 
face in the position selected is called the datum level. If the sur- 
face elevation varies, a gauge rod must be set near the water's 
edge, and read often enough to plot a continuous curve of water 
level. The time of beginning and ending a particular group of 
soundings is noted. The mean elevation of the water surface dur- 
ing that interval is taken from the curve, and the soundings are 
corrected by the difference between the actual level and the datum 
level. If the correction to be applied is less than half a foot, it is 
usually neglected. 

The material of the bottom, as rock, gravel, sand, or mud, 
can usually be told from the feeling of the rod or lead when it 
strikes. A specimen of the bottom can be brought up by smearing 
the end of the lead with tallow. 

A correct sounding is obtained only when the line or rod is 
plumb and straight and its length correct, or its error known and 
applied. Except for blunders in reading the line, only one source 
of error operates to make the soundings too small, and that is a 
line which has stretched since it was tagged or is too long. All 
other sources of error make the soundings too large, and hence 
they are apt to be so, and actual depths slightly less than those 
recorded will usually be found. 

To get a plumb sounding from a boat moving through the 
water, the lead is thrown out or the pole inclined in the direction 
of motion far enough to allow it to reach bottom by the 
time the boat is directly over the spot where it strikes. Soundings 
taken with a line from a moving boat will always be too large. 

The most accurate soundings with lead and line in running 
water are taken from a boat floating with the current, with line 
allowed to hang and move with the water. It is raised only a foot 
or so between soundings, just enough to clear the bottom. 

Location of soundings. — The simplest method is by two si- 
multaneous azimuths from known points on shore. If the sound- 
ings are taken on a line passing through one of the points, all azi- 
muths from that point will be constant, and one measurement will 
suffice. This line is plainly marked by range flags and the boat's 
crew instructed to keep the flags in range. Only one instrument 
and observer are required. This is the usual method for streams 
and is best for all work where the soundings can be taken in 
straight lines. Locations may be made from the boat by two ob- 
servers taking simultaneous compass bearings to two known points 
on shore or by two simultaneous sextant angles. The latter is less 
convenient, as a special protractor is required for rapid plotting. 



TOPOGRAPHICAL RECONNAISSANCE 495 

Map reading is essentially the reverse of map making. In 
the latter process ground is measured and studied with a view of 
forming a mental picture of how a map of it will look. In the 
former — map reading — a map is measured and studied for the 
purpose of forming a mental picture of how the ground itself looks. 
All rules and principles heretofore stated as to relations between 
ground and map are to be used in studying the relations of map to 
ground. 

Drawing. — The essential requirements of a good topograph- 
ical drawing are accuracy and clearness. By accuracy is meant a 
faithful exhibit of measurements and observations made in the 
field, or of data taken from other maps. Clearness involves 
absence of confusion or crowding, and neatness in execution. 
Beauty and pictorial effect are obtainable by skilled draftsmen 
only, and while always desirable are rarely necessary. Persons 
who are not skilled draftsmen should not attempt pictorial effect, 
as it will detract from accuracy and clearness without substituting 
anything of equal value. 

Conventional Signs. — The symbols or signs used to repre- 
sent topographical features are designed to be rapidly made and 
readily understood, and to resemble or suggest the actual features 
they represent. Multiplicity of signs is not desirable, and a 
verbal designation or description of the features is often more 
intelligible and more quickly recorded. For instance, it is better 
to write the names of the growing crops of a district, as tobacco, 
corn, or cane, than to cover the entire area with a symbol. Another 
method of expediting mapping is to surround an area with a 
narrow border of the proper sign and leave the middle blank. 

Titles, Notes, Etc. — Every finished drawing should have a 
descriptive title, consisting of — (1) The designation of the organ- 
ization under whose auspices it is made, as Engineer Department; 
Bureau of Insular Affairs; War Department; Division of the Phil- 
ippines; 1st Division, 2d Corps. (2) Its kind, as map, sketch, plot, 
plan, profile, section, or elevation. If more than one kind of 
drawing appears on the sheet, each should be mentioned in the 
title, as plan and sections of battery; plan, section, and elevations 
of guardhouse, etc. (3) Its subject, if it relates to a particular 
object, feature, or purpose. (4) Its locality. This and the preced- 
ing may be interchanged in position. (5) Its sources, as Compiled 
from, etc.; Reduced from, etc.; From a survey, etc. (6) Its author- 
ship. If the work has been done by one person, acting under the 
instructions of another, both should be named, as under the direc- 
tion of Colonel John Doe, General Staff, by Captain William Roe, 
1st U. S. Infantry. (7) Its date. (8) Its linear scale; its contour 
interval; its scale of slope equivalents. 
32 



496 MILITARY TRAINING 

Titles should be adapted in size and boldness to the size and 
importance of the sheet. They should be divided into lines, fol- 
lowing mainly the divisions just stated. The middle letter of each 
line should fall on a line drawn vertically through the middle of 
the space allotted to the title. Lines should be alternately long and 
short, and if the long lines are symmetrically disposed, the effect 
is better. 

Meridian. — 'The magnetic meridian should be shown, and the 
true meridian also if the declination is known. The true meridian 
may be a line, of 3 inches or upward in length; with a star at its 
north and the feather of an arrow at its south end. The magnetic 
meridian may be an arrow crossing the former at the middle point 
and making with it an angle equivalent to the declination. 

Enlargement and Reduction. — The simplest method is by 
squares. Divide the original into squares of 2 inches or less by 
lines drawn parallel to the borders. Divide the paper on which 
the copy is to be made into squares with sides corresponding to 
the same distance on the scale of the copy that the side of a square 
on the original itself does to the scale of the original. If a plot- 
ting scale of the original be placed on the side of a square on the 
original and the plotting scale of the copy on the side of a 
square of the copy, the readings should be the same. The square 
on the copy will be larger if the drawing is to be enlarged and 
smaller if it is to be reduced. The ratio between the sides of the 
squares on the original and the copy is the ratio of reduction or 
enlargement. 

Select a square of the original and reproduce its contents in 
the corresponding square of the copy; or take a feature of the 
original, as a road or stream, and trace its course through several 
squares. 

Usually the position of a point in a square or on one of the 
sides can be estimated with sufficient accuracy. Important points 
may be located by measurement of distances from the nearest 
sides of the squares, using the scale of the map and the scale or 
the copy, respectively. 

Instead of drawing the squares on the original, they may be 
drawn on tracing linen or paper laid over it, or fine threads may 
be stretched to form the squares. Every drawing board should 
have a scale of inches on each edge marked with fine saw cuts or 
with small tacks to facilitate the drawing of squares*. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

MILITARY INFORMATION, RECONNAISSANCE 
AND THE SERVICE OF SECURITY 

Military information may be considered under two general 
heads, namely, (1) that collected by the General Staff in time of 
peace; (2) that obtained by troops in the field after the outbreak of 
hostilities. The former relates to the geography, resources, and 
military strength of the various nations, and enables the War 
Department to decide upon the size of an army or expedition, the 
proportion of the different arms, character of clothing, equipment, 
etc., that may be necessary in the event of war. The latter relates 
to the theater of operations and to the position, strength, inten- 
tions, etc., of the enemy in the field, and is absolutely essential to 
enable a commander properly to estimate the situation. Information 
in the field is obtained from various sources — higher commanders, 
adjoining troops, inhabitants, newspapers, letters, telegraph files, 
prisoners, deserters, spies, maps, and reconnaissances. Knowledge 
of the terrain, always essential to a correct understanding of the 
situation, is obtained from a careful study of available maps, sup- 
plemented by thorough reconnaissance. All information of the 
enemy and of the theater of operations is sent to the intelligence 
section of the general staff group of headquarters of units larger 
than a brigade. This section weighs and classifies the information 
brought in and supervises the preparation of the necessary field 
maps. An efficient secret service is organized as soon as prac- 
ticable. 

In hostile territory influential persons, especially those sup- 
posed to be active in the enemy's cause, may be seized and their 
persons and houses searched. Letters and newspapers in post 
offices and files in telegraph offices are carefully examined and any- 
thing of importance sent to higher authority. Matter not of im- 
portance is replaced, if time permits; if not, the whole is sent to 
headquarters. Local maps of recent date may be of great value. 

When reliable information of the enemy can not be obtained, 
it is assumed that he will act with good judgment. 



498 MILITARY TRAINING 

Information received by any person in the military service, 
and the action taken thereon, must be promptly reported to the 
proper military superior. 

Unless instructions have been given to spread false informa- 
tion, all persons connected with the military service are forbidden 
to discuss the military situation, plans, movements, etc., with, or in 
the presence of, civilians of any age, sex, or nationality. 

RECONNAISSANCE 

Reconnaissance is the military term used to designate the 
work of troops or individuals when gathering information in the 
field. Reconnaissance begins as soon as the theater of possible 
operations is entered and continues throughout the campaign. No 
matter what other sources of information of the enemy may be 
available, reconnaissance must be depended upon to obtain the 
information upon which all tactical movements of troops should be 
based. 

By Aero Squadron. — In forces of the strength of a division, 
or larger, the aero squadron will operate in advance of the inde- 
pendent cavalry in order to locate the enemy and to keep track of 
his movements. Contact with the enemy once gained will be main- 
tained thereafter continuously. 

By the Cavalry. — Reconnaissance in the theater of opera- 
tions is best made by the cavalry, which from the beginning of the 
campaign seeks to determine the enemy's strength and dispositions. 
It protects its own army against surprise, screens its movements, 
and insures the safety and success of the troops of other arms. The 
defeat of the hostile cavalry and its expulsion from the field are 
usually the best means to this end. As the opposing armies draw 
near each other, the cavalry endeavors to secure control of the 
ground between and bends every effort to that close and continu- 
ous reconnaissance of the enemy's forces that is vital to the success 
of the entire campaign. 

As a rule, only general instructions are given to a leader of 
independent cavalry. It is usually sufficient to indicate the country 
to be reconnoitered, invite attention to specially important local- 
ities, and point out the extent of the daily advance of the field 
force. He is generally in telegraphic communication with the 
supreme commander, and keeps him constantly informed of the 
situation at the front. In the absence of telegraphic facilities, he 
reports according to the circumstances, sending his messages by 
the divisional cavalry when practicable. 

By Independent Cavalry. — Reconnaissance by the inde- 
pendent cavalry will give, in a general way, the enemy's location 



MILITARY INFORMATION 499 

for several hours, or even days, preceding contact of the main 
bodies. If this cavalry is strong enough to defeat the enemy's 
cavalry, it will be enabled to locate the hostile infantry and artil- 
lery and to determine their approximate strength. If weaker than 
the enemy's cavalry, it must rely upon the work of strategical and 
tactical patrols to obtain detailed information of the enemy, or it 
must be assisted by the other arms. In the latter case the advance 
guard of the main body will afford this assistance by stopping the 
advance of the enemy's cavalry and compelling him to deploy his 
infantry and artillery, in part at least. On very wide fronts an 
army is generally covered by two or more bodies of independent 
cavalry; each is informed of the extent of ground it is to cover 
and keeps in touch with the neighboring cavalry. 

By Divisional Cavalry. — The cavalry attached to an infantry 
division is called divisional cavalry. When the division is operating 
independently, the divisional cavalry acts also as independent 
cavalry; when the division forms part of a field army, the divisional 
cavalry is known as advance cavalry. It usually enters into the 
composition of advance, flank, rear, and outpost guards, and when 
so employed is known as advance guard, flank guard, rear guard, 
and outpost cavalry, as the case may be, and performs such recon- 
naissance as the situation demands. 

Reconnaissance by the advance cavalry is such as will afford 
security to the main body. It prevents surprise to any part of the 
force. If stronger than the cavalry opposing it, the advance 
cavalry will obtain valuable information of the enemy before the 
infantry and artillery of the advance guard become engaged. But 
where the cavalry, for any reason, fails in this purpose, the work 
must be done by the other arms, without, however, so dispersing 
battle units that they will be outside of supporting distance of each 
other. 

Though its reconnaissance is more restricted than that of the 
independent cavalry, advance cavalry goes more into detail and 
gathers information as to the resources of the country, roads, 
camping places, etc. As combat becomes imminent and the inde- 
pendent cavalry is drawn off to a flank, the advance cavalry must 
J^e especially active to guard against surprise, gain information of 
the enemy's movements, and prevent incursions of his patrols. 
When there is independent cavalry in front, the divisional cavalry 
maintains connection therewith; when not, it reconnoiters far to 
the front and gains touch with the enemy if possible, operating in 
a manner similar to that of independent cavalry of larger units. 

By Infantry. — The extent of the infantry reconnaissance will 
not be so great where the aero squadron and the cavalry are able 
to perform this service efficiently, as it must be in the absence of 
efficient reconnaissance by the other arms. In no case, however, 



500 MILITARY TRAINING 

can infantry reconnaissance, preceding or during combat, be 
dispensed with. Infantry and artillery can not rely wholly upon 
cavalry or aero reconnaissance, but must conduct such close-in 
reconnaissance as is necessary for security and to determine their 
immediate dispositions. In the absence of cavalry, reconnaissance 
at a distance is made by infantry or scouts specially detailed for 
that purpose. If a command is weak in cavalry, or the country is 
rough and broken, it may be advisable to use reconnoitering de- 
tachments composed of both infantry and cavalry. 

Reconnaissance Immediately Preceding Combat. — Recon- 
naissance preceding deployment for action is of vital importance. 
On the information of the enemy and of the terrain obtained 
through proper reconnaissance combat orders are based. How 
complete such reconnaissance may be will depend upon the time 
that can be spared for the purpose without losing the initiative in 
action, upon the character of information desired, and upon the 
efficiency of the measures taken by the enemy to conceal his 
dispositions. 

The strength of the force employed in this reconnaissance is 
determined by the character of the information desired and by the 
nature of the hostile screen. In every instance it must be strong 
enough to penetrate the enemy's screen, and where detailed infor- 
mation of the enemy's position is desired, to cause the deployment 
of the enemy's infantry and the opening of fire by part, at least, of 
his artillery. In the latter case the combat reconnaissance may 
develop into the opening phase of the attack, and care must be 
taken that enough troops are kept in hand to change completely 
the course of the attack, if the information obtained calls for such 
action. 

In any advance toward the enemy the advance guard must 
be relied upon for such reconnaissance as is necessary, either to 
supplement the reconnaissance of other troops or to replace it 
when other reconnaissance is wholly wanting. It is important that 
the advance guard force the enemy to disclose his position and 
strength as early as possible. A strong force of artillery is most 
useful for this purpose, as it clears up the situation in a way that 
can not be done by other troops, except by incurring heavy losses. 

In encountering the enemy in a position that is to be de- 
veloped the advance guard must continue, by means of the advance 
cavalry, the reconnaissance begun by the independent cavalry or 
by other troops. The enemy will not disclose his position, par- 
ticularly that of* his artillery, until forced to do so by a determined 
reconnaissance which may call for the use of infantry and artillery 
in force before it can accomplish its purpose. The advance of 
the infantry will finally force back all advanced detachments of the 
enemy and bare his main position. The artillery will assist in this 



MILITARY INFORMATION 501 

advance by opening fire on any targets of importance that the 
infantry advance uncovers. Finally, the enemy's artillery will be 
obliged to disclose its position by opening fire, either to stop the 
advance of the opposing infantry or to keep down the opposing 
artillery fire. The information thus gained of the enemy's position 
and strength will enable the leader to form his plan of attack. 

In the rencontre efficient measures for security on the march 
must be relied upon to take the place of the more complete re- 
connaissance which the necessity of obtaining the initiative in 
deployment forbids. In an attack on a position that the enemy 
has had time to take up deliberately and to strengthen, time is not 
so important an element, and the reconnaissance preceding deploy- 
ment must be as complete as may be necessary to determine the 
enemy's strength and dispositions. 

Reconnaissance During Combat. — The infantry keeps up 
during combat such reconnaissance as will enable it to keep con- 
tact with the enemy, acquaint itself with the terrain in its front, 
and especially to protect its flanks and rear. The field artillery 
continues the reconnaissance called for by its tactical employment. 
During combat the aero squadron operates around the flanks and 
over and to the rear of the enemy's position, for the purpose of 
reporting his dispositions, the approach of re-enforcements, or the 
beginning of his withdrawal from action. During combat the 
cavalry conducts an extended reconnaissance around the flanks 
and to the rear of the enemy's position, but such reconnaissance 
must be conducted by small detachments in order that the main 
body of the cavalry may be kept close at hand to aid in obtaining 
success in the main battle. 

Reconnoitering Patrols. — The chief duty of reconnoitering 
patrols is to gather information. They habitually seek safety in 
concealment or flight, fighting only when their mission demands 
it. The most skillful patrolling is where patrols accomplish their 
mission and return without being discovered by the enemy. 

The commander determines the number and strength of 
patrols and when they are to be sent out. It is a cardinal principle 
to send out only such patrols as insure effective reconnaissance. 
Patrols vary in strength from two or three men to a company. 
Small patrols have great mobility, are easily concealed, and do not 
draw heavily on the fighting strength. In hostile territory, or 
when resistance is expected, stronger detachments are required. 
These cover themselves with small patrols of two to four men, 
the remainder acting as support. 

The officer sending out a patrol verifies the detail, designates 
a second in command and gives the necessary instructions. Horses 
of conspicuous color and those that neigh when alone should not 



502 MILITARY TRAINING 

be sent. Precautions are taken to avoid the glitter and rattle of 
weapons and equipments. 

The orders or instructions for a patrol, or for any detach- 
ment going on reconnaissance, must state clearly where the enemy 
is or is supposed to be, what information is desired, what features 
are of special importance, the general direction to be followed, 
whether friendly patrols are likely to be encountered, and where 
messages are to be sent or the patrol is to report. Important and 
comprehensive instructions should be in writing, but precautions 
against capture of papers must be taken. An officer sending out 
a patrol must be certain that his orders are understood. Detailed 
instructions are, as a rule, avoided. When necessary the time of 
return is stated. 

Patrol Leaders. — Skillful patrolling is the basis of efficient 
reconnaissance. Patrol leaders are selected with care, officers 
being detailed for important missions. Patrol leaders should com- 
bine the qualities of good health, vigorous physique, keen eyesight, 
presence of mind and courage, with good judgment, military train- 
ing, and experience. They should be able to read maps, make 
sketches, and send clear and concise messages. Officers on such 
duty often find themselves in positions where the situation must be 
viewed from the standpoint of a higher commander, and should 
be able to reason accordingly. Patrols exercise the greatest vigi- 
lance to prevent discovery. Under the leader's guidance it moves 
so as to guard against surprise, usually with point and flankers. 
To extend the sphere of its observation, still smaller patrols (one 
or two men) may be sent out for short distances, communication 
with the leader being maintained by signals. Whatever the forma- 
tion adopted, it should favor the escape of at least one man in case 
of surprise. In questioning civilians caution is observed not to 
disclose information that may be of value to the enemy. Strangers 
are not allowed to precede the patrol. Patrol leaders are author- 
ized to seize telegrams and mail matter, and to arrest individuals, 
reporting the facts as soon as possible. 

Indications of the Enemy. — Nothing should escape the ob- 
servation of the patrol. The slightest indication of the enemy 
should be reported to the leader at once. On roads and in 
abandoned camps, signs are often found which indicate the num- 
ber, character, and condition of the enemy, and the direction in 
which he is marching. Abandoned clothing or equipage may bear 
marks indicating organizations. A thick and low cloud of dust 
indicates infantry; a high and thin cloud, cavalry; a broken cloud, 
artillery or wagon trains. The size of the command and direction 
of march may be roughly estimated by the dust, but the effect of 
wind must be considered. The strength of a body of troops may 
be estimated from the length of time it takes to pass a given point. 



MILITARY INFORMATION 503 

When it is certain that the enemy has been discovered, that 
fact is promptly reported. The exact location of the enemy — '• 
whether deployed, marching, or in camp — his strength, and the 
arms of service are next ascertained and reported. It is often 
difficult to decide whether the troops discovered are the main 
body; or merely the advance guard or outposts. The rule is to 
observe the main body; therefore it may be necessary to obtain a 
view from a position in rear of the covering troops. This is done 
by going around or by breaking, through, returning over different 
ground to avoid ambuscade. 

Signals. — In addition to the usual signals prescribed in drill 
regulations, the following should be clearly understood by mem- 
bers of a patrol: 

Enemy in sight in small numbers, hold the rifle above the 
head horizontally; enemy in force, same as preceding, raising and 
lowering the rifle several times; take cover, a downward motion of 
the hand. Other signals may be agreed upon before starting, but 
they must be familiar to the men; complicated signals are avoided. 

Employment of Air Craft. — Military air craft of all kinds are 
employed under the direction of the commander of the forces to 
which they are assigned and the immediate control of the officer 
commanding the aero organization. 

Balloons are classed as free, captive, and dirigible. Free 
balloons may be used to convey information from besieged places, 
the return message being sent by radiotelegraphy, carrier pigeons, 
or otherwise. Free balloons are of little use for any other service, 
and are not very dependable on account of their uncertainty of 
movement. Captive balloons may be used for tactical reconnais- 
sance, for observation of artillery fire, and for signaling. Com- 
munication from a captive balloon to the ground should be by 
telephone. 

Large dirigible balloons are of practical value for strategical 
reconnaissance and to travel great distances; they are also suit- 
able for carrying a number of observers, radio equipment, machine 
guns, and considerable weight of explosives. Aeroplanes are more 
dependable for field service with a mobile army than dirigible 
balloons, as the latter require substantial shelter from winds while 
on the ground. Reconnaissance by aeroplane includes strategical 
and tactical reconnaissance and the observation of artillery fire. 
Aeroplanes are also used to prevent hostile aerial reconnaissance. 

Strategical reconnaissance by aeroplane is effective within a 
radius of 150 miles from the starting point, and is for the purpose 
of determining the position, strength, and direction of advance of 
the large elements of an enemy's forces, and also the character of 
the roads, railroads, streams, and the general military topography 
of the theater of operations. 



504 MILITARY TRAINING 

Tactical reconnaissance by aeroplane is used both in attack 
and defense. It is extended in its nature and does not involve 
minute examinations of very small localities or detachments. It 
is designed to discover turning and enveloping movements, the 
position and strength of the enemy's general reserve, artillery 
positions and movements of cavalry; also, from the movement of 
combat or field trains behind an enemy's position information may 
be gained as to whether certain parts of the line are being 
weakened or strengthened, or whether a retreat is contemplated. 

For observation of fire of field artillery, aeroplanes are 
usually assigned to the artillery commander. They are especially 
useful against targets which are invisible from the position of the 
artillery officer conducting the fire. They are safe from hostile 
fire at altitudes of 4,000 feet or more. The results of reconnaissance 
are reported by radiotelegraphy, signals, and the dropping of 
messages. 

MESSAGES, REPORTS, MAPS AND WAR DIARIES 

In the field term "message" is generally applied to written 
information sent by messenger or wire. Such messages should be 
brief and clear, resembling telegrams. The source of the informa- 
tion contained in messages is always given, the writer carefully 
separating what he has actually seen himself from that received 
secondhand. Most of the rules adopted to secure clearness in 
orders apply equally to messages. 

A report is a more or less formal account of some enterprise, 
undertaking, or event, such as a march, reconnaissance, battle, 
etc. A report is usually drawn up at comparative leisure, is often 
the supplement and expansion of short messages, and thus pos- 
sesses the value of greater detail. 

In the field the maps available for general use are on a small 
scale. Those of our own country are prepared by the Geological 
Survey on a scale of 1:62500 (approximately 1 inch to the mile), 
with 20-foot contours. These maps are supplemented by field 
maps or sketches prepared from day to day. For facility in read- 
ing, military maps are made according to a uniform system of 
scales and contour intervals, as follows: One inch to 1 mile, V. I. 
(Vertical Interval) 60 feet; 3 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 20 feet; 6 inches 
to 1 mile, V. I. 10 feet; 12 inches to 1 mile, V. I. 5 feet. 

As a rule, road sketches are made on a scale of 3 inches to 
1 mile, V. I. 20 feet; position and outpost sketches, 6 inches to 1 
mile, V. I. 10 feet. The 1-inch map is used for extended opera- 
tions; the 12-inch map for the war game or for the discussion of 
operations at maneuvers, and in siege operations. As sketches 



MILITARY INFORMATION 505 

must be made rapidly, often on horseback, unnecessary conven- 
tional signs are omitted. Sketches are useful to supplement 
messages and to elucidate reports of campaigns and battles. 

A war diary is a record of events kept in campaign by each 
battalion and higher organization, each ammunition, supply, 
engineer, and sanitary train. Entries are made daily and should 
form a concise history of the military operations. A day com- 
prises 24 hours covered by the date. Each day's record commences 
with a march table, or statement of the operations or location of 
the organization, including an account of weather, roads, camp, 
health of troops, etc., and a statement of the supply of ammunition, 
rations, and forage. This is followed by a chronological record of 
events, including time and place of issue and receipt of orders and 
messages, with a copy of a synopsis of contents. It is of special 
importance that the exact hour and place at which movements are 
begun and ended, and orders or important messages sent or 
received, be noted. After an engagement, the war diary contains 
a report of losses and captures and is accompanied by a sketch 
showing the positions of the command at the most important 
phases. Each day's record is attested by the commander or by 
the adjutant; and, with attached copies of orders and messages 
sent and received, is forwarded daily to the next higher com- 
mander, who, as soon as practicable after the receipt thereof, 
forwards the war diary direct to the War Department. Com- 
manders of armies, or of units not components of a higher com- 
mand, forward their war diaries direct to the War Department. 

TRANSMISSION OF INFORMATION 

Information is transmitted as follows: 1. By wire (tele- 
graph, buzzer, telephone). 2. By visual signaling (flag, helio, night 
lamp). 3. By radiotelegraph. 4. By messenger (foot, mounted, 
cycle, motor car, flying machine). 

Information over considerable distances is usually trans- 
mitted by wire or radiotelegraph. For short distances, and when 
other means are not available, information is carried by messenger. 
When messages are sent by wire or radiotelegraph they are always 
handed the operator in writing. The telephone is not as accurate 
as the telegraph, and when used the parties concerned do the 
talking, if practicable. All available means are utilized to facilitate 
the transmission of information, and it is the duty of all officers 
to assist in the transmission of orders and messages. 

It is frequently advisable to send information not only to 
the proper superior, but to neighboring troops as well. When 
copies of messages are so sent the fact is noted upon each. In 



506 MILITARY TRAINING 

large commands information as to the situation of neighboring 
troops is often of great importance. In such cases "information 
officers" with messages are sent to accompany such troops. These 
officers send to their own commanders all information of military 
importance to them. 

Messages carried by messenger are usually inclosed in 
envelopes properly addressed. The envelope when not marked 
"confidential" is left unsealed, so that commanders along the line 
of march may read the contents. Upon the envelope is written 
the name of the messenger, his time of departure, and rate of 
speed. The latter is indicated as follows: Ordinary, rapid, or 
urgent. Ordinary means about 5 miles an hour for a mounted 
man; rapid, about 7 or 8 miles an hour; and urgent, the highest 
speed consistent with certainty of arrival at destination. The 
recipient notes the time of receipt upon the envelope and returns 
the latter to bearer. 

When there is danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, 
messages are sent in cipher. Important information is sent by 
two or more messengers, depending upon the dangers of the road. 
It may be advisable to send duplicate messages by different routes. 
Messengers are informed before starting of the purport of the 
message, and where they are to report after it is delivered. 

When the usual means of communication can not be estab- 
lished, or fail to work, relay lines of mounted men may become 
necessary. When such lines are established, connecting posts are 
generally placed on the roads at well-marked points, such as 
crossroads, bridges, etc. The distance between posts depends 
upon the rapidity of transmission desired, the number of men avail- 
able, and the location of suitable stations. The usual distance is 
from 5 to 10 miles. The strength of such posts varies from six 
men and a non-commissioned officer to half a troop. A record 
is kept at each post of all communications received and transmitted. 

SERVICE OF SECURITY 

This security, embracing all those measures taken by a 
command to protect itself from observation, annoyance, or sur- 
prise by the enemy, is ordinarily provided in part by the inde- 
pendent cavalry, which, operating far to the front, checks the 
opposing cavalry and sends in timely information of the move- 
ments of the enemy. But as a command is not always preceded 
by independent cavalry, and as this cavalry can not always prevent 
sudden incursions of the enemy or discover his patrols, additional 
security becomes necessary. This is obtained by covering the 
immediate front of the command with detachments. On the march 



MILITARY INFORMATION 507 

these detachments are called advance, flank, or rear guard; in 
camp or bivouac they are called outposts. The object of the 
former is to facilitate the movement of the main body and to 
protect it from surprise and observation; the object of the latter is 
to secure the camp or bivouac against surprise and to prevent an 
attack upon it before the troops can prepare to resist. 

On the march these detachments facilitate the advance of 
the main body by promptly driving off small bodies of the enemy 
who seek to harass or delay it; by removing obstacles from the 
line of advance; by repairing roads, bridges, etc., thus enabling 
the main body to advance uninterruptedly in convenient marching 
formation. They protect the main body by preventing the enemy 
from firing into it when in close formation; by holding the enemy 
and enabling the main body to deploy before coming under effec- 
tive fire; by preventing its size and condition from being observed 
by the enemy; and, in retreat, by gaining time for it to make its 
escape or to reorganize its forces. 

As the principal duty of these bodies is the same, viz., that 
of protecting the main body, there is a general similarity in the 
formations assumed by them. There is (1) the cavalry covering 
the front; next (2) a group, or line of groups, in observation; then 
(3) the support, or line of supports, whose duty is to furnish the 
observation groups, and check the enemy pending the arrival of 
re-enforcements; still farther in rear is (4) the reserve. 

The march order of the whole command should explain the 
situation, and among other things, detail the commander and troops 
for each covering detachment. It should specify the route to be 
taken and the distance to be maintained between the main body 
and its covering detachments. It should order such reconnais- 
sance as the commander specially desires to have made. The 
order of the commander of a covering detachment should clearly 
explain the situation to subordinates, assign the troops to the 
subdivisions, prescribe their distances, and order such special 
reconnaissance as may be deemed necessary in the beginning. 

An advance or flank guard commander marches well to the 
front and, from time to time, orders such additional reconnaissance 
or makes such changes in his dispositions as the circumstances 
of the case demand. In large commands troops from all arms are 
generally detailed, the proportion from each being determined by 
the tactical situation; but commanders detail no more troops than 
the situation actually requires, as an excessive amount of such 
duty rapidly impairs the efficiency of a command. As a general 
rule troops detailed on the service of security vary in strength from 
one-twentieth to one-third of the entire command, but seldom 
exceed the latter. When practicable, the integrity of tactical units 
is preserved. 



508 MILITARY TRAINING 

In mixed commands infantry usually forms the greater 
part of the troops detailed to the service of security. Cavalry is 
assigned to that duty whenever advantage can be taken of its 
superior mobility. The kind and amount of artillery are deter- 
mined by circumstances. Engineer, signal, and sanitary troops 
are detailed when required. The field trains of troops on this duty 
generally remain with the field train of the command, but if con- 
ditions permit they may join their organizations. Troops on the 
service of security pay no compliments; individuals salute when 
they address, or are addressed by, a superior officer. 

ADVANCE GUARDS 

An advance guard is a detachment of the main body which 
precedes and covers it on the march. Its duties are: 1. To guard 
against surprise and furnish information by reconnoitering to the 
front and flanks. 2. To push back small parties of the enemy and 
prevent their observing, firing upon, or delaying the main body. 3. 
To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the 
main body to prepare for action. 4. When the enemy is 
encountered on the defensive, to seize a good position and locate 
his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general engagement 
unless the advance guard commander is empowered to do so. 5. 
To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way pos- 
sible the steady march of the column. 

Strength and Composition. — Subject to variation according 
to the situation, one-twentieth to one-third of a command may be 
assumed as a suitable strength for the advance guard. The larger 
the force, the larger in proportion is the advance guard, for a large 
command takes relatively longer to prepare for action than a small 
one. In large commands it is usually composed of all arms, the 
proportions depending on the nature of the work, character of 
the country, etc. In open country it should be strong in cavalry 
and field artillery, but artillery is seldom assigned to the advance 
guard of a command not larger than a brigade. In such cases, 
however, when there is artillery with a command, an officer of that 
arm usually accompanies the advance guard for purposes of 
artillery reconnaissance. In swampy country or jungle it may be 
formed of infantry alone. When not preceded by independent 
cavalry, the advance guard must, as a rule, be strong in cavalry; 
in such cases the commander determines whether to attach all of 
the divisional cavalry to the advance guard, or to retain a part for 
some special service. Machine guns materially increase the effec- 
tiveness of an advance guard. They are useful in holding bridges, 
defiles, etc., until reeforcements can be brought up. Engineers are 
usually attached to an advance guard to remove obstacles, repair 



V 



MILITARY INFORMATION 509 

roads, etc. Circumstances may require a bridge train to be 
attached. The supreme commander generally retains control of 
the signal troops, and establishes such lines of information as he 
deems necessary. However, when the nature of the country favors 
communication by signaling, signal troops may be attached to the 
advance guard. An ambulance company usually accompanies large 
advance guards. 

Distance from Main Body. — The distance at which the 
advance guard precedes the main body, or the main body follows 
the advance guard, is stated in the march order. In small com- 
mands, where there is no difficulty in keeping touch with the main 
body, the march order generally requires the advance guard to 
regulate its march on the main body; but where the advance guard 
is large, or moves at a considerable distance in advance of the 
main body, the latter regulates its march on the advance guard. 
While the distance between these two bodies should be great 
enough to prevent needless interruptions in the march of the main 
body, and to give the latter time to deploy should the enemy be 
encountered, it should never be so great that timely support of 
the advance guard becomes impracticable. 

Advance Guard Commander. — On receipt of the march order 
the advance guard commander estimates the situation and, at the 
proper time, issues the advance guard order. This order divides 
the advance guard into its tactical components (advance cavalry, 
support, etc.), and gives the necessary instructions for each. The 
advance guard commander is mounted and goes wherever he deems 
his presence necessary, though his habitual station is at the head of 
the reserve, or with the support when there is no reserve. He 
conducts the advance so as not to interrupt the steady march of 
the main body, and, when ordered to move at a certain distance in 
front of the latter, maintains the necessary connection therewith. 
He bears constantly in mind the duties of an advance guard, and 
studies the ground with a view to tactical dispositions should the 
enemy be encountered. 

Advance Cavalry. — The advance cavalry is that part of the 
advance guard cavalry preceding the support. It reconnoiters far 
enough to the front and flanks to guard the column against sur- 
prise by artillery fire, and to enable timely information to be sent 
to the advance guard commander. If preceded by independent 
cavalry, the advance cavalry maintains connection therewith, 
except when prevented by uncontrollable reasons; if not preceded 
by independent cavalry, it pushes well out and endeavors to find 
the enemy, performing to a limited extent the functions of inde- 
pendent cavalry. Its commander should be bold, energetic, and 
capable; he sees that his command is supplied with articles re- 
quired by patrols. 



/ 



510 MILITARY TRAINING 

Support. — Following the advance cavalry is the support, 
varying in strength from one-fourth to one-half of the advance 
guard. In mixed commands it consists of infantry, to which 
engineers may be attached. If there is no advance cavalry, some 
cavalry should be attached to the support for reconnoitering duty. 

As the support moves out it sends forward an advance party 
several hundred yards, the distance varying with the terrain and 
the size of the command. The advance party supplements the 
work of the advance cavalry, reconnoitering to the front and 
flanks to guard the support against surprise by effective rifle fire. 
The patrol preceding the advance party on the line of march is 
called the point, and is commanded by an officer or an experienced 
non-commissioned officer. 

With the advance cavalry in front but little reconnoitering 
by infantry is necessary, and the advance party is relatively small 
— one-eighth to one-third of the support. If there is no advance 
cavalry, the advance party is made stronger (about one-half of the 
support) and the flanks are guarded, if necessary, by additional 
patrols sent out from the support and even from the reserve. 

The support commander ordinarily marches with the advance 
party, but goes wherever needed. He sees that the proper road 
is followed; that guides are left in towns and at crossroads; that 
necessary repairs are made to roads, bridges, etc., and that infor- 
mation of the enemy or affecting the march is promptly transmitted 
to the advance guard commander. He endeavors promptly to 
verify information of the enemy. 

Reserve. — The reserve follows the support at several hun- 
dred yards distance. It consists of the remainder of the infantry 
and engineers, the artillery, and the ambulance company. The 
artillery usually marches near the head of the reserve, the engi- 
neers (with bridge train, if any) and special troops at the rear. 

Reconnaissance. — In conducting the reconnaissance the 
patrols are, as a rule, small — from two to six men. If additional 
protection is necessary, a flank guard covers the threatened flank. 
The flanking patrols, whether of the advance cavalry or advance 
party, are sent out to examine the country wherever the enemy 
might be concealed. If the nature of the terrain permits, these 
patrols march across country or along roads and trails paralleling 
the march of the column. For cavalry patrols this is often pos- 
sible; but with infantry patrols and even with those that are 
mounted, reconnaissance is generally best done by sending the 
patrols to high places along the line of march to overlook the 
country and examine the danger points. These patrols report or 
signal the results of their observations and, unless they have other 
instructions, join their units by the most practicable routes, other 
patrols being sent out as the march proceeds and as the nature of 



I 



MILITARY INFORMATION 511 

the country requires. Communication between the fractions of an 
advance guard and between the advance guard and main body is 
maintained by wire, messenger service, or signals. 

ADVANCE GUARD OF SMALL COMMAND 

In forming the advance guard of a command smaller than 
a brigade, the foregoing distribution is modified, depending upon 
the situation. A company or troop usually sends forward only a 
point, a battalion or squadron, an advance party; but a battalion 
or squadron, at war strength should put a company or troop in 
the advance guard and a regiment should put a battalion or squad- 
ron, if an enemy is liable to be met. Whenever the advance guard 
is less than a battalion, there is no reserve. Cavalry marching 
independently adopts formations for its advance guard similar to 
those described above, though the distances are generally greater. 

SECURITY FOR THE HEAD OF A RETREATING FORCE 

In retreat a column is preceded by a body of troops desig- 
nated "leading troops," whose principal duty is to clear the road 
of obstacles and facilitate the withdrawal of the command. The 
strength and composition of such troops are determined by the 
situation. Engineers are generally necessary; cavalry is assigned 
to this duty to afford protection against guerillas or small hostile 
parties that may have succeeded in reaching the rear of the com- 
mand. If the rear is seriously threatened, the leading troops march 
practically as an advance guard. 

FLANK GUARDS 

The flanks of a column are protected in part by the advance 
guard, which carefully examines the ground on both sides of the 
line of march. It may be necessary, however, to provide additional 
security for a flank threatened by the enemy. This is done by 
sending a detachment, called a flank guard, to cover the exposed 
flank 

Flank guards vary in size from patrols to detachments of all 
arms. Their composition and formation depend upon the situation, 
though they are generally strong in cavalry on account of the 
necessity for rapid reconnaissance and communication. They may 
be composed exclusively of that arm, but when strong positions 
are to be held, or prolonged resistance to the enemy is expected, 
troops of all arms are necessary. Their duties are similar to those 



512 MILITARY TRAINING 

of an advance guard. They keep in constant touch with the column 
either by wire, signal, or messenger service. 

Flank guards may be sent out by an advance guard (made 
strong for that purpose) or by the main body; they march in a 
direction generally parallel to the column, keeping abreast of the 
unit from which detailed, or are sent to occupy favorable positions 
on a threatened flank, remaining there until the whole column has 
passed. In the latter case they join the rear guard and return to 
their commands at the end of the day's march. As a flank guard 
usually marches a greater distance than the body from which 
detailed, it is generally sent out in advance. 

When the main body executes a flank march near the enemy, 
the flank guard becomes a body of great importance. If the flank 
march is due to a considerable change of direction in the march 
of the column, it is generally advisable to convert the advance 
guard into a flank guard, and detail a new advance guard to pre- 
cede the column. If the troops making the flank march start from 
camp, a separate flank guard must be provided. In long columns 
the large units, such as regiments, will provide their own flank 
observation. 

REAR GUARDS 

The rear guard is charged with the important duty of cover- 
ing the retreat. Its strength depends upon the nature of the 
country and the strength and character of the pursuing force. 
It can not, like the advance guard, count on the support of the 
main body. Machine guns are especially useful in the passage of 
defiles and in covering the crossings of rivers. Engineers and 
ambulance companies are usually assigned to rear guards. The 
troops of a rear guard are selected from those that have had pre- 
vious local successes, or have suffered little loss and are compara- 
tively fresh. 

Distribution of Troops. — The proximity and conduct of the 
enemy control, to a large extent, the formation of a rear guard. 
When it is not necessary to withdraw in deployed lines, the greater 
part of the rear guard marches on the road in column of route, 
taking up a formation resembling that of an advance guard faced 
to the rear. The distribution of troops is therefore similar to that 
of an advance guard. 

The rear cavalry is that portion of the rear guard cavalry 
following the support. The support, as in an advance guard, is 
divided into two parts; that part nearer the enemy is called the 
rear party and marches with a rear point. Mounted engineers 
usually accompany the support and may be attached to the rear 
party. Where the cavalry is of sufficient strength and has horse 






MILITARY INFORMATION 513 

artillery attached, the entire rear guard, excepting the reserve, may- 
be composed of that arm. The reserve is composed mainly of 
infantry and artillery. The distances of the rear guard from the 
main body and between the fractions of the rear guard are about 
the same as in the case of an advance guard. If marching at night, 
the rear guard draws nearer the main body. 

If there is a possibility that the rear of the column may be 
attacked, a rear guard of suitable strength and composition is 
provided. If the hostile attempts are confined to guerillas, 
marauders, etc., the guard should be strong in cavalry. Its con- 
duct is practically the same as that of the rear guard of a retreat- 
ing force. It generally marches in rear of the trains, those organ- 
izations following the combatant troops without distance. 



OUTPOSTS 

The size and disposition of the outposts will depend upon 
many circumstances, such as the size of the whole command, the 
proximity of the enemy and the situation with respect to him, the 
nature of the terrain, etc. A suitable strength may vary from a 
very small fraction to one-third of the whole force. For a single 
company in bivouac a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a 
large command a more elaborate outpost system must be provided. 
It should be no stronger than is consistent with reasonable secur- 
ity. The most economical protection is furnished by keeping close 
contact with the enemy by means of outpost patrols, in conjunc- 
tion with resisting detachments on the avenues of approach. The 
outpost should be composed of complete organizations. 

In a brigade or smaller force on the march toward the 
enemy, the outpost is generally formed from the advance guard, 
and is relieved the following day when the new advance guard 
crosses the line of outguards. In a retreat, the detail for outpost 
duty is generally made from the main body. The new outpost 
becomes the rear guard the following day. When, as in large 
forces an advance and rear guard performs such duty for several 
days, the outpost, during this period, is furnished by the advance 
or rear guards. When the command is small and stationary for 
several days the outpost is relieved daily. In large commands. 
the outpost, as a rule, is relieved at intervals of several days. 

The positions held by the subdivisions of the outpost should 
generally be prepared for defense, but conditions may render this 
unnecessary. Troops on outpost keep concealed as much as is 
consistent with the proper performance of their duties; especially 
do they avoid appearing on the sky line. 

Composition. — A mixed outpost is composed principally of 



514 MILITARY TRAINING 

infantry. The infantry is charged with the duty of local observa- 
tion, especially at night, and with resisting the enemy long enough 
for the main body to prepare for action. The cavalry is charged 
with the duty of reconnaissance, and is very useful in open country 
during the day. If the infantry has been severely taxed by march- 
ing or fighting, a large part of the outpost may be temporarily 
formed of cavalry. When an outpost is detailed from the advance 
guard, the advance cavalry of the advance guard becomes the 
advance cavalry of the outpost and continues the work of recon- 
naissance until recalled for the night. 

Artillery is useful to outposts when its fire can sweep defiles 
or large open spaces and when it commands positions that might 
be occupied by hostile artillery. . The guns are carefully concealed 
or protected and are usually withdrawn at night. Machine guns 
are useful to command approaches and check sudden advances of 
the enemy. Engineers are usually attached to an outpost to assist 
in constructing intrenchments, clearing the field of fire, and opening 
communications laterally and to the rear. The supreme com- 
mander generally retains control of the signal troops and estab- 
lishes a line of information to the reserve and from the reserve 
to each support and important detached post. 

It is generally unnecessary to attach any portion of the san- 
itary train to an outpost, as the equipment of the regimental aid 
station carried in the sanitary combat train is as a rule sufficient. 
If necessary, dressing stations may be established by ambulance 
companies of the sanitary train in convenient location to the rear 
of the outpost line. The field train of troops on outpost duty 
generally join their organizations; if an engagement is probable, 
they may be held in rear. 

Distribution of Outpost Troops. — The outpost is generally 
divided into four parts. These, in order from the main body, are 
the reserve, the line of supports, the line of outguards, and the 
advance cavalry. The distances separating these parts, and their 
distance from the main body, depends upon the object sought, the 
nature of the terrain, and the size of the command. There can be 
no uniformity in the distance between supports and reserve, nor 
between outguards and supports, even in the same outpost. The 
avenues of approach and the important features of the terrain 
largely control their exact positions. The outpost of a small force 
should ordinarily hold the enemy beyond effective rifle range of 
the main body until the latter can deploy. For the same purpose 
the outpost of a large force should hold the enemy beyond artillery 
range. 

The reserve constitutes the main body of the outpost and 
is held at some central point from which it can readily support 
the troops in front or hold a rallying position on which they may 



MILITARY INFORMATION 515 

retire. It may be omitted when the outpost consists of less than 
two companies, but usually comprises one-fourth to two-thirds of 
the strength of the outpost. 

The supports constitute a line of supporting and resisting 
detachments, varying in size from a half company to a battalion. 
They furnish the line of outguards, and are numbered consecu- 
tively from right to left. They are placed at the more important 
points on the outpost line, usually in the line on which resistance 
is to be made in case of attack. As a general rule, roads exercise 
the greatest influence on the location of supports, and a support 
will generally be placed on or near a road. The section which it is 
to cover should be clearly defined by means of tangible lines on the 
ground and should be such that the support is centrally located 
therein. 

The outguards constitute the line of small detachments 
farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. For convenience 
they are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts, 
and are numbered consecutively from right to left in each support. 

A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, ordi- 
narily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of out- 
guards to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or 
more sentinels, double sentinels, sentry squads, or cossack posts for 
observation. Pickets are placed at the more important points in 
the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each 
depends upon the number of small groups required to observe 
properly its sector. 

A sentry squad is a squad posted in observation at an 
indicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the 
remaining men resting near by and furnishing the relief of 
sentinels. In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 
A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation group 
similar to a sentry squad, but employs a single sentinel. 

Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but at night 
double sentinels are required in most cases. Sentinels furnished 
by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those 
furnished by pickets may be as far as 100 yards away. Every 
sentinel should be able to communicate readily with the body to 
which he belongs. Sentinel posts are numbered consecutively 
from right to left in each outguard. Sentry squads and cossack 
posts furnished by pickets are counted as sentinel posts. 

By day, cavalry reconnoiters in advance of the line of 
observation. If there is independent cavalry in front, the advance 
cavalry maintains connection therewith and reconnoiters only 
where necessary. At night, however, that the horses may have 
needed rest and because the work can be better done by infantry, 
the greater part of the cavalry is usually withdrawn in rear of 



516 MILITARY TRAINING 

the supports, generally joining the reserve, small detachments 
being assigned to the supports for patrolling at a distance. With 
efficient cavalry in front, the work of the infantry on the line of 
observation is reduced to a minimum. 

Instead of using outguards along the entire front of obser- 
vation, part of this front may be covered by patrols only. These 
should be used to cover such sections of the front as can be 
crossed by the enemy only with difficulty and over which he is 
not likely to attempt a crossing after dark. In daylight much of 
the local patrolling may be dispensed with if the country can be 
seen from the posts of the sentinels. However, patrols should 
frequently be pushed well to the front unless the ground in that 
direction is exceptionally open. 

Patrols or sentinels must be the first troops which the enemy 
meets, and each body in rear must have time to prepare for the 
blow. These bodies cause as much delay as possible without 
sacrificing themselves, and gradually retire to the line where the 
outpost is to make its resistance. Patrols must be used to keep 
up connection between the parts of the outpost except when, during 
daylight, certain fractions or groups are mutually visible. After 
dark this connection must be maintained throughout the outpost 
except where the larger subdivisions are provided with wire com- 
munication. 

In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost commander 
may detail from the reserve one or more detached posts to cover 
roads or areas not in the general line assigned to the supports. 
In like manner the commander of the whole force may order de- 
tached posts to be sent from the main body to cover important 
roads or localities not included in the outpost line. The number 
and strength of detached posts are reduced to the absolute needs 
of the situation. 

Establishing the Outpost. — The outpost is posted as quickly 
as possible, so that the troops can the sooner obtain rest. Until 
the leading outpost troops are able to assume their duties, tem- 
porary protection, known as the march outpost, is furnished by 
the nearest available troops. 

The halt order of the commander, besides giving the neces- 
sary information and assigning camp sites to the parts of the 
command, details the troops to constitute the outpost, assigns a 
commander therefor, designates the general line to be occupied, 
and, when practicable, points out the position to be held in case 
of attack. 

The outpost commander, upon receipt of this order, should 
issue the outpost order with the least practicable delay. In large 
commands it may often be necessary to give the order from the 
map, but usually the outpost commander must make some pre- 



MILITARY INFORMATION 517 

liminary reconnaissance, unless he has an accurate and detailed 
map. 

The order gives such available information of the situation 
as is necessary to the complete and proper guidance of subordin- 
ates; designates the troops to constitute the support; assigns their 
location and the sector each is to cover; provides for the necessary 
detached posts; indicates any special reconnaisance that is to be 
made; orders the location and dispostion of the reserve; disposes 
of the train if same is ordered to join the outpost; and informs 
subordinates where information will be sent. 

Generally it is preferable for the outpost commander to give 
verbal orders to his support commanders from some locality which 
overlooks the terrain. The time and locality should be so selected 
that the support commanders may join their commands and con- 
duct them to their positions without causing unnecessary delay to 
their troops. The reserve commander should, if possible, receive 
his orders at the same time as the support commanders. Subor- 
dinates to whom he gives orders separately should be informed 
of the location of other parts of the outpost. 

The supports march to their posts, using the necessary 
covering detachments when in advance of the march outpost. A 
support commander's order should fully explain the situation to 
subordinates or to the entire command, if it be small. It should 
detail the troops for the different outguards and, when necessary, 
define the sector each is to cover. It should provide the necessary 
sentinels at the post of support, the patrols to be sent therefrom, 
and should arrange for the necessary intrenching. Connection 
should be maintained with the adjoining supports and with the 
outguards furnished by the support. 

In posting his command the support commander must seek 
to cover his sector in such manner that the enemy can not reach, 
in dangerous numbers and unobserved, the position of the support 
or pass by it within the sector intrusted to the support. On the 
other hand, he must economize men on observation and patrol 
duty, for these duties are unusually fatiguing. He must practice 
the greatest economy of men consistent with the requirements of 
practical security. 

As soon as the posting of the support is completed, its com- 
mander carefully inspects the dispositions and corrects defects, if 
any, and reports the disposition of his support, including the 
patrolling ordered, to the outpost commander. This report is 
preferably made by means of a sketch. 

Each outguard is marched by its commander to its assigned 
station, and especially in the case of a picket, is covered by the 
necessary patrolling to prevent surprise. Having reached the 
position, the commander explains the situation to his men and 



518 MILITARY TRAINING 

establishes relief for each sentinel, and, if possible, for each patrol 
to be furnished. Besides these sentinels and patrols, a picket must 
have a sentinel at its post. The commander then posts the sen- 
tinels and points out to them the principal features, such as towns, 
roads, and streams, and gives their names. He gives the direction 
and location of the enemy, if known, and of adjoining parts of 
the outpost. 

He gives to patrols the same information and the necessary 
orders as to their routes and the frequency with which the same 
shall be covered. Each patrol should go over its route once before 
dark. 

Every picket should maintain connection by patrols with 
outguards on its right and left. Each commander will take pre- 
caution to conceal his outguard and will generally strengthen his 
position by intrenching. 

Relieving the Outpost. — Evening and shortly before dawn 
are hours of special danger. The enemy may attack late in the 
day in order to establish himself on captured ground by intrenching 
during the night; or he may send forward troops under cover of 
darkness in order to make a strong attack at early dawn. Special 
precaution is therefore taken at those hours by holding the outpost 
in readiness, and by sending patrols in advance of the line of 
observation. If a new outpost is to be established in the morning, 
it should arrive at the outpost position at daybreak, thus doubling 
the outpost strength at that hour. 

Examining Posts. — An examining post is a small detach- 
ment, under the command of an officer or a non-commissioned 
officer, stationed at some convenient point, to examine strangers 
and to receive bearers of flags of truce brought in by the out- 
guards or patrols. Though the employment of examining posts is 
not general in field operations, there are many occasions when their 
use is important; for example: when the outguards do not speak 
the language of the country or of the enemy; when preparations 
are being made for a movement and strict scrutiny at the outguards 
is ordered; at sieges, whether in attack or defense. When such 
posts are used, strangers approaching the line of observation are 
passed along the line to an examining post. No one except the 
Commander is allowed to speak to persons brought to an exam- 
ining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once sent under guard 
to the rear. 



CHAPTER XIX 

ARMY SIGNALING, CODES, RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 

AND TRANSMISSION OF MILITARY 

INFORMATION 

An army fights not only with its guns, but with its brain 
which must be kept constantly informed. In the United States 
Army this last function, the service of military information, is 
placed in charge of one corps, the Signal Corps of the Army, 
which is both a staff and a line corps and trained in the duties of 
both. Its legal functions include the duties of collecting and 
transmitting information for the Army, by telegraph or otherwise, 
and of devising and providing the means of so doing. 

Signal troops are organized into units to construct, operate, 
and maintain the tactical and strategical lines of information for 
the Army. 

The certain and rapid transmission of information and 
orders from higher commanders to their subordinates, and infor- 
mation from subordinates to their commanding officers, regardless 
of difficulties, is the ultimate object in hostile operations, and is 
the goal to be kept constantly in view in peace training. 

The work of signal troops is a specialty, and while it is 
first necessary that they become soldiers in the full sense of the 
term, they must, by specialization, attain a high state of prac- 
tical efficiency in their technical art. 

To meet this requirement the personnel must be thoroughly 
trained in all methods of signaling, and in the repair, care, and 
operation of the instrument used. Both officers and men must 
have a sufficient knowledge of map and ground to enable them 
to go anywhere within the field of operations without confusion 
or loss of time. 

Unusual mobility is required of signal troops. Field units 
must be able to cover long distances as quickly as Cavalry or 
Field Artillery. They are often obliged to gain distance, to 
leave a place in column, and join a command in advance by cross- 
ing roadside ditches, making detours over difficult ground, and 
overcoming whatever obstacles may impose themselves. Tele- 



520 MILITARY TRAINING 

graph construction units, in going back and forth during the 
course of their work, are required to travel much farther than 
the actual distance gained, and at the same time must keep up 
with the march of other troops. 

An additional object of instruction is to develop resource- 
fulness, initiative, and self-reliance on the part of Signal Corps 
men of all grades. On account of the varied conditions that are 
encountered in handling signal troops, no hard and fast rules can 
be laid down to cover all situations. Every problem which arises 
in service has its own best solution, and this solution must be 
evolved by the officer or man on the spot. 

Trained troops take care of themselves and do their work 
through the performance of a multitude of minor details without 
worry or confusion. 'Untrained troops are overwhelmed and dis- 
couraged by the mere details of maintaining themselves. Minute 
attention to detail is the soul of military efficiency. 

SIGNALS 

Signals are ordinarily made with the right arm, but may be 
made with the left when convenient. If the saber is in the hand, 
the signals are made in a manner similar to that prescribed for 
the arm. 

Ordinarily, before making a signal for the execution of a 
movement the instructor places himself where he can readily 
be seen, and generally with his horse facing in the same direction 
as those of the company. Attention, signaled by bugle or whistle, 
usually precedes a signal. The signals prescribed for the differ- 
ent movements are the Preparatory signals; for the signal of 
execution the arm is extended vertically and then lowered quickly 
to the side. If the movement involves a change in the direction of 
march, the instructor moves his horse in the new direction on 
making the preparatory signal. 

The following are the usual prescribed preparatory signals: 

Attention. — Extend the arm vertically and move it slowly 
back and forth from right to left. 

Forward. — Extend the arm vertically and lower it to the 
front until horizontal. 

By the Right (Left) Flank. — Extend the arm vertically and 
lower it to the right (left) until horizontal. 

Right (Left) About. — Extend the arm vertically and describe 
slowly a large horizontal circle with the hand; then extend the 
arm to the left (right) and describe a horizontal arc to the front 
and right (left). 

Right (Left) Oblique. — Extend the arm obliquely upward to 



ARMY SIGNALING 521 

the right (left) and front, and then lower the arm, describing 
a vertical circle on the right (left) side of the horse. 

To Increase the Gait. — Carry the hand to the shoulder, fore- 
arm vertical; extend the arm vertically from this position and 
repeat several times. 

To Decrease the Gait. — Hold the arm horizontally above and 
in front of the forehead. 

To indicate an increased or decreased gait for a maneuver, 
the appropriate signal is made just after the preparatory signal 
for the maneuver. 

To Halt. — Extend the arm vertically and hold it there until 
the signal is obeyed. 

To Change Direction to the Right (Left).— Extend the arm 
vertically; lower it to the left (right) until horizontal and describe 
a horizontal arc to the front and right (left). 

Right (Left) by Section. — Point at the right (left) section 
and signal forward. 

Right (Left) Front into Line. — Extend the arm vertically 
and describe several large vertical circles on the right (left) side 
of the horse. 

On Right (Left) into Line. — Signal column right (left), then 
left (right) front into line. 

Sections. — Extend the arm to the front and wave it rapidly 
horizontally. 

Platoons. — Extend the arm to the front and wave it rapidly 
vertically. 

Close (Extend) Intervals. — Indicate the base section; signal 
right (left) oblique. In forming line at close intervals from sec- 
tion column, this signal will be given just before the prescribed 
signals for forming line. 

Right (Left) into Line. — Signal column right (left), then 
right (left) front into line. 

SIGNALS FOR MOTORIZED ORGANIZATIONS 

General Preparatory or Warning Signal. — Extend either arm 
sideward horizontally. There should be a well-defined pause 
between the preparatory signal and that designating the move- 
ment to be extended. 

To Move Forward. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Sweep the 
arm to the front in a horizontal position. 

To Halt. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Raise the arm as nearly 
vertical as possible. 

To Park. — 1. Preparatory signal. 2. Raise the arm as nearly 
vertical as possible and describe small horizontal circles. 



522 MILITARY TRAINING 

FIELD SIGNAL TROOPS 

Field signal troops comprise those Signal Corps units per- 
manently assigned to divisions, army corps and armies for the 
purposes of establishing and maintaining tactical lines of informa- 
tion and for transmitting over these lines such information as is 
incident to operations in the field. 

The basis of organization for field signal troops is the 
field battalion, which is composed of a headquarters and a sup- 
ply detachment, a wire company, a radio company, and an outpost 
company. One field battalion is assigned to each division, one to 
each army corps, and such number as necessary to each army. 

Field signal troops assigned to a division are used only in 
the presence of an enemy, real or assumed. Their use in the 
handling of routine and administrative matters or for the con- 
venience of the personnel of the division is unauthorized except 
in so far as these are related to existing tactical situations. 

Field signal troops assigned to army corps and armies are 
intended to furnish a reserve for the field battalions in advance, 
to supplement the work of the latter when necessary or desir- 
able, and for use with separate brigades and expeditionary forces. 
In emergency, these troops may assist telegraph troops in estab- 
lishing and maintaining the necessary strategical lines of infor- 
mation. 

The normal use of field signal troops is to establish, main- 
tain and operate tactical lines of information within the division. 
Field signal troops assigned to army corps and armies normally 
constitute a reserve and, except for the use of wagon radio sets 
for communicating with divisions, their active employment other- 
wise is to be regarded as exceptional. 

THE WIRE COMPANY 

The wire company is the field signal organization used by 
the commander of a division for establishing and maintaining those 
tactical lines of information which radiate from division head- 
quarters, and which serve, in general, to connect these head- 
quarters with the major subordinate units. Normally the wire 
company is used to connect division headquarters with the head- 
quarters of the various brigades within the division, with the divi- 
sional artillery, and, in some cases, with the divisional trains. 
Opportunity for its use in maintaining communication with the 
divisional cavalry occurs so rarely that its employment in this 
manner is prohibited except in emergency. 

The wire company is organized into the necessary head- 



ARMY SIGNALING 523 

quarters and company staff and two platoons of two wire sections 
each. For drill, the company is formed as above. In the field or 
on the march the company instrument wagon and the two reserve 
wire carts form a third platoon under command of the supply 
sergeant. 

The organization, in detail, is as follows: 1 captain, 2 first 
lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 stable sergeant (ser- 
geant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 1 horseshoer, 1 clerk (cor- 
poral), 2 cooks, 1 farrier (corporal), 1 saddler (corporal), 1 me- 
chanic (corporal), 1 assistant mechanic (private, first class), 3 
drivers (privates, first class), 1 guidon (private, first class), 2 
buglers (privates, first class), 4 wire sections. 

THE RADIO COMPANY 

The radio company is used by the commander of a divi- 
sion for maintaining communication with adjacent columns, with 
the divisional cavalry, and in other instances when distance, the 
character of service,, and the nature of the terrain prevent the 
laying of wire lines. The radio company usually serves to con- 
nect division headquarters with the divisional trains, and, pending 
the construction of semi-permanent lines, with the radio station 
at Army corps headquarters in rear. These radio facilities may 
also be used to intercept messages sent by the enemy or to inter- 
fere with the operation of his radio stations. 

The radio company is organized into the necessary head- 
quarters and company staff, two platoons of two pack radio sec- 
tions each, and one wagon radio section. For drill the company is 
formed, as above, the wagon radio section forming a provisional 
platoon on the left of the company. In the field or on the march 
the company instrument wagon forms a fourth platoon under com- 
mand of the supply sergeant. 

The organization, in detail, is as follows : 1 captain, 2 first 
lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 stable sergeant (ser- 
geant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 1 horseshoer, 1 clerk (corporal), 

1 farrier (corporal), 1 saddler (corporal), 1 mechanic (corporal), 

2 cooks, 1 driver (private, first class), 2 buglers (privates, first 
class, one acting as guidon), 4 radio sections, pack, 1 radio section, 
wheel. 

THE OUTPOST COMPANY 

The general function of the outpost company is to extend the 
lines of information in the division forward of the brigade. Spe- 
cifically, its normal function is to furnish telephone communica- 



524 MILITARY TRAINING 

tion between the infantry brigade commander and his regimental 
commanders in combat. In addition, it may be called upon to 
supplement the work of the other companies of the field battalion 
wherever the same may be necessary or desirable. 

Conditions of employment probably cause the frequent dis- 
persion of the fractions of the company among the divisional units 
for long periods of time. For this reason the personnel should 
be inculcated with the highest possible degree of discipline and 
should have unquestioned ability to maintain itself in the field. 

The outpost company is organized into a company head- 
quarters and three platoons. The organization, in detail, is as 
follows: 1 captain, 4 first lieutenants, 1 master signal electrician, 1 
first sergeant (sergeant, first class), 1 mess and supply sergeant 
(sergeant), 1 stable non-commissioned officer and farrier (cor- 
poral), 1 clerk (corporal), 1 horseshoer, 2 cooks, 1 saddler (cor- 
poral), 1 driver (private, first class), 2 buglers, 1 as guidon (pri- 
vates first class), 3 platoons (21 men each). 

THE FIELD BATTALION 

The headquarters of a field battalion consists of the fol- 
lowing: 1 battalion commander (major), 1 battalion adjutant and 
supply officer (first lieutenant), 1 sergeant major, assistant to the 
adjutant (sergeant, first class), 1 clerk (sergeant), 1 color sergeant 
(sergeant), 4 orderlies (privates, first class), 1 driver, for shop 
wagon (private, first class). The supply detachment of a field 
battalion consists of the following: 1 battalion supply sergeant 
(sergeant, first class), 5 drivers for field train wagons (privates, 
first class). 

At ceremonies the major is 30 yards in front of his bat- 
talion, opposite the center. On other occasions he places himself 
where he can most readily observe and direct his battalion. The 
commissioned staff is posted 2 yards in rear of the major; the 
non-commissioned staff and the orderlies, similarly formed, 2 yards 
in rear of the commissioned staff. The supply detachment is with 
the field train. 

The normal formations of the battalion are the order in 
line and the order in section column. 

In the order in line the companies of the battalion, each in 
the order in line are formed abreast of each other in (he order, 
from right to left, outpost company, wire company, and radio 
company. The interval between companies is 30 yards. If the 
battalion be formed with closed intervals, the interval between 
companies is 15 yards. 

In the order in section column the companies of the bat- 



ARMY SIGNALING 525 

talion, each in the order in section column, follow each other 
in the order given above. The distances between companies are 
such as would result from the companies moving simultaneously 
by the flank from the order in line. 

TELEGRAPH SIGNAL TROOPS 

Lines of information may be either strategical or tactical. 
Strategical lines of information extend from the seat of govern- 
ment io the several divisional headquarters in the field. All lines 
of information connecting the division headquarters with any of 
its component parts are tactical. Tactical lines of information 
are handled by field signal troops; strategical lines by base line or 
telegraph signal troops, according to circumstances. Strategical 
lines of information are divided into two zones. 

The base line or inner strategical zone comprises that 
portion of the strategical lines of information included between 
the seat of government and advance base or bases of armies in 
the field. Information duties pertaining to this zone are handled 
by base line signal troops. 

The telegraph or outer strategical zone embraces that por- 
tion of the strategical lines of information included between the 
advance base or bases of armies in the field and the several 
divisional headquarters. Information duties pertaining to this 
zone are handled by telegraph signal troops. In addition, these 
troops are designed to furnish certain administrative lines of 
information in the shape of camp telephone systems for the larger 
units in the field whenever circumstances render the same neces- 
sary or advisable. 

The duties of telegraph signal troops, although only equipped 
to install and operate semi-permanent telegraph and telephone 
lines, include the handling of every class of communication within 
their prescribed zone. Whenever the installation or operation of 
radio or cable systems or any other form of communication be- 
comes necessary within the telegraph zone necessary additions to 
the personnel and materiel of the troops are made to accomplish 
the purpose in hand. 

On advance the telegraph zone, or a portion of it, generally 
becomes merged into the base line zone. In this case an adjust- 
ment of the duties of base line and telegraph signal troops is 
necessary. Provision should, if practicable, be made for this 
beforehand, and the working of these classes of troops, each 
within its proper zone, now included between new points on the 
terrain, should be established as rapidly and with as little con- 
fusion as possible. 



526 MILITARY TRAINING 

On retirement reverse conditions to the advance generally 
obtain. A portion of the base line zone (a new telegraph zone), 
is surrendered by the base line to the telegraph troops for oper- 
ation and maintenance. 

Telegraph signal troops, although construction units, are 
designed to be mobile. For this reason only a limited amount of 
construction and operation material is supplied as their equipment. 
Their capability for construction' work is, however, unlimited, 
provided the requisite material be furnished. Installations of this 
kind can usually be anticipated and preparation should be made 
beforehand, whenever practicable, to supply whatever is needed 
at points convenient for use. 

Telegraph signal troops are organized into battalions for 
proper administration, supervision, and control. One or more 
telegraph battalions is assigned, as a component part of army 
corps troops. These are directly under the corps commander, 
who assigns them such duties within their province as necessity 
demands. 

THE TELEGRAPH COMPANY 

The telegraph company is the principal signal administrative 
unit in the telegraph zone. 

Its employment is in accordance with the needs of the situa- 
tion and may be either the working of sections or platoons or the 
entire company at isolated or on contiguous sections of line as 
may be necessary. Whenever practicable, a dispersed company 
should be reassembled, if only for -a short period of time, as in 
this way company administration is facilitated and organization 
as a whole kept intact. 

The telegraph company is organized into a company head- 
quarters and two platoons of two sections each. Two of the four 
sections of the company are telegraph, and two telephone sections. 
A platoon, commanded by a first lieutenant, may consist of two 
telegraph or two telephone sections, or it may consist of one 
telegraph and one telephone section as circumstances may war- 
rant. 

For the purpose of enhancing their mobility, telegraph com- 
panies are equipped with motor transportation. The sections, both 
telegraph and telephone, are organized as nearly alike as possible 
as to transportation, materiel, and personnel, so as to allow an in- 
terchange of duties if desirable. 

The organization, in detail, is as follows: 1 captain, 2 first 
lieutenants, 2 master signal electricians, 1 first sergeant (sergeant, 
first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), 1 mess sergeant (ser- 
geant), 5 mechanics (1 sergeant, 4 corporals), 1 clerk (corporal), 



ARMY SIGNALING 527 

1 horseshoer (as blacksmith), 2 cooks, 2 buglers (as messengers, 
privates, first class), 2 motorcycle drivers (for platoon chiefs, pri- 
vates, first class), 1 driver (for captain's inspection car, privates, 
first class), 1 driver, truck (private, first class), 2 telegraph sec- 
tions (22 men each), 2 telephone sections (18 men each). 

THE TELEGRAPH BATTALION 

The telegraph battalion is habitually assigned to duty with 
the army corps. Its function is to maintain communication be- 
tween the advanced base of the corps and the headquarters of the 
several divisional units and to furnish such local telephone 
systems for these units as may be necessary. 

The telegraph battalion is composed of one battalion head- 
quarters, one supply detachment, and two telegraph companies. In 
detail battalion headquarters and the supply detachment is as 
follows: 1 major, 1 adjutant (first lieutenant), 1 supply officer 
(first lieutenant), 1 sergeant major (sergeant, first class), 1 supply 
sergeant (sergeant), 2 drivers, field train (privates, first class), 2 
clerks (privates, first class), 3 drivers, officers' carriages (pri- 
vates). Total, commissioned, 3; enlisted, 9. 

The formation of the telegraph battalion is wholly infor- 
mal in nature. The major sends directions by his adjutant as 
to the character of the formation and the position of the base com- 
pany. The battalion is then formed accordingly and on comple- 
tion thereof the adjutant reports to the major. 

No specified maneuvers are prescribed for the telegraph 
battalion. The major gives directions verbally or through a staff 
officer to the captains, so as to cause the battalion to take up 
the desired formation. 

The telegraph battalion performs its functions through its 
company, platoon, and section units. Battalion headquarters co- 
ordinates the work of the detached units where necessary and 
renders to them all assistance possible especially in the matter of 
supply. 

The battalion commander utilizes companies or parts of them 
to assist others when circumstances demand. He acts as technical 
inspector of all forms of communication established in his zone and 
performs such administrative duties as the needs of his battalion 
require. 

BASE-LINE SIGNAL TROOPS 

Base-line signal troops are those which furnish the lines 
of information to connect commercial systems with the advanced 
bases of armies in the field and which supplement or supplant the 
34 



528 MILITARY TRAINING 

latter service wherever and whenever necessary. Their function 
is broad and varied; broad in that it may extend from the theater 
of operations to the seat of government itself; varied in that it 
may comprise any or all forms, means and methods of transmitting I 
information. On this account the employment of these troops, ex- [ 
cept in a very general way, can not be stated. They are designed I 
to furnish the most suitable means of communication necessary to 
complete the chain or otherwise supplement or supplant commer- | 
cial systems in maintaining uninterrupted military lines of infor- 
mation at all times. 

Base-line signal troops may operate all or any part of the 
inner strategical zone if required to do so in performing their 
function. The operation of these troops in the outer strategical 
zone will probably be occasionally required due to the fact that 
they gradually supersede telegraph signal troops in advance and 
are replaced by them in retirement. The most usual theater of 
operations for these troops is, however, in that portion of the 
inner strategical zone immediately in rear of the telegraph signal 
troops. For in such locations commercial systems are either en- 
tirely lacking or inadequate and reasons for systems operated by 
troops greatest. Base-line systems should not supplant regular 
commercial systems unless the latter can not furnish satisfactory 
service, or good military reasons exist for effecting the change. 

Base-line signal troops are organized as telegraph signal 
troops. No regular equipment is specified. Transportation, con- 
struction and operation material, tools, and technical supplies are 
furnished these troops as the needs of any special situation may 
require. Base-line signal troops require a maximum of civil tech- 
nical skill and a minimum of military training. For this reason 
these troops will probably be recruited by organization entire 
from commercial companies and subjected to such military training 
as may be necessary to cause them to properly function as military 
units. They are administered by company and battalion as in the 
case of other signal troops. While, as a rule, these troops operate 
dispersed, their location along well defined lines of communication J 
render the details of administration and supply comparatively easy. 

DEPOT SIGNAL TROOPS 

These troops are organized into companies for service in 
peace and into battalions for service in war. 

In peace these companies are primarily formed for the pur- 
pose of administration. The personnel performs, in general, de- 
tached duty in connection with the installation, operation, and 
maintainance of interor systems of communication. In so far as 



ARMY SIGNALING 529 

applicable, they perform such duties of base line troops as exist 
in peace time. 

In war these troops are organized into battalions as ad- 
ministrative and training units designed to keep the ranks of ac- 
tive organizations supplied with trained personnel as the needs 
require. Depot battalions in war should be organized on a basis 
of one to each army corps. 

The companies of depot battalions are composed as follows: 
1 captain, 5 first lieutenants, 3 master signal electricians, 1 first 
sergeant (sergeant, first class), 1 supply sergeant (sergeant), I 
stable sergeant (sergeant), 1 mess sergeant (sergeant), 4 mechan- 
ics (corporals), 2 clerks (corporals), 1 horseshoer, 1 driver (private,, 
first class), 3 cooks, 2 buglers, 1 wire-section (14 men), 1 radio) 
pack section (10 men), 1 radio wheel section (20 men), 1 outpost 
platoon (21 men), 1 telegraph section (22 men), 1 telephone section 
(18 men), 45 recruits for training. Total, 6 officers and 170 men. 

The depot battalion is composed of a headquarters and sup- 
ply detachment, as prescribed for the telegraph battalion, and two 
depot companies. 

Active and intensive training is had by classes designed to 
qualify men to fill specific vacancies whenever requisitioned for 
by organizations engaged in duty at the front. 

THE CAMP TELEPHONE 

This telephone is a portable instrument developed for use- 
in the field for talking over field lines, testing lines, or for other 
purposes. It is also used in connection with camp telephone and 
small-arms target range systems. It is of local battery type. 

The instrument is equipped with a 3-bar magneto, employ- 
ing a special high-grade steel for permanent magnets, is made as 
compact as practicable and is contained in an oak case, 4% by 7 by 
10 inches high. The top consists of a metal hinged cover with 
circuit diagram on inside, held rigid when closed by a spring snap, 
which can be readily released by depressing a button. The bot- 
tom of case is covered by a flanged piece of metal, the flange pro- 
jecting approximately one-half inch up sides of case. The case is 
equipped with a substantial adjustable carrying strap, each end of 
which is fastened to case by means of hinged metal rings. 

This instrument consists of a 3-bar magneto generator, stand- 
ard ringer, induction coil, aluminum chamber for the single unit ■ 
of tungsten battery, hook switch mechanism, and a hard rubber 
block upon which are mounted 2 line binding posts, 3 binding posts 
for the hand set used with the instrument, and 2 binding posts for 
the external battery if needed. All binding posts are appropriately 



530 MILITARY TRAINING . 

marked. The entire apparatus is mounted on a removable alumi- 
num framework and weighs approximately 17 pounds. It may be 
operated open or closed, as there is a suitable cord for leading out 
the 3-conductor cord to the hand set. 

The hook switch is so designed that the hook protrudes 
through the case. When it is desired to transport the instrument 
it is merely necessary to turn the hook inside. By this arrange- 
ment the hook not only opens the battery circuit, but it is also 
protected. 

THE SERVICE BUZZER 

This buzzer is a portable instrument issued to troops in 
the field for use in connection with all kinds of lines of informa- 
tion. It may be used as a telephone or for sending customary 
Morse or International Morse code signals and for that reason it 
is specially adapted for field use. 

When it becomes impracticable to transmit messages tele- 
phonically, due to line becoming impaired or for other reasons, 
the usual telegraphic signals can be transmitted and are received 
in distant telephone receivers in the form of a high-pitched hum, 
somewhat similiar to radiotelegraphic signals. These signals have 
been exchanged between two of these instruments after the line 
wire has been severed, both the ends, however, being slightly 
grounded. 

The instrument may be operated with both covers closed, 
which is highly advantageous in inclement weather. To accomplish 
this there is a suitable opening for leading out the cords to re- 
ceiver and transmitter, and in main cover, directly over the sending 
key, is a round aperture which is made moisture proof by means 
of a covering of extremely flexible pigskin. The sending key can 
be readily operated through this flexible pigskin. 



RADIO-TELEGRAPHY 

If a long wire is placed vertically, and positive and negative 
charges are alternately applied at the bottom and flow along the 
wire, there will be near the wire alternately opposite static fields 
due to the charges; and at the same time alternately opposite 
magnetic fields, due to the alternating currents. The drawing 
shows both the static and magnetic lines as seen when projected 
on the plane below the wire where the magnetic lines are circles 
and the static lines are straight, being radial with respect to the 
circles. 

These two fields of force changing their direction and in- 



ARMY SIGNALING 531 

tensity with great rapidity and traveling outward from the wire in 
the etherial medium with the velocity of light, or 186,000 miles per 
second, are the electro-magnetic waves of radio-telegraphy. They 
spread simultaneously radially outward and upward from the ver- 
tical wfre or antenna as it is called. The energy of the varying 
electric charges and currents is thus imparted to the medium, or 
is radiated. At great distances from the transmitting antenna the 
static lines become straight and perpendicular to the surface of 
the earth and the magnetic lines straight and parallel to the surface. 
These static and magnetic lines of force, moving with the 
velocity of light, sweep across the antenna at the receiving station. 
The vertical static lines in the wave are directed alternately upward 
and downward and produce in the antenna moving charges of 
alternately opposite signs; that is, an alternating current. At the 
same time the horizontal magnetic lines are directed alternately to 
the right and left, and when cutting across the antenna produce an 
alternating current in it. The resultant current generated by these 
two fields gives an alternating current in the receiving antenna 
quite similar to that in the transmitting antenna, although of course 
much weaker. It is these alternating currents which produce the 
signals in the receiving apparatus. 

SYSTEMS OF UNITS 

Inductances and capacities are essential elements in the cir- 
cuits for generating and detecting electromagnetic waves. Their 
definitions and the units in which they are measured are briefly 
given in the following paragraphs: 

A condenser is said to have capacity, which may be defined 
as its property of storing the energy of electric charges in the 
form of an electrostatic field. 

A coil is said to have inductance, which may be defined as its 
property of storing the energy of electric currents in the form of a 
magnetic field. 

Capacity and inductance, as well as the other electrical 
quantities, can be measured in three different systems of units, the 
electrostatic, electromagnetic, and practical. From some points of 
view it is unfortunate that three different systems have come into 
use, but it is now impossible to abandon any one of them. 

TRANSFORMERS 

After each oscillatory discharge the charge in the condenser 
is renewed at regular intervals by an induction coil, or alternating 
current transformer. The former is but little used now, and will 



532 MILITARY TRAINING 

not be described here. The transformer is an apparatus for in- 
creasing the comparatively low voltage of an alternating current 
dynamo or generator to the high voltage necessary to cause the 
condenser charge to jump across the spark gap. It consists of a 
primary winding of a comparatively few turns of heavy wire, 
wound on but insulated from a laminated iron or iron-wire core, 
which carries the current from the alternator; a secondary winding 
of many turns of finer wire wound in sections and welF insulated 
from all other parts of the transformer, which delivers a smaller 
current, but at the necessarily higher voltage, to the condenser 
that is charged thereby. In general the transformer increases the 
alternator of primary voltage in the same proportion as the number 
of secondary turns is increased over the number of the primary 
turns. The voltage of the alternator impressed on the primary of 
•the transformer is usually 110 to 220 volts; the voltage of the sec- 
ondary which is impressed on the condenser depends upon the size 
of the radio set and varies between, say, 10,000 ancf 30,000 volts. 

ALTERNATORS 

The transformer receives its power from an alternating cur- 
rent generator, or alternator, as it is often called, which is either 
belt or chain driven from an engine or electric motor, or directly 
driven by electric motor, in which case the two machines are 
mounted on the same bedplate and the shafts connected by a 
flexible coupling, the set being called a motor-generator set. The 
two essential parts of an alternator from an electrical point of view 
are the fields and the armature. A direct current is supplied to 
the former and an alternating current is delivered by the latter. 

RHEOSTAT AND REACTANCE CONTROL 

In order to control the power delivered to the transformer a 
variable resistance or rheostat is sometimes inserted in series in 
the circuit of the alternator armature and transformer primary; in 
other cases a variable inductance called a reactance or reactance 
regulator is used, consisting of coils of heavy wire, with taps 
brought out at different points, wound on a laminated iron core. 
The rheostat and the reactance may serve a similar but not neces- 
sarily the same purpose; thus increasing the resistance in the 
rheostat always decreases the power delivered to the transformer, 
and increasing the reactance may do likewise. In these cases the 
rheostat or reactance may normally be cut out of circuit and in- 
troduced only as needed to cut down the power, as for example, 
when it is desired to decrease the range of a set so as not to cause 



ARMY SIGNALING 533 

interference at a distant station or when, as required by law, a ship 
station reduces its power as it comes within fifteen miles of a naval 
or military station. 

Increasing the reactance does not always cut down the 
power; in fact, in some circuits of the quenched-spark type it may 
actually increase the power delivered to the transformer, and hence 
to the antenna, where it causes an increase in the antenna current. 
The reason for this is that there is a combined adjustment of the 
inductances in the transformer primary and secondary circuits and 
of the capacity of the closed circuit condenser which is best adapted 
for the charging of this condenser at regular intervals. In some 
cases more inductance is required than that in the alternator arma- 
ture, and the transformer primary, and it is then added as a re- 
actance in the primary circuit. In other cases the inductance may 
be added as a reactance in the secondary circuit, where evidently 
the coil must be designed to withstand high potentials. 

TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS 

The functions of the condenser are, by virtue of its capacity, 
to store the charge delivered to it by the transformer secondary 
circuit until its potential reaches the desired value as determined 
by the spark gap, and then to discharge through the gap and the 
inductance. An ideal condenser would be one that was perfectly 
insulating, could not be punctured, and showed no heating or losses 
of any kind during charging and oscillatory discharging. 

There are several different types of transmitting condensers 
used in the Signal Corps radio stations, varying widely in capacity, 
size, voltage, etc., from the small mica one of the field radio sets to 
the 4^-footJars or compressed-air types in the permanent stations. 
All types consist essentially of two conducting surfaces, as tin or 
copper foil, separated by an insulator or dielectric, as it is often 
called, which can withstand without puncturing the high voltage 
required to break down the spark gap. Probably the most efficient 
condenser is the compressed-air type, .which consists of a large 
number of circular metal plates mounted on two sets of supports 
with a small air space between each plate, the top plate and every 
alternate plate being connected together as one set and the remain- 
ing plates as the other set. 

SPARK GAPS 

The function of the gap is to serve as a trigger in starting 
the oscillations and to limit the potential applied to the condensers 
by the transformer secondary. An ideal gap would be one having 



534 MILITARY TRAINING 

an infinite resistance during the charging of the condensers and a 
zero resistance during each wave train of the discharge. 

The types of spark gaps in use differ nearly as much as 
the other parts of the closed-circuit elements. In small-sized sets 
the electrodes or terminals are generally made of zinc or brass, the 
sparking surfaces being either balls of one-half inch diameter or 
more, or else rounded surfaces. Sharp points are not used, as at 
small separations the potential required to break down the gap is 
too small to allow any considerable power to be used, and if the 
gap is opened to increase the potential and power the gap resistance 
becomes too high. As the power delivered to the transformer is 
increased it is soon found that the discharge at the gap becomes 
flaming in character and has a hissing sound, seeming to be more 
like an arc than a spark, and the gap terminals become very hot. 

ANTENNA 

The open or radiating circuit has its own natural period of 
oscillation expressed, as in the case of the closed circuit, in frac- 
tions of a second. The most energy can be delivered to it from 
the closed oscillating circuit when by adjusting the inductance or 
capacity, or both, of the latter the oscillations in it have the same 
frequency as in the open circuit; that is, until the two circuits are 
in resonance. Then the strongest oscillations or the greatest cur- 
rent will be flowing in the antenna as shown by the maximum read- 
ing in a hot-wire ammeter. The ammeter is usually connected be- 
tween the ground and the secondary of the oscillation transformer, 
but may be connected between the secondary and the antenna. 
These powerful damped high-frequency oscillations in the antenna 
or open air circuit produce corresponding periodic disturbances 
in the surrounding medium, which spread outward in the form of 
electromagnetic waves. Antennae are often divided into three 
types, depending on the way in which the wires are arranged at the 
top, such as umbrella, inverted L, and T, where the names are suf- 
ficiently suggestive as not to require a description. The umbrella 
is best adapted for short stations, having a single mast or tower 
with several acres of land around the station, and has largely been 
used by the Signal Corps. 

It is not necessary that the antenna wires be symmetrically 
arranged around the tower, it being far more important that ad- 
vantage be taken of the configuration of the ground and that the 
outer ends be kept well elevated. This is shown in the plan of the 
Signal Corps radio installation at Fairbanks, Alaska, where, on 
account of swampy land along the river near the station, a sym- 
metrical arrangement is practically impossible. 



ARMY SIGNALING S3S 

ARTIFICIAL ANTENNA 

In many cases it is convenient to make station tests without 
using the actual antenna, particularly where such use would cause 
unnecessary interference. A local circuit of a coil and condenser 
having the same inductance and capacity as the antenna and called 
an artificial antenna is often used, thus serving the same purpose 
as an artificial line or cable in telegraph tests. 

DETECTORS 

The form of detector first used in radiotelegraphy was the 
coherer, which permitted the signals to be received on a relay and 
sounder. The coherer is not now used in practical work, having 
been replaced by other more sensitive and satisfactory types of 
detectors. 

An important improvement in sensibility and certainity of 
operation was made by the introduction of the telephone receiver 
as the receiving instrument instead of the sounder, the dots and 
dashes being received as short and long buzzing sounds of the same 
audible frequency or note as that at the transmitting station. Ex- 
periments have shown that the ear is more sensitive to notes of a 
high pitch, as several hundred or a thousand vibrations per second, 
the latter being given by a 500-cycle alternator, than to notes of a 
low pitch, as 120 vibrations per second, as given by a 60-cycle 
alternator. It has also been found easier to read a note of high 
pitch than one of low pitch in static or other irregular disturbances. 
These are two advantages of the high-spark frequency or high- 
wave train frequency at the receiving station. 

PORTABLE FIELD SETS 

Two types of portable field sets have been issued by the 
Signal Corps. The smaller size, known as a field radio pack set, is 
furnished to the Organized Militia as well as to the field companies. 
The range of these sets under normal conditions is about 25 miles 
over land, but much greater over water. Thus one of the one-eighth 
kilowatt sets, with a 100-foot mast, at Habana has worked with the 
naval station at Key West, a distance of about 110 miles. 

The larger size of field sets, known as a wagon set, is of 
2-kilowatts output and is carried on a two-chest pintle wagon, one 
chest with the engine and generator and the other with the trans- 
mitting and the receiving apparatus. The range of these sets varies 
from 75 to 800 miles, depending on favorable weather conditions, 
time of day or night, character of the land between the sets, and 
similar considerations. 



536 



MILITARY TRAINING 
OPERATING CHEST 



In this chest is mounted the transmitting and receiving ap- 
paratus, the diagram of which is shown. To put the chest in condi- 



V 



RECEIVE 



^kflltr 




WIRING DIAGRAM, FIELD RADIO PACK SET, MODEL 1913 

tion for sending, connect the double contact plugs of the leads 
from the hand generator, field, antenna, and counterpoise to the 



ARMY SIGNALING 537 

receptacles marked " Gen.," "Fid.," "A," and "C," respectively, and 
the four variable contact clips on the leads from the condenser, 
spark gap, antenna, and hot-wire ammeter, to the four points on the 
flat spiral, as indicated on the diagram, making sure that the 
counterpoise clip is at the end of the outside turn. Set the con- 
trol switch at the "sending" or lower position. Release the indi- 
cating needle of the ammeter by turning the small knurled screw 
at the left-hand side of the upper binding post. When the needle 
is free, adjust to zero position on the scale by means of the small 
knurled screw at the right side of the upper binding post. Set the 
variable spark-gap contact on the fifth plate, counted from the left 
end, so as to put four gaps in circuit. Start the generator, and 
when the proper speed is obtained the set is ready for sending. 

QUENCHED-SPARK GAP 

The spark gap used in this set is made up of several copper 
disks separated by mica washers about 0.01 inch thick. Its action is 
to allow all of the energy of the closed oscillating circuit to be 
transferred to the open or radiating circuit in a few oscillations, 
after which the spark is quenched and the circuit is, in effect, open. 
The activity in the closed circuit having ceased, the open or radi- 
ating circuit continues to oscillate at its own period, radiating 
waves of its own wave length without any retransfer of energy 
to the closed oscillating circuit, which continues to remain open 
until a spark breaks down the gap again at the peak of the next 
alternation. 

RECEIVING SET 

The receiving set consists of an inductively connected trans- 
former with broadly tuned secondary circuits, galena, or other 
similar detector, high-resistance telephones, etc., provided with the 
necessary switches for tuning to different wave lengths. The pri- 
mary circuit includes the antenna, primary coil, series condenser or 
not as may be needed, and counterpoise. The antenna is con- 
nected to the primary coil through switches which put into circuit 
a variable number of turns, steps of 10 turns being inserted by one 
dial switch and single turns by the other. The total number of 
primary turns is thus the sum of the numbers on the two dials in- 
dicated by the two switch arms, which can be varied by single turns 
from one to the whole number in the coil. For wave lengths 
shorter than the fundamental wave length of the antenna, a fixed 
condenser is inserted in series with the primary coil by throwing 
the switch near the binding post to the position " In." For the 
longer wave lengths the switch is thrown to the other position, 



538 MILITARY TRAINING 

short-circuiting the condenser, and thus leaving only the coil in 
circuit. The secondary circuit includes the secondary coil, detector, 
and the stopping condenser shunting the telephones. The coil, is 
Variable only by sections, marked " 100," " 200," etc., the smaller 
numbers to be used as the shorter wave lengths and the larger 
ones as the longer wave lengths. The position of the secondary 
coil within the primary — that is, the coupling — is variable, and for 
the sake of convenience a scale is provided so as to be able to 
note the different adjustments. 



PACKING 

The set is normally packed on three mules, but in emergency 
may be packed on two. In normal packing the first mule carries 
the generator and six sections of the mast. The second mule 
carries the operating chest, four sections of the mast, antenna, 
counterpoise, accessories, bag, etc. The third mule carries the 
tent, with tent pins and extension pieces, folded inside, four sections 
of the mast, flag kit, lanterns, etc. In emergency packing with 
two mules, the first mule carries the generator and 10 sections of 
the mast, and the second the operating chest, four sections of the 
mast, antenna, counterpoise and tent. 

OSCILLATION TRANSFORMER 

The oscillation transformer consists of two open spirals in- 
ductively coupled and a third spiral which is to be used as an 
antenna inductance for obtaining longer wave lengths. This in- 
ductance is inserted between the oscillation transformer and the 
antenna by transferring the long flexible lead from the open circuit 
spiral to the inductance which is in turn connected to the oscil- 
lation transformer by a short flexible connection. Care must be 
taken to see that these added turns do not oppose the turns 
of the oscillation transformer; that, is, the inside turns of one 
should be connected to the inside turns of the other. Ordinarily 
the antenna inductance will not be in the circuit except a few inches 
from the lid of the chest. The wiring diagram is shown in the 
diagram, in which the heavy wave length, and the dotted lines 
from it to the antenna inductance and antenna are for the longer 
waves. 

The open and closed circuits of the oscillation transformer 
are electrically joined together at their base, to which the coun- 
terpoise is connected through the control switch and ammeter. 
This method of construction reduces the number of movable con- 



ARMY SIGNALING 



539 




540 



MILITARY TRAINING 



tacts from four to two and also has the advantage that the out- 
side metal rings may be handled without danger of shock. 

To put the set into operation: Connect the "Gen," "Fid," 
etc., plugs into the corresponding sockets; connecfthe short flex- 
ible wire from the rear binding post of the closed circuit con- 
denser to the small angle piece extending out at right angles from 
the base of the oscillation transformer; connect the long wire at 
the opposite end of the condenser to the primary or closed circuit 
spiral, inserting the number of turns corresponding to the desired 
wave length, counting the turns from the outside turn inward; 
connect the wire from the control switch to the open circuit spiral, 
the exact number of turns to be found later by trial. The other 
end of the spiral is already connected to the counterpoise through 
the antenna ammeter. 

THE HELIOGRAPH. 

The heliograph is an instrument designed for the purpose 
of transmitting signals by means of the sun's rays. It consists of 1 
sole-leather pouch with shoulder strap containing 1 sun mirror, 1 
station mirror (enclosed in a wooden box), 1 shutter, 1 sighting 
rod, 1 screw driver; 1 small leather case sliding by two loops upon 
the strap of the pouch containing 1 mirror bar; 1 skeleton leather 
case containing 2 tripods. 

The mirrors are of plate glass, A l / 2 inches square. The sun 
mirror has a paper disk covering the unsilvered spot in its center. 
The shutter is 6^2 inches square, has six leaves, operated by a 
key; and the key bar is provided with a stop to regulate the adjust- 
ment. The two tripods are alike, so that the mirror bar or shutter 
may be fitted to either, and each has a hook to which a weight 
may be suspended for stability. 

There are two ways of assembling the heliograph, and the 
position of the sun is the guide in determining which of the two 
should, in any given case, be employed. When the sun is in front 
of the operator (that is, in front of a plane through his position at 
right angles to the line joining the stations) the sun mirror only 
is required; with the sun in rear of this plane both mirrors should 
be used. With one mirror the rays of the sun are reflected directly 
from the sun mirror to the distant station; with two mirrors, the 
rays are reflected from the sun mirror to the station mirror, and 
thence to the distant station. 



THE FLASH LANTERN 

The flash lantern is an instrument designed for the purpose 
of transmitting signals by means of intermittent flashes of artificial 
light. The flash lantern now issued is the acetylene lantern. The 



ARMY SIGNALING 541 

complete equipment consists of the following: 1 lantern, 1 gen- 
erator, 1 tube, rubber; 2 burners (extra), 1 cover glass (extra), 
3 cartridges, carbide; 1 pliers, gas, pair; 1 white lead, tube; 1 screw 
driver, 1 wooden carrying case with strap. 

The lantern is made of brass. It is provided with an 
aplanatic lens mirror. 5 inches in diameter, and with a focus of 
about 3 inches. 

The base of the lantern contains a valve operated by a tele- 
graph key which controls the main gas supply from the generator 
to the burner. 

There is also a by-pass, with a screw adjustment, which pro- 
vides the burner with gas enough for a continuous flame which can 
be made too low to make a signal but ignites the gas from the main 
supply when the key is depressed. A %-foot burner is used, which 
produces a flame of about 35 candlepower and a projected light of 
about 1,900 candlepower. 

The generator, made of brass, is of the water-feed type. At- 
tached to the inside of the removable top is a frame with a flexible 
spring latch which holds the carbide cartridge. 

The carbide cartridge consists of a tin-plate cylinder having 
a circular opening in each end, and a cylinder of wire mesh con- 
necting these openings. The can holds 5 ounces of coarse calcium 
carbide, which fills the space outside the wire mesh. 

As conditions are usually more uniform at night than in 
the daytime, the signal lantern is probably, with the exception 
of the searchlight, the most reliable of all means of visual signaling. 
The advantages of this apparatus are its portability, speed of 
operation, and comparatively great range. The principal disad- 
vantages are due to the interference caused by rain, fog, and moon- 
light. The speed attainable with the lantern is about the same as 
that attainable with the heliograph. In emergency, and for dis- 
tances not exceeding J / 2 to Y\ mile, the lantern can, on dark or 
cloudy days, be „mployed for day signaling. These lanterns have 
been tested up to a distance of 10 miles. 

CONVENTIONAL AND PRECONCERTED SIGNALS 

In applying the dot-and-dash code to rockets, bombs, small 
arms, and cannon, use should be made of preconcerted signals, or 
of the International Code of Signals or other conventional code 
book. These signals are not adapted to general use with the dot- 
and-dash code. 

Throughout, red may indicate a dot, white or green a dash. 
In cases where the colors of signals are not visible as may be the 
case in the use of the Very pistol by day, one may indicate a dot, 
two fired simultaneously, a dash. 



542 MILITARY TRAINING 

The receiving station should promptly acknowledge receipt 
of each message. 

When a line of several stations is established, care should 
be taken that each station is supplied with copies of instructions 
and codes exactly alike. 

Coston lights are made of a slow-burning composition and 
are usually held in a socket and displayed by hand. 

Rockets used by the Army are of two kinds, viz., sequence 
rockets, showing red and white stars, and yellow-smoke rockets. 
With the sequence rockets there is included a dummy element. 
These rockets are packed in water-tight cases and are plainly 
labeled. Each star burns from four to six seconds, and there is 
a slight interval between the visibility of each two stars. Between 
two or more stars of the same color, as, for instance, those indicat- 
ing the letters O, S, dummies, which show no light and carry the 
fire to the next star to be ignited, are inserted. The letter H can 
not be signalled by this method. 

Bombs used by the Army are of two kinds, white or red for 
night use and smoke bombs for day use. They, like rocket signals, 
are not adapted for general use with the dot-and-dash code, but 
should be used with preconcerted signals, or to indicate letters of 
the International Code of Signals or other conventional code book. 
Like rockets for night signaling, the red bomb indicates a dot, the 
white a dash. 

The Very pistol is a breech-loading, single-shot pistol, with 
an 8-inch steel barrel chambered to receive a 12-gauge commercial 
shotgun shell. Brass shells are used, and are packed in boxes 
colored to indicate an element of any alphabet or any special signal 
which may be desired. The stars rise to a height of about 200 feet 
and remain visible for some time. The Very pistol projects red, 
white, and green stars for use at night and the streamer of smoke 
for use in daytime. The stars can readily be seen several miles at 
night, and the smoke streamer can be picked up by glasses for over 
a mile in daytime. In making a signal the stars are projected 
deliberately, one by one, from the first to the last, without regard 
to time intervals. It is desirable, however, that the stars should 
be projected vertically or so as to fall in the direction of the 
receiver of the message, and that they should appear without very 
unequal intervals between them; at the same time, through some 
unforeseen cause, a long interval may elapse between two stars of 
a message, but no account of this shall be taken unless the 
interval is prolonged to about a minute. A star may be broken by 
the shock of discharge and show several stars of the same color 
in the air. This is recorded as one star. When, after waiting 
about one minute, the receiver of the signals sees no more signal 
stars, he considers the signal finished. 



ARMY SIGNALING 543 

SOUND SIGNALS 

Sound signals made by the whistle, foghorn, bugle, trumpet, 
and drum may well be used in a fog, mist, falling snow, or at night. 
They may be used with the dot-and-dash code. In applying the 
General Service Code tq whistle, foghorn, bugle, or trumpet, one 
short blast indicates a dot and one long blast a dash. With the 
drum, one tap indicates a dot and two taps in rapid succession a 
dash. Although these signals can be used with a dot-and-dash 
code, they should be so used in connection with a preconcerted 
or conventional code. With small arms, field, siege, or seacoast 
guns, one shot may indicate a dot, two shots a dash; but in this 
case the signals are not adapted to the general use of a dot-and- 
dash 'code, but should be employed in connection with a precon- 
certed or conventional code. 

Emergency signals are designed to call attention of persons 
within their radius, and all such persons should pay instant heed 
to them. They may indicate distress; ask assistance; give a general 
alarm in case of riot, attack, flood, or conflagration, or may be used 
for other urgent reasons. Their purpose and meaning should be 
designated beforehand. When authorized, information regarding 
their meaning and use must be given to troops and other persons 
entitled to receive or send these signals and to all those who should 
be familiar with their meaning. 

The general attention or emergency call for use on cable or 
land telegraph lines is the numeral "9." It will be sent out only 
by proper authority and will have its meaning clearly under- 
stood. Upon hearing the call, all operators will give way, but they 
will remain at their instruments until relieved. They will not cut 
in unless called. The numeral "9" as an emergency call may be 
used in anticipation of attack or riot; or it may be used to indicate a 
conflagration or other danger and should be used only in case of 
need. This signal is of great importance and should be thoroughly 
understood by all cable and telegraph operators. It should be 
conspicuously posted with appropriate instructions as to its mean- 
ing and use in all cable and telegraph stations. 

The radio distress signal for use at sea is the international 
signal SOS. It is a universal signal and is of paramount impor- 
tance. Its meaning should be thoroughly understood by all radio 
operators, and should be conspicuously posted with appropriate 
instructions in all radio stations of the Army whether on ship or 
ashore. The operator of any Army radio station aboard ship, upon 
receiving an SOS signal, immediately ascertains the exact position, 
in latitude and longitude, of the vessel sending the signal. When 
this information has been received, the operator immediately has 



544 MILITARY TRAINING 

the same delivered to the officer in charge of the ship, who takes 
the necessary action. 

The signal of distress on Army transports is, either together 
or separately, as follows: 

In the daytime, — First. A gun or other explosive signal 
fired at intervals of about one minute. Second. The International 
Code signal of distress indicated by NC. Third. The distance 
signal, consisting of a square flag having -either above or below it 
a ball or anything resembling a ball. Fourth. A continuous sound- 
ing with any fog-signal apparatus. At night. — First. A gun or other 
explosive signal fired at intervals of about one minute. Second. 
Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.). 
Third. Rockets Or shells throwing standard Army transport night 
signals, fired one at a time, at short intervals. Fourth. A continuous 
whistle, call of bugle or trumpet, or tap of drum. These signals, 
require no answer, but any station hearing or seeing them snould 
make every effort to assist the ship in distress. On Army trans- 
ports the fire signal is the continuous and rapid ringing of the 
ship's bell for a period of not less- than 20 seconds, and this sig- 
nal is not used for any other purpose whatsoever. An emergency 
or alarm signal, indicating the approach of danger from rocks, 
shoal water, collision, etc., is made by the rapid and continuous 
short blasts of the whistle. These signals apply, so far as prac- 
ticable, to all vessels under the control of the War Department, 
both in peace and war. 

A general attention or alarm signal, indicating attack, riot, 
conflagration, or other emergency, is made by sound signals, when 
authorized as previously indicated, by one discharge of a cannon, 
rifle, pistol, or smoke bomb by day, followed by a smoke rocket 
at half-minute intervals. At night, by one discharge of cannon, 
small arm, or light bomb, followed by a red rocket at half-minute 
intervals. This signal requires no answer. Used as an emergency 
signal it will serve to call all troops to attention, and should be 
followed by a preconcerted signal to indicate the character of the 
alarm given or to communicate instructions. As an instance, a 
smoke bomb followed by a rocket is a call to attention and will 
indicate riot or attack, upon receiving which all troops will fall 
into ranks under arms. Should the first rocket be followed by a 
second, the signal will indicate a conflagration or other danger, 
and all troops noting it will fall into ranks prepared to fight fire or 
to meet other danger (such as flood). If no bombs or rockets are 
at hand at the camp or station for use with sound signals of this 
character, a general-alarm signal will be made by a rapid discharge 
of shots. None of these signals requires an answer. 

With the national flag the distress signal, universally under- 
stood, is made by flying the ensign union down. 



ARMY SIGNALING 545 

General attention, distress, or alarm signals may be made 
by rapidly repeated strokes of the bell, blasts of foghorn or 
whistle, call of bugle or trumpet, or tap of drum. These signals, 
explained beforehand and thoroughly understood, require no 
acknowledgment, but should be acted upon immediately. In addi- 
tion to the dot and dash signals, the bugle, the trumpet, and the 
whistle may be used for signaling as in the Drill and Field Service 
Regulations of the Army. The long roll of the drum is recognized 
as an emergency signal. When used in the Army it is a general- 
alarm signal and requires all troops to fall into ranks. 

The red star made and repeated with the Very pistol in 
quick succession as a call, without the rocket, is a signal of distress 
or alarm, indicating attack, shipwreck, man overboard, fire, or 
other emergency. It must be answered by all stations receiving 
the signal and requires immediate and proper attention. It is 
well adapted for use at seacoast stations or on transports. 

No preconcerted emergency signals are prescribed for use 
with visual signals other than pyrotechnics. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR ARMY SIGNALING 

Each signal station has its call, consisting of one or two 
letters, as Washington, "W"; and each operator or signalist also 
has his personal signal of one or two letters, as Jones, " Jo." 
These being once adopted are not changed without due authority. 

To lessen liability of error, numerals which occur in the 
body of a message should be spelled out. 

In receiving a message the man at the telescope should call 
out each letter as received, and not wait for the completion of a 
word. A record of the date and time of the receipt or transmission 
of every message must be kept. The duplicate manuscript of 
messages received at, or the original sent from, a station should 
be carefully filed. 

In receiving messages nothing should be taken for granted, 
and nothing considered as seen until it has been positively and 
clearly in view. Do not anticipate what will follow from signals 
already given. Watch the communicating station until the last 
signals are made, and be very certain that the signal for the end 
of the message has been given. 

Every address must contain at least two words and should 
be sufficient to secure delivery. All that the sender writes for 
transmission after the word " To " is counted. Whenever more 
than one signature is attached to a message count all initials and 
names as a part of the message. 

Dictionary words, initial letters, surnames of persons, names 
of cities, towns, villages, States, and Territories, or names of the 



546 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Canadian Provinces are counted each as one word; e. g., New York, 
District of Columbia, East St. Louis should each be counted as one 
word. The abbreviation of the names of cities, towns, villages, 
States, Territories, and provinces is counted the same as if written 
in full. 

Abbreviations of weights and measures in common use, 
figures, decimal points, bars of division, and in ordinal numbers 
the affixes " st," " d," " nd," " rd," and " th " are each counted as 
one word. Letters and groups of letters, when such groups do not 
form dictionary words and are not combinations of dictionary 
words are counted at the rate of five letters or fraction of five 
letters to a word. When such groups are made up of combinations 
of dictionary words, each dictionary word so used is counted. 

No message is considered sent until its receipt has been 
acknowledged by the receiving station. 

THE AMERICAN MORSE CODE 

The American Morse Code is used officially by the Army in 
the operation of land telegraph lines, short cables, and field tele- 
graph lines. It is written as follows: 

Alphabet 



F 

• warn • 







v 



Y 

• • • 



ARMY SIGNALING 547 



Numerals 
1 5 



2 

3 
• • • ■ 

4 



Punctuation 

Period • • "■ ■■■ • • 

Comma • ■" • ^ m 

Interrogation :..... ^™ • • ^™ • 

Hyphen .(HX) •••• *mh«« 

Dash : (DX) — •• • — •• 

Farentheses (begin) (PN) • • • • • — • 

Parentheses (end) (PY) ••••• •• •• 

Quotation marks (begin) (ON) • • "■ • ■" • 

Quotation marks (end) (QJ) • • "™ • ■■ • ■■■ • 

Dollar mark (SX) • • • • ^ • • 

Decimal point Spell "dot." 

Capitalized letter (CX) • • • • ^ • • 

Brackets (BX) —■ • • • • — • • 

Colon (KO) — • — • • 

Semicolon (SI) ••• •• 

Underline (begin) (UX) • • »■ • "■ • • 

Underline (end) (UJ) • • — — • — • 

Colon dash (KX) — • — • — • • 

Colon followed by quotation (KQ) ^ • — • • ^ • 

Exclamation point (!) ^^^ • 

Fraction bar (/) • 

Paragraph mark ( ^ ) —■ ^ ■■ ^ 

Pounds, sterling (£) (PX) • • • • • • —■ • • 

Shilling mark (UT) • • — — 

Abbreviations 

af . . '. after nite night 

ahr another nl night letter 

b be npr night press rate 

bf before ob official business 

bn been pd paid 

ck check r are 

en can t the 

da day u you 

dl day letter ur your 

dpr day press rate w with 

f m from wrd word 

gn good-night x (in check) get a reply to 

govt government this message 

hr hear or here 5 Have you any- 

hv have thing for me? 

msg message 13 understand 



548 



MILITARY TRAINING 



The following conventional signals are used on military 
telegraph lines, short cables, and field lines: 



Attention, all operators (9) 

Please start me (or) where shall I start (4) 

Wait a moment (MIN) 

Official message (OFM ) 

I understand (OK) 

Busy on other wires (25) 

No more (NM) 

Test, give away (Wl RE) 

Break 






(BK) 

Go ahead (GA) 

Error (D N ) 

Signature follows (SIG) 



CONTINENTAL CODE 



The Continental Code is generally used in the operation of the 
wireless. Its alphabet is written as follows: 



B 
• • • 



Alphabet 



M 



V 

• • • i 



w 



F 



H 
• • • 



ARMY SIGNALING 543 

Numerals 

4 8 



Punctuation 



Wait 

Understand 

Don't understand. 

Period 

Interrogation 

Exclamation 

Call 

Finish 

or 



TRANSMISSION OF FIELD MESSAGES BY AMERICAN 

MORSE 

The sending operator enters the time when the message is 
handed him for transmission, in the left-hand corner at the bottom 
of the blank opposite the word " Received." He enters in the 
proper places, at the head of the blank, the number of the mes- 
sage, the call letter of his station, with his personal signal, the 
check (number of words or groups of cipher contained in message, 
counting address and signature), and after " O. K." has been re- 
ceived he enters the time the message was sent and the call 
letter of the receiving station, with the personal signal of the 
receiving operator. 

To transmit a message the operator sends (1) the number 
of the message and call letter of his station; (2) his personal 
signal; (3) the check; (4) " fm," followed by the name of the 
sending detachment; (5) "at," followed by the location of the 
sending detachment and date; (6) "ho," followed by the hour 
(a. m. or p. m.) message was written; "No." (Sender's serial 
number); (7) "to," followed by the address in full; (8) period 
(..——..), (9) body or text of the message; (10) " sig," fol- 
lowed by the signature of the message. 



550 MILITARY TRAINING 

THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE OR GENERAL SERVICE 

CODE 

The International Morse Code is the General Service Code 
and is prescribed for use by the Army of the United States and 
between the Army and the Navy of the United States. It is used 
on radio systems, submarine cables using siphon recorders, and 
with the heliograph, flash-lantern, and all visual signaling apparatus 
using the wig-wag. 

Alphabet 
A J S 



B 
• • • 






• • mm • 



• • • 



JC L U 



• «■■ • • • • 



D M V 

■ • • ■■«■ . . . . 

N W 

FOX 



• • i 



Y 



H Q Z 

• • • • ■^^■•M^ ■■■■■■ 

I R 

• • • ■» • 

Numerals 
1 4 8 



2 5 9 






ARMY SIGNALING 551 

Punctuation 

Period •• •• •• 

Comma • ■— • — ■ • — 

Interrogation • • —■— • • 

Hyphen or dash ■— • • • • — 

Parentheses (before and after the words) ■— •■—■—• — 

Quotation mark (beginning and ending) • ■— • • ^ • 

Exclamation ^ ■— • • ■— ■ — ■ 

Apostrophe • ^— ■—■ — • 

Semicolon i» • — ■ ° — • 

Colon ■■ ^ ■■■ • • • 

Bar indicating fraction ■" • • ^ • 

Underline (before and after the word or words it is wished to underline) • • ■" ■" • *m 
Double dash (between preamble and address, between address and 
body of message, between body of message and signature, and 

immediately before a fraction) ■— • • • ■" 

Cross • «■ • ■" • 

CONVENTIONAL SIGNALS FOR USE BY RADIO STA- 
TIONS WITH THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE 

The following conventional signals are used by radio sta- 
tions of the United States Army with the International Morse 
Code: 

Distress signal (ship stations only) • • «^^^» • • 

Attention (or call) The call is composed of the attention signal 

^ • ^ • ^ followed by the call letters of 
the station called repeated three times (if 
unknown, use CQ (•■ • ■»• ^^«^) 
in place of call letters of station called), 
followed by DE(— • • •) and then the 
call letters of the calling station, repeated 
three times. 

Have you anything for me QRU(— — •— «^» • • — ) 

How many words have you to send QRJ(—™"»^ I"™" 9mmm ^ mm } 

Invitation to transmit (go ahead) «■ • ■■» 

Signal separating preamble from address, 
address from text, and text from sig- 
nature ■•■ • • • — 

End of message • ■■■•»■• 

End of work •••■«• ^, followed by the call letter of 

sending station and "■ • ■■■ 

Received (acknowledgment of receipt of 

message) R ( • ■"■ • ), followed by the call letter of the 

receiving station and personal signal of the 
receiving operator. 

Here is another message — ■ • — • «■ (attention call). 

Understood (or I understand) • • •^•, followed by the call letters of 

station. 

Not understood (or repeat) • • ^^ • • (Interrogatory) and the last 

word received. 



552 MILITARY TRAINING 

Error • • • • • • • • 

Wait • »— • • • 

Official message OFM (—■■■■■■■ • • — ■ • —■■— ) 

(First wordof preamble on all radiograms) RADIO ( • ■" • • ■» ■— • • •• 

Faster QRQ(— — •— • — • ——.*_) 

Slower QRS( — — .— • — • •••) 

Stop sending QRT(««-i • — • — ) 

Interference XX (■" • • «■ ^ • • «■■) 

Use International Code of Signals PRB ( • ■— — • • — ■ • ■■■•••) 

General inquiry call (when call of sta- 
tion is not known) CQ (— • — • — «■ • — ) (see attention 

call). 

How do you receive me QRK («™^ • ■>■ • ■■■ • ■" • ■") 

VISUAL SIGNALING IN GENERAL 

Methods of visual signaling are divided as follows: (a) By 
flag, torch, hand lantern, or beam of searchlight (without shutter). 
(General Service Code.) (b) By heliograph, flash lantern, or 
searchlight (with shutter). (General Service Code.) (c) By Ardois. 
(General Service Code.) (d) By hand flags or by stationary sema- 
phore. (Two-arm semaphore Code.) (e) By preconcerted signals 
with Coston lights, rockets, bombs, Very pistols, small arms, guns, 
etc. (f) By flag signals by permanent hoists. (International Code.) 

In order to differentiate these signals from important battle 
signals, the Navy uses certain distinguishing variations which are 
not necessary in signaling in the Army. In making the conven- 
tional signals for " A," Error, and " O," Interrogatory, in Ardois, 
the Navy indicates them by pulsating the upper light, in making 
them in semaphore, by agitating the arms or flags. " K," Nega- 
tive; " L," Preparatory; " N," Annulling; " O," Interrogatory; and 
" P," Affirmative, in the Navy are secondary meanings, and are 
used only in connection with Navy Code Books. They should 
not be used in communication between the Army and Navy. 

In communicating with the Navy, by all methods, numerals 
are spelled out. 

VISUAL SIGNALING: BY FLAG, TORCH, ETC. (WITHOUT 

SHUTTER) 

For the flag used with the General Service Code there are 
three motions and one position. The position is with the flag 
held vertically, the signalman facing directly toward the station 
with which it is desired to communicate. The first motion (the 
dot) is to the right of the sender, and will embrace an arc of 90°, 
starting with the vertical and returning to it, and will be made in a 
plane at right angles to the line connecting the two stations. The 



ARMY SIGNALING 553 

second motion (the dash) is a similar motion to the left of the 
sender. The third motion (front) is downward directly in front of 
the sender and instantly returned upward to the first position. 
Front is used to indicate an interval. 

The beam of the searchlight, though ordinarily used with the 
shutter like the heliograph, may be used for long-distance signaling, 
when no shutter is suitable or available, in a similar manner to the 
flag or torch, the first position being a vertical one. A movement 
of the beam 90° to the right of the sender indicates a dot, a sim- 
ilar movement to the left indicates a dash; the beam is lowered 
vertically for front. 

To use the torch or hand lantern, a footlight must be em- 
ployed as a point of reference to the motion. The lantern is most 
conveniently swung out upward to the right of the footlight for a 
dot, to the left for a dash, and raised vertically for front. 

SIGNALING WITH HELIOGRAPH, FLASH LANTERN, 
OR SEARCHLIGHT (WITH SHUTTER) 

The first position is to turn a steady flash on the receiving 
station. The signals are made by short and long flashes. Use a 
short flash for dot and a long steady flash for dash. The elements 
of a letter should be slightly longer than in sound signals. 

To call a station make its call letter until acknowledged. 
If the call letter of a station be unknown, signal A until ac- 
knowledged. Each station then turns on a steady flash and 
adjust. When the adjustment is satisfactory to the called station, 
it cuts off its flash, and the calling station proceeds with its mes- 
sage. 

If the receiver sees that the sender's mirror or light needs 
adjustment, he turns on a steady flash until answered by a steady 
flash. When the adjustment is satisfactory, the receiver cuts off 
his flash and the sender resumes his message. To break the send- 
ing station for other purposes, turn on a steady flash. 

It may be noted that in the daytime and in ordinary weather 
the searchlight with shutter can be readily used for distances up to 
10 miles at sea. This method of day signaling is considered of ex- 
ceptional value by the Navy, and is commonly used by the Coast 
Artillery in target practice from the shore to the tug towing the 
target. It is independent of background and may be used behind 
armor or other shelter; it should be frequently used for signaling 
by day as well as by night. 

THE ARDOIS SYSTEM 

The Ardois system employed in the United States Army, and 
Navy, is a display of four lights, each of which may be made either 



554 



MILITARY TRAINING 



ERROR 





NEGATIVE 






PREPARATORY 





H 




M 





ANNULLING 



N 






INTERROGATORY 




TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE CODE WITH HAND FLAGS. 



ARMY SIGNALING 



555 



AFFIRMATIVE 










ATTENTION 




ACKNOWLEDGE 



cr 



u 



w 




SIGNALS (FOLLOW) 






LETTERS (FOLLOW) 





> 



INTERVAL 



TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE CODE WITH HAND FLAGS. 



556 MILITARY TRAINING 

red or white. These lights are incandescent lamps, operated by 
a keyboard conveniently placed at the station. The red light in- 
dicates a dot and the white light a dash, so that the characters of 
the General Service Code are made by combinations of red and 
white lights. 

If the lights are arranged vertically, as when swung from a 
staff or spar, they are read from the top downward. If the lights 
are placed horizontally, they are read from the sender's right to 
his left. Example: Red-white, or dot-dash, represents the letter A; 
and white-red-red-red, or dash-dot-dot-dot, represents the letter B. 

For numerals in the Ardois system, secondary meanings (as 
numerals) have been assigned to the last ten letters, Q being 1, R 
being 2,, and so on, Z being 0. These secondary meanings are not 
used in communicating with the Navy; when communicating with 
the Navy the numerals of the International Morse Code must be 
spelled out in full. 

When the letters of the alphabet are to be used to indicate 
the meaning set opposite to them in the following tabulation, the 
upper light of the display is pulsated. This is effected by means 
of a special pulsating key. 

In signaling by the Ardois system the Cornet, WWWW, is 
a general call to attention. A station desiring to exchange signals 
will display the call letters of the station wanted, which will be 
answered by a similar display from the station called, or from each 
station successively called. If the call letters of a station be un- 
known, display the Cornet. The calls having been answered, pro- 
ceed with the message, or if a special or preconcerted code is to be 
used, so indicate, and when answered proceed with the message. 
If it becomes necessary to put a signal message into cipher the 
marking of the Ardois keyboard is on no account to be changed 
to accomplish this object. 

SIGNALING BY TWO-ARM SEMAPHORE 

When the machine or stationary semaphore is employed a 
third arm or " indicator " is displayed on the right of the sender, 
the left as viewed by the receiver. At night a red light screened 
to the rear indicates the direction of sending. 

The machine is mounted at some point so situated that it 
may be seen through the greatest arc of the horizon. By means 
of electric lights installed on the vanes, the machine is made 
available for night as well as for day signaling. The vanes of the 
semaphore machine are painted yellow. 

Signaling by the two-arm semaphore is the most rapid 
method of sendang spelled-out messages. It is, however,, very 






ARMY SIGNALING 557 

liable to error if the motions are slurred over or run together in an 
attempt to make speed. Both arms should move rapidly and 
simultaneously, but there should be a perceptible pause at the end 
of each letter before making the movements for the next letter. 
Rapidity is secondary to accuracy. 

In making D, J, K, P, T, and V, the arm in the vertical 
position should be brought exactly in front of the body by carry- 
ing the shoulder in almost under the chin, twisting the elbow in 
until it is directly before the eyes, and the forearm held in the 
vertical position with the palm to the rear. When so done there 
is no possibility of this position being mistaken for any other. 
D may be made with either hand. 

The " interval " is the machine closed, but with the indicator 
showing; " double interval " is the " chop-chop " signal made twice, 
both arms being placed at the right horizontal and then moved 
up and down in a cutting motion, the indicator being displayed. 
The " triple interval " is indicated by the " chop-chop " signal 
made three times. 

Hand Flags 

Hand flags are authorized for general use by the Army, 
though on account of their small range they are of limited appli- 
cation, and are chiefly serviceable for use within organizations, 
within fixed positions, or for incidental signaling. The range with 
flags of the usual size is of course dependent upon light and back- 
ground, but it is seldom more than one mile with the naked eye. 
This system of signaling has been highly developed in the Navy, 
and on account of its rapidity and simplicity is of use to the Army 
and should be familiar to all soldiers. It is limited to visual signal- 
ing work and not adapted to general signaling as is the General 
Service Code. It is found useful under many circumstances and 
is adapted to special work when rapid communication for short 
distances is needed. This method is also used to advantage for 
interior signaling within batteries of the field artillery and regi- 
ments of infantry, and is, at times,, convenient for the cavalry. 

The semaphore hand flags for service use, except those now 
temporarily issued to the field and the coast artillery, are 18 inches 
square divided diagonally into two parts, one of red and the other 
white; the staffs are 24 inches long. For the field and the coast 
artillery there is issued a semaphore hand flag of orange with a 
scarlet center and scarlet with an orange center, one of each con- 
stituting a kit. The flags are 18 inches square, the centers 9 
inches square, and the staffs 24 inches long. The hand flags of the 
Navy are from 12 to 15 inches square, of blue with a white square, 



558 



MILITARY TRAINING 



or red and yellow diagonally, the colors to be used depending 
upon the background. The flags are usually attached to a light 
wooden staff about 2 feet in length. 

Hand flags are used in the same manner as the semaphore 
machine, except that in making the interval the flags are crossed 
downward in front of the body (just above the knees); the double 
interval is the " chop-chop " signal made twice, The triple in- 





SIGNAL CORPS FOUR-FOOT FLAGS 




SEMAPHORE HAND FLAGS 






terval is " chop-chop " signal made three times. In calling a 
station face it squarely and make its call. If there is no immediate 
reply wave the flags over the head to attract attention, making 
the call at frequent intervals. When the sender makes " end of 
message " the receiver, if message is understood, extends the flags 
horizontally and waves them until the sender does the same, when 
both leave their stations. Care must be taken with hand flags to 
hold the staffs so as to form a prolongation of the arms. 



ARMY SIGNALING 



559 



LETTER CODES 
Infantry 

For use with the General Service Code or semaphore hand flags. 



Letter of alphabet. 



If signaled from the rear to 
the firing line. 



If signaled from the firing line 
to the rear. 



AM 

CCC 

CF 

DT 

F 

FB 

FL 

G 

GGGG 

HHH 

K 

LT 

O 

(Ardois and sema- 
phore only.) 

(All methods but ar- 
doisand semaphore.) 

P 

R 

RN 

RT 

RTS 

SSS 

SUF 

T 



Ammunition going forward. 
Charge (mandatory at all 

times). 
Cease firing. 
Double time or "rush." 
Commence firing. 
Fix bayonets. 
Hostile artillery fire is causing 

us losses. 
Move forward. 
Gas attack, put on masks. 
Halt. 
Negative. 
Left. 

What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
Interrogatory. 

What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
Interrogatory. 

Affirmative. 

Acknowledgment. 

Range. 

Right. 

Artillery range is too short. 

Support going forward. 

Suspend firing. 

Target. 



Ammunition required. 

Am about to charge if no in- 
structions to the contrary. 

Cease firing. 

Double time or "rush." 

Commence firing. 

Fix bayonets. 

Hostile artillery fire is causing 
us losses. 

Preparing to move forward. 

Gas attack, put on masks. 

Halt. 

Negative. 

Left. 

What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
Interrogatory. 

What is the (R. N., etc.)? 
Interrogatory. 

Affirmative. 

Acknowledgment. 

Range. 

Right. 

Artillery range is too short. 

Support needed. 

Suspend firing. 

Target. 



36 



Cavalry 

AM — Ammunition going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 

Ammunition required (if signaled from the front). 
CCC — Charge (if signaled from the rear to the front). 

About to charge if no instructions to the contrary (if signaled from 
the front). 
CF— Cease firing. 
DT — Double time, rush, or hurry. 

F — Commence firing. 
FL — Artillery fire is causing us losses. 
G — Move forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 
Preparing to move forward (if signaled from the front). 
HHH— Halt. 
K — Negative. 
LT— Left. 



560 MILITARY TRAINING 

M — Bring up the horses (if signaled from front to rear). 

Horses going forward (if signaled from rear to front). 
O — What is the (R. N. t etc.) Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore 
only.) 
• • «■— • • — What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois 
and semaphore.) 
P — Affirmative. 
R — Acknowledgment. 
RN — Range. 
RT— Right. 
SSS — Support going forward (if signaled from the rear to the front). 

Support needed (if signaled from the front). 
SUF — Suspend firing. 
T— Target. 

Field Artillery 

• ••••••• —Error. (All methods but ardois and semaphore.) 

A — Error. (Ardois and semaphore only.) 
AD — Additional. 
AKT — Draw ammunition from combat train. 
AL — Draw ammunition from limbers. 
AM — Ammunition going forward. 
AMC — At my command. 
AP — Aiming point. 
B (numerals) — Battery (so many) rounds. 
BS (numerals) — (Such.) Battalion station. 
BL — Battery from the left. 
BR — Battery from the right. 
CCC — Charge (mandatory at all times). Am about to charge if not in 
structed to contrary. 
CF — Cease firing. 
CS — Close station. 
CT— Change target. 

D — Down. 
DF — Deflection. 

DT— Double time. Rush. Hurry. 
F — Commence firing. 
FCL (numerals) — On 1st piece close by (so much). 
FL — Artillery fire is causing us losses. 
FOP (numerals) — On 1st piece open by (so much). 

G — Move forward. Preparing to move forward. 
HHH — Halt. Action suspended. 

IX — Execute. Go ahead. Transmit. 
JI — Report firing data. 
K — Negative. No. 
KR — Corrector. 

L — Preparatory. Attention. 
LCL (numerals) — On 4th piece close by (so much). 
LOP (numerals) — On 4th piece open by (so much). 
LT— Left. 

LL — Left from'the left. 
LR— Left from the right. 



ARMY SIGNALING 561 

LE (numerals) — Less (so much). 
MD — Move down. 
ML — Move to your left. 
MR — Move to your right. 
MU — Move up. 
MO (numerals) — Move (so much). 
N — Annul, cancel. 

O— What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (Ardois and semaphore 
only.) 
• • — i— • • — What is the (R. N., etc.) Interrogatory. (All methods but ardois 
and semaphore.) 
P — Affirmative. Yes. 
PS — Percussion. Shrapnel. 
QRQ — Send faster. 
QRS— Send slower. 
QRT — Cease sending. 

R — Acknowledgment. Received. 
RS — Regimental station. 
RL — Right from the left. 
RR — Right from the right. 
RN — Range. 
RT — Right. 
S — Subtract. 
SCL (numerals) — On 2d piece close by (so much). 
SOP (numerals) — On 2d piece open by (so much). 
SH— Shell. 
SI— Site. 
SSS — Support needed. 
T— Target. 
TCL (numerals) — On 3d piece close by (so much). 
TOP (numerals) — On 3d piece open by (so much). 
U— Up. 
Y (letter) — Such battery station. 

Coast Artillery 
For Shore-Tug Signaling 

1. Range correct, ready to fire K 

2. Commence towing C 

3. Go out O 

4. Come in I 

5. Distress D 

6. Hold stationary S 

7. Turn T 

8. Incline to port L 

9. Incline to starboard R 

10. Close practice Z 

Range correct, ready to fire. — This signal is supplementary 
to the firing signal displayed at the battery firing. At mortar sub- 
caliber practice this signal may be sent as each shot is fired. 



562 MILITARY TRAINING 

Commence towing. — This signal means that the towing ves- 
sel will at once take up the bearing course as prescribed. It is 
understood that in every case the course on which the target is to 
be towed is to be indicated by compass bearings furnished to the 
officer in charge of the towing vessel. By this means it will only 
be necessary to get the target on any one point of the course and 
then send the signal " commence towing." 

This signal may be given at any time, with the towing vessel 
stationary or moving in any direction, and means that the vessel 
will at once take up the prescribed bearing course. 

Go out. — This signal directs the vessel to move straightaway 
from the battery firing. 

Come in. — This signal directs the vessel to move straight to- 
ward the battery firing. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LOCATING AND 
OPERATING VISUAL SIGNAL STATIONS 

To select a visual signal station, choose a point perfectly in 
view of the communicating station; fix the exact position in which 
the flagman is to stand, so arranged, if possible that when viewed 
from the communicating station he will have behind him a back- 
ground of the same color for every position in which the signals 
may be shown. 

Before communication by signals is opened, the telescope 
should be placed in the most suitable position for its most efficient 
use and shelter. 

To determine the color of the background, first, ascertain 
whether the communicating station is higher, lower, or level with 
your own. If it be higher, the background for your signals, viewed 
thence, will be the color of the field, woods, etc., behind and lower 
than your flagman. If it be lower, your background will be the 
color of the ground, etc., behind and lying higher than your flag- 
man. If the stations are of equal elevation, then the background 
for your signals will be that directly behind the flagman. 

Secrecy in communication is vitally important. Even though 
the code used is unknown to the enemy, yet the waving flag or 
other means of visual signaling will inform the enemy that he has 
probably been observed. This should be avoided, and stations 
located where they will be most difficult of discovery. If there is 
reason to believe that signals are seen by the enemy, they should 
be made in cipher and only upon the expressed authorization of the 
signal officer charged with the duties of maintenance. Extraordi- 
nary care should be taken in transmitting cipher messages, and, 
where practicable, they should be repeated. 



ARMY SIGNALING 



563 



The color of the flag must contrast as strongly as possible 
with that of the background. With green or dark, or with earth- 
covered background, the white flag should be used. The distant 
station is the best judge of background, and should it indicate the 
color of flag wanted, that flag should be used. 

Avoid, if possible, a station where a camp is located between 
it and the distant station, as the intervening lights will cause 
annoyance and delay. 

Complete visibility of stations being provided, stations should 
be so located that messages may be readily carried to them. Do 
not establish stations far from commonly-traveled roads, unless 
there be reasons in the physical contour of the country or other- 
wise for such locations. 

The following table shows the extent of horizon for different 
heights above the sea level; that is, it shows how far an object at 
the sea level can be seen. 



Height of the 


Distance (in 


Height of the 


Distance (in 


eye above sea 


statute 


eye above sea 


statute 


level (in feet) 


miles) 


level (in feet) 


miles) 


10 


4 


115 


14 


15 


5 


130 


15 


20 


6 


150 


16 


30 


7 


200 


18 


40 


8 


230 


20 


50 


9 


300 


23 


60 


10 


350 


25 


70 


11 


500 


30 


85 


12 


700 


35 


100 


13 


900 


40 



Hence, an observer whose eye is 30 feet above the sea can 
distinguish an object 7 miles distant, providing it is at the sea level; 
but if the object is itself 15 feet above the sea he can make it out 
7+5=12 miles off. 

To find a signalman near any known station, note with the 
unaided eye some prominent landmark near which the looked-for 
person or object is supposed to be, and direct the telescope upon 
the place; if the eye is placed at the eyeglass of the telescope, the 
prominent or directing landmark will be found in the field of view. 
It will be easy then to scale the country near the marker until 
the signalman is found. When the compass bearing of the object 
sought for is known, the telescope may be aligned by a line drawn 
with the proper compass bearing. Commencing then with the view 
at the horizon, the telescope is slowly moved from side to side, 
taking in fresh fields of view each time a little nearer the observer, 
until the whole country shall have been observed from the horizon 
to quite near the station. When the direction only of the object 



564 MILITARY TRAINING 

can be given, and it is sought for, the whole landscape in that 
direction to the horizon should be divided into sections by imagi- 
nary lines, the limits of these sections being bounded between 
visible landmarks through which the bounding lines are supposed 
to pass. Each section should be scrutinized little by little, until 
the glass has been passed over every spot. Such search seldom 
fails to be successful. 

The magnetic bearing of all stations with which another 
station has to work should be carefully noted and recorded in the 
office directly concerned. In addition, guide lines may be estab- 
lished by driving two stakes firmly into the ground and close to 
each other. A prolongation of a line through the center of one 
stake and marked on the adjacent one will strike the distant station. 
Under each line should be written the name of the station which 
it marks. 

A signal officer should provide himself and the persons 
working under him with the latest and most accurate topographic 
maps of the country in which the Army is operating. He should 
familiarize himself with and instruct his subordinates as to the . 
location of each signal station, so that information can be promptly 
transmitted. He should have a list of the " calls " of each office 
and the personal signal of each man under his jurisdiction. 

TELEGRAPH CODE BOOKS AND CIPHERS 

Code books are intended for economy and to insure secrecy. 
When used solely for economy, the message is said to be in plain 
code — that is, the words or phrases of the message are coded by 
direct reference to their respective code equivalents. The plain 
code is readily translated by reference to a code book. When 
secrecy is desired, however, some method of enciphering is em- 
ployed which can be translated only by the use of a key. 

Ciphers are nearly infinite in number and vary greatly in 
complexity. Probably no one is absolutely unreadable, but even 
the simplest cipher has the advantage of delaying the reading of 
the message and of requiring more or less expertness in use, hence 
the value of ciphers in the military service. The only cipher codes 
necessary to consider are those obtained by the use of the cipher 
disk and the route cipher. 

THE CIPHER DISK 

The cipher disk is a simple but useful device for disguising 
the meaning of a message; it is composed of a circle of cardboard, 
celluloid, or other material revolving upon a card. The alphabet, 
reading from left to right, is printed on the card in upper-case 



ARMY SIGNALING 



565 



letters. On the circle is printed the alphabet, reading from right 
to left, in lower-case letters. 

When it is desired to encipher a message, the " key " letter, 
or the first letter of the key word or words, is set opposite the 
letter " a." For illustration, assume it to be " E." The cipher 
letters to be written are those opposite the text letter when the 
letter " a " on the upper disk is set opposite " E " on the lower 
disk. For example, the message " Send powder " would be written 
" marb pqiban." Numbers are spelled out when enciphered with 
the cipher disk. 




In the method of enciphering just described it is obvious 
that the mere transposition of letters would delay but a short time 
the deciphering or translation, of a message by the enemy, even 
if the key letter were not known. It would only be necessary to 
place, in turn, opposite " a," each of the letters of the alphabet, 
beginning with " B " and noting the letters until the right arrange- 
ment made the meaning of the message clear. But when this 
simple disk is used with code book, or cipher, word or words, 
known only to the sender and receiver of the message, it is entirely 
improbable that the message could be deciphered in time to be of 
any value to the enemy. 



566 MILITARY TRAINING 

THE ROUTE CIPHER 

This is a cipher in which the words of a message are retained 
unchanged, but are so disarranged by preconcerted rules that the 
sense becomes unintelligible. The message as received seems to 
be a number of disconnected words without meaning, but by 
arrangement in proper order in accordance with certain rules can 
be easily read. Messages enciphered in this manner may be trans- 
lated by persons not in possession of the key, and therefore the 
information contained therein should only be of such a character 
as to be of little value to the enemy unless acted upon immediately. 
The usual method employed in arranging a message for this cipher 
is to write the words in vertical columns. The number of words 
in each column should always equal the number of columns, being 
made so, if necessary, by the addition of sufficient " blind " words. 
A preconcerted route is agreed upon, as up the first column, down 
the third, up the second, etc. The message is then transmitted 
without reference to the columns, but it is deciphered at the re- 
ceiving station by column arrangements and persual along the 
original route. 

THE FIELD MESSAGE 

The term " field message " is applied to all messages sent 
over field lines of information. All field messages for transmission 
over field lines of information by electrical or visual means should 
be plainly written by the sender on the blank forms in the Field 
Message Book. The practice of verbally delivering telegrams to 
enlisted men for transmission should invariably be discouraged. 

In framing telegrams, all words not important to the sense 
will be omitted. The last name of the officer addressed, or his title, 
and the last name of the sender, are generally sufficient. Proper 
names in any part of the message should be written or printed in 
ROMAN CAPITALS, thus: SMITH, TOLEDO, MAUMEE 
ROAD. 

The Field Message Book issued by the Signal Corps contains 
50 message blanks with duplicate tissue sheets and two sheets of 
carbon paper. Proper instructions for their use are printed on the 
cover of the Field Message Book. 

INFANTRY COMPANY SIGNAL FLAGS 

The signal flags as described are carried by the company 
musicians in the field. In a regiment in which it is impracticable 
to make the permanent battalion division alphabetical!}', the flags 



ARMY SIGNALING 567 

of a battalion are as shown; flags are assigned to the companies 
alphabetically, within their respective battalions, in the order given. 

First battalion: 

Company A. — Red field, white square. 
Company B. — Red field, blue square. 
Company C. — Red field, white diagonals. 
Company D. — Red field, blue diagonals. 

Second battalion: 

Company E. — White field, red square. 
Company F. — White field, blue square. 
Company G. — White field, red diagonals. 
Company H. — White field, blue diagonals. 

Third battalion: 

Company I. — Blue field, red square. 
Company K. — Blue field, white square. 
Company L. — Blue field, red diagonals. 
Company M. — Blue field, white diagonals. 

In addition to their use in visual signaling, these flags serve 
to mark the assembly point of the company when disorganized by 
combat, and to mark the location of the company in bivouac and 
elsewhere, when such use is desirable. 

VISUAL SIGNALING EQUIPMENT 

The wand is a stick of light wood about 18 inches long and 
one-half inch in diameter. It is held loosely between the thumb 
and forefinger and waved rapidly to the right or left to indicate 
the elements of the alphabet. It is used for practice purposes, and 
the signals made by it are only intended to be read at very short 
distances. Its effectiveness may be increased by tying a hand- 
kerchief near the outward end. 

Five kinds of flag kits are issued by the Signal Corps: The 
standard 2-foot kit, the infantry 2-foot kit, and the standard 4-foot 
kit, for use with the General Service Code, and two types of sema- 
phore flag kits, one standard and the other of a pattern temporarily 
in service in the field and coast artillery, both for use with the Two- 
arm Semaphore Code. 

The standard 2-foot kit consists of one white and one red 
signal flag, one 3-jointed staff, and a suitable carrying case to con- 
tain the outfit. The white flag is made of white galatea 2 feet 
square, with an 8-inch turkey-red center. The red flag is of similar 
size and material, the only difference being an alternation of colors 
in the body and center. The means of attachment to the staff 



568 MILITARY TRAINING 

consists of a loop at the center and two ends of white tape at each 
edge of the back of the flag body. The staff is made of hickory 
in three joints, each 23 inches long, and is assembled by means of 
brass screw ferrules. Brass eyes are provided on the first and 
second joints to receive the tape ends at the edge of the flag. The 
olive drab carrying case is of convenient size and shape to contain 
two flags and staffs complete, and is bound with leather and fitted 
with a shoulder strap. 

The combination, infantry, 2-foot kit is essentially the same 
as the combination, standard, 2-foot kit, except that 1 infantry flag, 
as prescribed by Infantry Drill Regulations, is substituted for the 
two 2-foot red and white flags described. 

The standard 4-foot kit consists of 1 case, canvas; 1 staff, 3- 
joint, and 1 flag, red, white square; canvas; 1 staff, 3-joint, and 1 
flag, red, white square; and 1 flag, white, red square. The flags are 
3 feet 9 inches square, with 12-inch centers, and the staffs are con- 
siderably heavier than those of the standard 2-foot kit, each joint 
being 36 inches long. The 4-foot kit is the standard field flag kit, 
and the range at wnich signals can be exchanged with it depends 
on a variety of factors, such as conditions of the weather, the loca- 
tion of stations, the proficiency of signalmen, etc. The speed for 
continuous signaling is seldom greater than five to six words per 
minute. 

LOCATING AND OPERATING VISUAL STATIONS 

The selection of the site for a visual signal station is gov- 
erned by choice of a point perfectly in view of the communicating 
station, the exact position in which the flagman is to stand being 
arranged, if possible, so that he will have behind him for every 
signal a background of the same color. 

Secrecy in communication is vitally important. Even though 
the code used may not be known to the enemy, the waving flag 
or other means of visual signaling will inform the enemy that he 
has probably been observed; stations should therefore be located 
where they will be most difficult of discovery. If there is reason 
to believe that signals are seen by the enemy, they should be made 
in cipher and extraordinary care be taken in transmitting messages. 
Where practicable, they should be repeated, 



CHAPTER XX 

TRANSPORT, EMBARKATION, DEBARKATION 
AND CONVOYS BY LAND AND WATER 

The functions of transport, its reasons for existence, and 
objects in operation are briefly (a) The mobilization of military 
forces in their respective areas, (b) The transportation of these 
forces to points of concentration for military operations, (c) The 
maintenance of equipment and supply to these forces, operating 
in the zone of the advance, whether same be in friendly or hostile 
territory and whether over land or over sea. (d) The forwarding 
of troops to replace losses and maintain combatant strength and 
the evacuation of the wounded to base or home hospitals. 

The sequence of operations is as follows: (a) From areas 
of mobilization and supply in home territory to the base or bases 
of the lines of communication. This is almost wholly transport 
by commercial railway systems, not Government owned, but in 
some measure Government controlled, especially in time of war. 
Commercial railways in the United States are recognized by the 
law as public utilities of the first order and are subject in the 
present day to a measure of Government control even in time of 
peace. 

(b) From bases of the lines of communication, situated in 
home territory or on the border line of hostile territory, to the 
advance bases in the theater of operations. This section is called 
the zone of the lines of communication. In this section transport 
is by military railways, or, if operations are over sea, by a combi- 
nation of military railways and Government owned or chartered 
vessels, involving ports of embarkation and debarkation between 
the home and the advance bases. 

(c) From the advance bases to the military forces in the 
theater of operations the section is called the zone of the advance. 
In this section field transport is almost wholly used, although rail 
transport may sometimes be available and a valuable aid to the 
other. Field transport is of three general classes, mechanically 
speaking, and use of these classes will depend upon the nature of 
the terrain and the character of the roads, viz., motor transport, 
animal-drawn transport, and pack transport. All classes and kinds 



570 MILITARY TRAINING 

of field trains attached to and serving with troops in campaign are 
comprised under field transport. 

The cost of transportation is one of the largest items of 
expense in all military operations. Transport must be conserved 
by all proper means and restrictions or it becomes inefficient. The 
control of transports must be reserved to those officers in higher 
authority who are responsible for success of military opera- 
tions. Proper orders for its use must be obtained from competent 
authority. In case of commercial carrier these orders must in 
turn produce the transportation requests and bills of lading or 
manifests which cover the transportation of men, animals, and 
supplies, and receipts for which complete the chain of adminis- 
trative action and create the data for costs of operation essential 
to the settlement of accounts between the military government and 
the commercial carriers; or, where the transport is Government 
owned, insures its application to the strictly necessary purposes 
and prevents waste of effort and lack of desired result. 

TRAVEL ON COMMERCIAL RAILWAYS 



In time of war or threatened war preference and precedence 
shall, upon the demand of the President of the United States, be 
given, over all other traffic, to the transportation of troops and 
materiel of war, and carrier shall adopt every means within their 
control to facilitate and expedite the military traffic. The move- 
ment of troops and their equipment over commercial railways is 
the function of the Quartermaster Corps, who plan and prepare 
for the move in conformity with regulations and orders from com- 
petent authority. 

Orders covering such movements should give an exact return 
of the command, as transportation is furnished at the rate of 3 
men to each section in tourist sleepers, or 3 men to each two seats 
in day coaches. When day coaches are used for journeys of over 
24 hours' duration, if practicable a seat is provided for each man. 

Whenever organizations are moved by rail, with their ani- 
mals, equipment, and materiel, it is desirable that complete units 
be kept together in trains divided into convenient train sections. 
It is preferable to have trains of moderate size with good speed 
rather than long trains with low speed. If it is necessary to divide 
a train, some officers and men will accompany each section. The 
troops should not be separated from the animals if it can be 
avoided; but if the animals are shipped in separate sections 
selected detachments under officers accompany them, and such 
sections will precede the troops. When supplies are shipped to 
mobilization or concentration camps, the contents of each car is 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 571 

marked or placarded on the outside of the car, and the latter, when 
practicable, is also marked with the name of the organization to 
which the supplies are sent. 

Preparation of Cars. — Upon receipt of orders for the move- 
ment of troops by rail, the officer charged with supplying the 
transportation arranges with the railroad authorities for the 
necessary cars. He procures lists, with weights, of all property to 
be shipped and makes out the bills of lading, provides loading facil- 
ities and material and blocking and lashing, and constructs the 
necessary ramps. Upon arrival of the cars, he inspects to see if 
they conform to the terms of the contract, and reports the result of 
his inspection to the commander. 

Stock cars are inspected with especial care to see that they 
are in good order throughout. Projecting nails, bolts, and splinters, 
loose boards and rotten flooring, broken fixtures on hayracks, 
doors, or troughs, are sources of danger or discomfort to the ani- 
mals and of loss to the Government. The cars should be clean be- 
fore loading, and suitable noninflammable footing be provided. 

Passenger cars must be clean, fully supplied with water and 
ice, and sufficiently lighted and heated. The urinals and closets 
must be in good condition, well supplied with water and toilet 
paper, and the sleeping accommodations must be according to 
contract. After the cars have been accepted, the number of men 
allotted to each is marked on the side or steps. The cars are then 
assigned to organizations and plainly marked. 

Loading and Entraining. — At the proper time loading is 
begun and is carried on, usually by the troops, pursuant to the 
orders of the commander. Heavy property may be loaded by 
details before the arrival of the troops. Artillery and other car- 
riages are made secure by lashings and by nailing blocks of wood 
to the flooring under the wheels. 

The arrival of troops at the station should be timed so that 
there will be no delay in waiting for cars. When the barrack, 
camp, or bivouac is not more than a mile from the station, troops 
are not required to fall in until notice has been received that the 
cars are at the station and have been inspected and assigned. The 
command is then marched to the train and the property and 
animals loaded. The organizations are then marched opposite 
their cars and entrained. These cars are entered simultaneously, 
each company commander distributing his men according to the 
assignment. Non-commissioned officers have seats near the doors. 

Troops traveling by train in time of peace seldom require 
their arms or all of their equipment. For instance, when sleepers 
are provided they generally require no equipment other than their 
canteens and haversacks, the mess kits and necessary toilet articles 
being carried in the latter. For mounted troops the saddlebags 



572 MILITARY TRAINING 

take the place of haversacks. A few revolvers or rifles suffice for 
the necessary guard duty. Therefore, to add to the comfort of 
the men, train commanders may cause the arms and equipments 
not required en route to be properly secured and stored in a 
property or baggage car. 

Mounted troops dismount upon arrival and remove the 
horse equipments, except the halter. Each man's equipment, ex- 
cept halter, canteen, and saddlebags, is then securely tied in a 
gunny sack, or other suitable receptacle, marked with the number 
of the man and letter of his troop, and loaded in the proper car. 
Each troop, except the horse holders, is then marched to its cars, 
where the men deposit their arms (if not otherwise disposed of), 
canteens, and saddlebags. It then marches back, relieves the horse 
holders, and loads the horses. The horse holders, unless otherwise 
ordered, repair to their cars, carrying their arms (if left with them), 
canteens, and saddlebags. For short journeys the horses may be 
loaded, saddled (stirrups crossed), and bridled, or the bridle may 
be tied on the saddles. In the field artillery a similar method is 
pursued. The harness is usually tied up in sets, plainly marked, 
and loaded in a box car. 

Animals can be conveniently loaded through chutes of stock- 
yards, or from freight platforms level with the car floors. In other 
cases portable or improvised ramps will have to be used. When it 
is likely that the animals will have to be unloaded at places with- 
out facilities, one or more portable ramps, or the material for im- 
provising them, should be carried on the train. The loading should 
proceed without noise or confusion, the animals being led quietly 
to the car door and turned over to the four men, two for each end, 
who do the loading. The animals should be packed as closely as 
possible, except in very hot weather. Halters are not removed. 
Gentle animals should be placed opposite the doors, and are there- 
fore loaded last. Alternate animals should face in the opposite 
directions. 

The time required for loading each train depends upon the 
railroad facilities and upon the experience of the troops. For 
troops leaving station to go into the field, or changing station in 
the field, the time required should not exceed one hour for infantry, 
one and one-half hours for cavalry and light artillery, and two 
hours for heavy artillery and for engineers with bridge train. All 
movements of the troops in loading, entraining, and detraining, 
feeding and watering, and exercising men and horses are made, as 
a rule, in military formation and pursuant to command, thus avoid- 
ing confusion and saving time. 

Conduct of the Troops. — Delays caused by the troops, 
whether in loading and entraining or during the journey, are in- 
excusable. They interfere with railroad schedules and are a source 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 573 

of great annoyance. The commander is the sole intermediary be- 
tween the troops and the railroad personnel. In case of deficiencies 
and other matters requiring correction, he addresses himself to the 
official in charge only. The senior non-commissioned officer in 
each car is responsible for cleanliness and good order. Spitting on 
the floors, defacing woodwork and windows, and every species of 
disorder must be prevented. The commander may station sentinels 
at the doors of each car to prevent the entrance- of unauthorized 
persons and to keep soldiers from riding on the steps, platforms, 
or tops of cars, and from leaving without permission. If it is 
desirable to exercise the troops, they should leave the cars in a 
body, under their officers. 

In movements by rail kitchen cars are provided, if prac- 
ticable; otherwise, baggage cars are fitted up by the troops or 
arrangements are made for procuring meals, or at least liquid 
coffee, at stations en route. Careful attention is paid to the mess- 
ing of the men, whether in kitchen cars or in the coaches where 
the men ride. A mess officer supervises the preparation and 
serving of the meals and requires the men to keep their mess kits 
scrupulously clean. 

When the stock cars provided are such that the animals 
can be fed and watered on the trains, it is unnecessary to unload 
them for exercise or recuperation unless the weather is very hot 
and the journey long. 

On account of danger from fire, neither hay nor straw is 
carried in stock cars. A short ration of grain (about 6 pounds) is 
sufficient to supply animals while traveling by rail. 

On occasions when troops have been allowed or required to 
leave the train for exercise or duty, the commander causes the 
" assembly " to be sounded five minutes before departure. 

Detraining and Unloading. — The train schedule is arranged, 
when practicable, for arrival at destination in the morning. The 
troops are notified in time to prepare for detraining. 

The officers and guard are the first to leave the cars. The 
commander meets the staff officer sent to the train, receives in- 
structions, if any, gets his bearing and orders the troops to detrain. 
As soon as the passenger coaches or sleeping cars are empty, the 
quartermaster, or a specially designated officer, accompanied by 
the conductor, if practicable, makes an inspection of the cars and 
notes their condition; the result is reported to the commander. 

The troops procure their field kits and march to camp with- 
out delay, leaving suitable details to unload and bring up the 
property. If the camp is distant, arms are stacked and a part or 
all of the command unloads the train. 

In the cavalry the men are marched to the vicinity of the 
stock cars, where the saddlebags and canteens are placed in line 



574 MILITARY TRAINING 

on the ground, under guard. The remaining articles of the field 
kit and horse equipments are then unloaded and placed with the 
preceding articles. The horses are then unloaded, saddled, and the 
troops formed. Animals are unloaded quietly, each one being led 
to the opening so that his body will be athwart the car before 
leaving it. 

The command may be marched to camp at once, if near the 
station; otherwise, picket lines are stretched, or the horses are 
held while the property is unloaded. Artillery unloads in a manner 
similar to that of cavalry. 

On account of accidents, freight blockades, or action of the 
enemy, it may be necessary to unload in the open country. In 
such cases portable or improvised ramps will have to be used. 
Lacking these, the train may be stopped in a low cut, and crossties, 
baled hay, car doors, and turf utilized for the rapid construction of 
ramps of sufficient height to permit unloading of animals. 

TRAVEL ON MILITARY RAILWAYS 

Requisitions should reach the military controlling staff as 
early as possible and should give concise data as to the number 
of officers and men, animals, guns, vehicles, and supplies that will 
be involved in the movement. After the program for the move- 
ment has been settled, changes should be avoided as far as prac- 
ticable. 

The authority consigning animals or materiel for shipment 
is responsible for loading them and for furnishing attendance and 
forage for the animals while enroute. Ordinary shipments of sup- 
plies or materiel are turned over to the railway authorities and are 
shipped on an ordinary bill of lading. Important shipments may be 
accompanied by a representative of the department interested, ancl 
by a representative of the operating department. 

The commander of the line of communications issues regu- 
lations concerning movements of military and civil passengers over 
the military railways. If necessary to the enforcement of these 
regulations military police of the service of defense are placed on 
duty on trains and at stations for this purpose. 

Hospital Trains. — Hospital trains are fitted up on each line 
of military railway. The necessary sanitary personnel and special 
equipment are supplied from the base section of the supply, sani- 
tary, and telegraph services of the line of communications. As 
far as practicable such trains, or other trains carrying sick and 
wounded who can travel sitting up, leave the railhead at certain 
fixed hours daily. 

In anticipation of an engagement, rolling stock for special 
hospital trains is collected and fitted up by the director of railways 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 575 

at suitable points to meet the probable needs. At stations where 
sick and wounded are to be entrained and detrained, rest stations 
are organized, under instructions from the commander of the line 
of communications, by the supply, sanitary, and telegraph services 
of the line of communications. 

Troop Movements by Rail. — In so far as may be practicable, 
troops are moved on a military railway in the same manner as 
on commercial railway; but such conditions will not usually obtain, 
and troops will often have to be moved in freight equipment or 
packed into day coaches far in excess of the numbers given for 
peace movements. Rapidity of movement and economy of rolling 
stock take precedence over the comfort of the troops whenever 
necessary. 

Troops in the theater of operations carry with them on rail- 
way trains only such supplies, equipment, etc., as can be promptly 
moved away with the troops at the detraining station, or, in other 
words, that which is authorized to be carried on the men and 
animals, and in the combat and field trains. When large bodies of 
troops are moved by rail, staff officers, with representatives of the 
various units and departments, should precede the troops to the 
destination, in order to make arrangements to receive the troops, 
and insure their prompt movement away from the detraining point. 

In drawing up orders for the movement of troops by rail, 
the following points should be clearly stated: 1, Date, place of 
entraining, destination, route to be followed. 2. Hours of departure 
of trains; time at which troops should reach the entraining place, 
route that they should follow. 3. Details in regard to feeding of 
troops, and watering and feeding animals en route. 4. Places of 
assembly near entraining and detraining stations. 5. Schedule 
showing assignment of troops, animals, and vehicles to different 
trains. Troops should not occupy railway buildings or use the 
railway facilities or property without authoiity from the railway 
staff officers. 

Duties of a Commander of a Troop Train. — An officer from 
each unit,* supplied with a copy of the order directing the move- 
ment and a field return of the troops involved, should be sent ahead 
to the entraining point to ascertain from the railway staff officer 
the arrangements for the entraining of his unit. He communicates 
his information to his commander before the troops reach the 
station, and then acts as guide to the unit in reaching its trains. 
The commander of troops to be moved by rail retains the original 
copy of his order. 

The senior officer on every special troop train is responsible 
that order is maintained, and furnishes the railway operatives the 
necessary force to carry out the regulations. He details a guard 
on every troop train to take charge of prisoners, property, etc., 



576 MILITARY TRAINING 

and to furnish sentries, as required, at entraining and detraining 
points, and at stations en route. He is responsible that the regu- 
lations of the railway service are observed. Except when neces- 
sary, on account of actual or threatened attack by the enemy, he 
does not interfere with the working of the railway service. If an 
attack is anticipated, an officer should ride on the locomotive to 
inform the engineer when, for tactical reasons, it is desirable to 
stop the train. 

CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINS 

Transportation attached to organizations is grouped under 
the following head: (a) The trains assigned to organizations 
smaller than a brigade designated combat and field trains, respec- 
tively, (b) The trains assigned to divisions, designated ammuni- 
tion, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains, respectively. 

In addition to the foregoing, there are ammunition, supply, 
sanitary, and engineer columns which are attached to and belong 
to the advance section of the line of communications. 

Combat Trains. — Combat trains include all personnel, ve- 
hicles and animals attached to organizations for transporting am- 
munition reserve and special equipment required during combat, 
including the mule or cart carrying sanitary first aid equipment. 
To them also are attached those vehicles required for the technical 
service of engineers and signal troops. 

Combat trains remain at all times with the unit to which 
attached and follow it into action. In the cavalry and field artil- 
lery it may be advisable to temporarily separate combat trains from 
the troops. 

Field Trains. — Field trains include all personnel, vehicles, 
and animals attached to organizations or headquarters for the 
transportation of the authorized allowance of baggage, rations, and 
grain, and include rolling kitchens, if supplied. Wagons of sutlers, 
correspondents, etc., accompanying a field force by proper author- 
ity are assigned to the field train of the organization to which their 
owners are attached. On the march the headquarters wagons of 
brigades and divisions are generally attached to some regimental 
field train. 

Field trains are assigned to regiments and independent bat- 
talions and are habitually divided into two sections: (1) A baggage 
section carrying baggage; and (2) a ration section carrying rations 
and grain exclusively, and including rolling kitchens, if supplied. 
For transportation of baggage each organization is assigned its 
proportionate space on the vehicles of the baggage section. 

When an organization is operating independently, the field 
trains are under the direct control of the organization commander. 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 577 

When organizations are not operating independently, field trains 
are ordinarily ordered to be grouped by the division commander 
and the senior line officer present with the train assumes command 
and moves it as directed by the superior authority. When the field 
trains are ordered grouped with the divisional train they are, for 
the time being, under the orders of the commander of trains. 

The field trains are not again placed at the disposition of the 
organization until so ordered by the division commander. During 
combat the division commander holds the grouped trains well to> 
the rear, thus relieving the roads of unnecessary vehicles. 

In the late afternoon, or at the end of a march or close of 
a combat, the division commander directs the field trains to move 
up immediately in rear of the troops, and informs the commanding 
officers of organizations that their baggage sections and one day's 
rations from their ration sections have been ordered to be at a 
designated place. The organization commander at once sends an. 
orderly to the designated place to conduct the vehicles to the: 
organization. As soon as practicable after the arrival in camp of 
the ration vehicles they are unloaded and, without delay, rejoin the 
grouped portions of the ration vehicles. The division commander 
usually returns the baggage sections to the same place early the 
following morning. 

Ammunition, Supply, Sanitary, and Engineer Trains. — The 
ammunition train includes all vehicles, animals, and personnel em- 
ployed in transporting the divisional artillery and infantry ammuni- 
tion reserve, or in bringing up the same from the refilling point to- 
the combat trains of organizations. 

The supply train includes all vehicles, animals and personnel 
employed in transporting the divisional ration and grain reserve,. 
or in bringing up the same from the refilling point to the dis- 
tributing point. To it may also be attached herds of beef cattle, 
remounts, vehicles carrying reserve quartermaster supplies, and 
reserve transportation. 

The sanitary train includes all vehicles, animals, personnel, 
and reserve sanitary material, not attached to organizations, em- 
ployed in collecting and caring for the sick and wounded of the 
division pending their evacuation by the line of communication. 

The engineer train includes all vehicles, animals, and per- 
sonnel for transporting heavy entrenching tools, explosives, and 
other engineer equipments and material which, under ordinary 
conditions, is required to accompany the division. 

Ammunition, Supply, Sanitary, and Engineer Columns. — 
These columns belong to the line of communications and are at- 
tached to the advance section of its supply, sanitary, and telegraph 
services. They are the means whereby transportation, equipment, 
supplies, evacuation, and field hospitals, and ambulance companies, 



578 MILITARY TRAINING 

not continually required with a division, may be pushed forward 
when needed. 

Commander of Trains. — A commander of trains is assigned 
for each division, together with the necessary assistants and troops. 
He controls the marching and camping of the combined ammuni- 
tion, supply, sanitary, and engineering trains. He is also charged 
with all matters of general police in the rear of the division while 
on the march and throughout the command while it is in camp. 

When the trains of more than one division are marching on 
the same road, the field army commander or other superior author- 
ity designates an officer, usually a general staff officer, to decide 
all questions of precedence in the movement and camping of the 
trains of the different divisions. 

When combat is imminent, the ammunition, sanitary, and 
engineer trains are ordered released from the control of the com- 
mander of trains. Upon the completion of the period of combat 
and when no longer required to operate independently, these trains 
revert to the control of the commander of trains. 

When troops are in camp, out of the presence of the enemy, 
ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineer trains may be ordered 
released from the control of the commander of trains and operated 
directly under the orders of their respective chiefs of service. 

SUPPLY, SANITARY AND TELEGRAPH SERVICE 

The commander of the line of communications is in charge 
of all supply and sanitary matters and of the construction and 
maintenance of all lines of information within the limits of his 
command. He is responsible that the reserve of supplies on hand 
in his various depots shall be maintained between the maximum 
and minimum amounts fixed by the commander of the field forces. 
He furnishes the War Department a copy of a list of the stores 
required, showing the maximum and minimum amounts to be kept 
on hand, and keeps the War Department informed of the amount 
of funds needed for the prosecution of his work. He forwards his 
requisitions for supplies not procurable in the theater of operations 
to the War Department or to such depots as the War Department 
may designate for furnishing particular supplies. 

He prepares, and enforces stringent regulations for the 
physical examination of officers and enlisted men, who are sick or 
wounded, to the end that the force in the theater of operations 
suffers no depletion incident to the return to the home country of 
malingerers, or those who within a reasonable length of time will 
be able to return to duty. 

For purposes of control and co-ordination of the supply, 
sanitary, and telegraph service, a line of communications is ordi- 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 579 

narily divided into sections, as follows: A base section and an 
advance section, each with an assistant chief of staff in charge 
competent to issue orders in the name of the commander of the 
line of communications. In certain unusual cases, due to an exten' 
sive prolongation of the line of communications, an intermediate 
section may be required. An advance section is required at the 
head of each important route of supply diverging from the base. 

The operations of a base or intermediate section extend up 
to, but do not include, the depots, sanitary units, and telegraph 
stations of the next section in advance. Each section provides for 
the supply of the line of communication troops within its limits. 
So far as possible formal accountability is terminated and replaced 
by a system of responsibility when supplies are turned over to 
troops or trains in the zone of the advance and to troops and trains 
of the section of defense in the zone of the line of communication. 
Commanders and staff officers of all grades are responsible for the 
proper use and disposition of supplies issued to their organizations 
and for supplies temporarily in their charge. 

If no service of military railways be organized, it is the 
function of the base sections to provide and operate the necessary 
means of transport or to make shipments by commercial means 
between the base and the section next in advance. Under similar 
conditions it is the function of intermediate sections, if operated, 
to connect in the same manner with the section next in advance. 
All personnel necessary to the proper functioning of the supply, 
sanitary, and telegraph service report at the base for assignment 
to duty. Here advance and intermediate sections are organized 
and sent forward as required. 

Base Section. — The assistant chief of staff with the base 
section is charged with co-ordinating the work of the quarter- 
master, medical, engineer, ordnance, and signal base groups. He 
is informed of the probable requirements of the advance and inter- 
mediate sections, transmits this information to the officers in 
charge of the various groups, and issues the orders for meeting 
these requirements. All requisitions are viseed by the assistant 
chief of staff of the base section before being transmitted to the 
point from which supplies are furnished. All supplies (except 
those for the service of military railways) shipped into the base 
either for use of the field forces or for troops of the line of com- 
munication are consigned to the " Quartermaster," " Surgeon," etc., 
at the base. 

Advance Section. — The assistant chief of staff with the ad- 
vance section is charged with co-ordinating the work of the quar- 
termaster, medical, engineer, ordnance, and signal advance groups. 
The operations of these groups extend to and include the refilling 
points of the division supply trains, the evacuation points for sick 



580 MILITARY TRAINING 

and wounded, and, in certain instances, to the distributing points. 
The signal advance group establishes and maintains lines of infor- 
mation with the headquarters of the field forces. To the advance 
section are attached ammunition, supply, sanitary, and engineering 
columns. The strength and composition of these columns are de- 
pendent upon the character of operations reasonably probable. 

The position of the advance depot is fixed from time to time 
by the commander of the field forces. The headquarters of the 
advance section is at the advance depot and it is with the assistant 
chief of staff at this point that the commanders in advance make 
all arrangements for the evacuation of sick and wounded, and for 
supply. Ordinarily the advance depot will be on a line of railroad, 
and as near the field forces as possible. In consequence, it is more 
or less exposed to the enemy and, therefore, an undue accumula- 
tion of supplies at this point is undesirable. The positions of re- 
filling, rendezvous, and evacuation points either may be fixed by 
the commander of the field forces or he may delegate in orders 
this authority to division commanders. 

The allowance of transportation fixed by regulations for the 
divisional trains is that needed for carrying mobile reserves and for 
bringing up from the line of communications, ammunition, rations, 
and grain, and for the temporary care only of sick and wounded. 
For all other classes of supplies, for the evacuation of the sick and 
wounded, and for special engineer equipment, transportation must, 
therefore, be provided by the different columns attached to the 
advance section. 

SERVICE OF MILITARY RAILWAYS 

When extensive military operations of a field force are de- 
pendent on a line or lines of railway for its supply in advance of 
the base, a service of military railways is organized, the construc- 
tion, operation, and maintenance of which is a duty of the corps of 
engineers. 

The work of reconstruction at the railhead is ordinarily kept 
separate from the other work on the line in rear and is done by 
troops, with such civilian assistance as is procurable. The officer 
in charge of this work is directly under the military head of the 
line of railway on which he is working and is responsible for the 
prompt reconstruction of the line. As rapidly as practicable such 
reconstruction sections are assigned to the division immediately 
in rear for operation and maintenance. 

The staff of civilian assistants consist of such railway of- 
ficials, operatives, and other employees as may be available or 
necesssary for the proper working of the military railways. As far 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 581 

as military conditions will permit, civilians are used for the opera- 
tion, maintenance, and construction of the military railways, of- 
ficers and soldiers being used only when military conditions render 
it necessary. These civilians are subject to military supervision, 
and are responsible in their various departments and subdivisions 
for executing the duties assigned to them in accordance with the 
plans of the director of railways. 

The relations betwen the civilians of the railway service, 
except as modified by the director of railways, are such as exist 
between those of corresponding grades on an ordinary railway. 
The military staff receive their orders and instructions from their 
next higher military railway superiors, and are subject to them 
only. Each member of this staff is the military adviser of the senior 
civilian in charge of the department or subdivision to which he is 
assigned. He ordinarily leaves the actual working of the road to 
his civil colleague, advising him of the ends desired and the military 
conditions involved, and intervenes in the actual working of the 
road only when convinced that the civilian is not taking the neces- 
sary steps to meet the requirements. The officer's decision on 
matters within his own department or subdivision can be overruled 
only by his next military railway superior. 

The military railway supply depots are operated and main- 
tained under the director of railways by the railway staff. All rail- 
way supplies and materials shipped into the base are consigned to 
the " director of railways." 

CHANNELS OF CORRESPONDENCE 

The commander of the line of communications must have 
the greatest possible freedom of action with reference to communi- 
cating with the War Department on matters of routine. All such 
communications are signed " By authority of the commander of the 
field forces" and are in general confined to the following subjects, 
viz.: 1. Arrangements for maintaining the supply of stores and 
animals. 2. Matters relating to fiscal affairs or requirements. 3. 
Irregularities, defects, and deficiencies which come to his attention 
in the territorial or administrative zone to the rear of the base. 
4. Arrangements for augmenting or replacing the staff and civilian 
personnel of the line of communications. 5. Arrangements for the 
evacuation of prisoners and of sick and wounded from the base. 

After the system of supply and evacuation of sick and 
wounded has been fixed by the commander of the field forces, the 
commander of the line of communications and the assistant chief 
of staff of each advance section are authorized to communicate 
directly with the commanders whom they are ordered to supply on 
all detail matters relating to supply, evacuation of wounded, and 



582 MILITARY TRAINING 

maintenance of lines of information. Inversely, such commanders 
are authorized to communicate with the assistant chief of staff of 
the advance section in their immediate rear or with the commander 
of the line of communications on the same subjects. 

EXPLOSIVES AND MUNITIONS 

The Interstate Commerce Commission prescribes the regu- 
lations for the transportation of explosives, and these regulations 
should be consulted and carefully followed by those whose duty 
it is to arrange for such transportation. But all persons who may 
have to do with the handling of explosives should exercise great 
care to prevent shocks and falls to the containers. 

Careful men should be chosen to handle explosives, the 
platform and feet of the men being as free as possible from grit, 
and all precautions against fire should be taken. Safe storage 
room should be provided and the period of storage should be as 
short as possible. Unauthorized persons must be kept away from 
the explosives. 

Loading in Cars. — Packages receive their greatest stress in 
a direction parallel to the length of the car and must be loaded so 
as to offer their greatest resistance in that direction. Boxes of 
dangerous explosives must rest on their bottoms, the long dimen- 
sion parallel to the length of the car. 

A car must not contain more than 70,000 pounds gross weight 
of explosives. This does not apply to small-arms ammunition or 
ammunition for cannon. 

When the lading of a car includes explosives and exceeds 
5,000 pounds, the weight of the lading must be distributed in ap- 
proximately equal parts in both ends of the car. Explosives packed 
in kegs must be loaded on their sides with the ends toward ends 
of car. Packages of explosives must not be placed in the space 
opposite the doors. Large casks, barrels, or drums must be loaded 
on their sides or ends. 

Packages containing any of the explosives for the transpor- 
tation of which a certified and placarded car is prescribed must 
be stayed (blocked or braced) to prevent change of position by 
the ordinary shocks incident to transportation. Special care must 
be used to prevent them from falling to the floor or from having 
anything fall on them or slide against them during transit. Ship- 
ments for different destinations must be stayed or secured separately. 

Detonating fuses or blasting caps or electric blasting caps 
must not be loaded in a car or stored with high explosives of any 
kind, including explosive projectiles, nor with wet nitrocellulose. 
Wet fulminate of mercury must not be loaded in the same car 
with dangerous explosives. 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 5&5 

When loading explosives and other freight in the same car, 
both the explosives and the other freight must be stayed. Leaking 
or damaged packages of explosives must not be shipped. 

Cars must be inspected to see that they are in proper condi- 
tion. When a car loaded with explosives is being inspected at 
night, electric or other suitable covered lights must be used. 
Naked lights are forbidden. 

Cars to be placarded " explosives " must be box cars of not 
less than 60,000 pounds capacity with friction draft gear, equipped 
with air and hand brakes in good condition, must have no loose 
boards, cracks, etc., in roof, sides, or ends through which sparks 
may enter, doors must shut tightly, and if necessary must be 
stripped, journals in condition to reduce to minimum danger of 
hot boxes, lids of journals in place. Cars must be carefully swept 
and care taken that all projecting nails or other iron projections 
are removed or covered. 

WATER TRANSPORT 

The army transport service is organized as a special branch 
of the Quartermaster Corps, United States Army, for the purpose 
of transporting troops and supplies by water. 

Under war conditions, i. e., where ports of embarkation for 
the scene of intended hostilities have been established, the trans- 
port service at such ports is under the supervision of the com- 
mander of the port of embarkation. 

The commander of the port of embarkation, his staff and per- 
sonnel are not subject to the orders of the commanding officer of 
troops at the concentration camp or the converse. Cordial co- 
operation between these commanders is essential to the efficient 
performance of their respective duties. 

The commander of the port of embarkation prepares the 
schedules for the distribution and embarkation of the troops, 
materiel, and supplies on transports. The commander of the camp 
issues the orders necessary to carry out the schedules. Under all 
conditions these schedules will be made only after consultation 
with the commander of the troops involved. 

When a landing or disembarkation in the face of opposition 
is anticipated, the distribution and plan of embarkation is made to 
suit the tactical requirements of the situation, and in case of dif- 
ference of opinion the final decision rests with the commander cf 
the troops. When no opposition to landing is expected the final 
decision rests with the commander of the port of embarkation. 

Transports are fitted for the service for which intended, and 
are classified as: Troop transports, animal transports, cargo trans- 
ports, and hospital ships. 



584 MILITARY TRAINING 

Ordinarily the troops to form an expedition are assembled 
in temporary camps near the port of embarkation several days be- 
fore the probable date of sailing. When the fleet has control of 
the sea, and single transports may therefore carry re-enforcements 
without escort, arrangements may be made to march the troops 
from the cars direct to the transports. 

The order of embarkation of an army and its distribution 
on board ship are governed by its tactical application on landing 
and the order in which its component parts will be required on 
shore. The probable order of disembarkation should therefore be 
determined beforehand. Provided space is not unduly sacrificed, 
units are embarked complete with their animals and materiel, but 
if special rapidity of disembarkation is important, mounted troops 
should be divided up by troops, batteries, etc., amongst the trans- 
ports instead of being conveyed in a few separate vessels. 

On the day set for sailing, all camp equipage and baggage 
still in possession of the troops and required to be stowed on the 
transport are conveyed to the wharf, accompanied by details of 
men to load this property and to guard it pending the arrival of 
the command. 

Stores that will be required first on disembarking should be 
put on board last; the ammunition is loaded first and put in the 
magazine, which is locked and the key kept by the master. The 
property and baggage of each company should be stored separately 
as far as possible, and every article and package should be properly 
labeled. 

Vehicles need not, as a rule, be knocked down, but should 
be hoisted aboard loaded. The height to which military vehicles 
should be loaded will in no case exceed 8 feet 6 inches from the 
ground. Poles of wagons should be lashed to them. 

Aeroplanes may either be embarked in a partially dismantled 
condition or be completely dismantled and packed in boxes and 
treated as ordinary stores. The former method has the advantage 
of rapidity, but a special ship with open decks and large hatches 
should be provided for the purpose. 

Commanding officers of organizations supervise the loading 
of stores and animals for which they are responsible. 

• Departure from camp should be so timed that the whole 
command will be on board for the first meal which is served at 
the next regular meal -hour after embarkation. 

The command is marched to the pier at convenient intervals, 
in such formations as the commanding officer of troops may direct. 
The first transport guard under command of its officer marches 
with the first battalion. Upon arrival at the pier the guard is 
marched on board and is immediately posted and instructed under 
the direction of the new officer of the day. 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 585 

The assignment of quarters having been previously explained 
to company commanders, the command is then marched on board 
by company, and each company is conducted to its quarters; rifles 
are placed in the racks and packs and equipment stowed in the 
proper places. To avoid confusion and to keep the gangways clear, 
all men not on duty are held in their quarters until the whole 
command is embarked. 

The men should be informed as to the location of the water 
supply, latrines, and wash rooms, and the rules as to their use. 

After the command has embarked neither officers nor men 
are allowed to leave the ship without authority of the commanding 
officer of troops. 

No one goes on the bridge except the commanding officer 
of troops and the authorized ship's officers and employees, and 
these only when their duties require it. 

The men are assigned to messes and informed of the ship's 
orders and the ship's signals. 

TRANSPORTATION OF ANIMALS 

For the transportation of animals the transport service 
should be equipped with large steamers provided with bilge keels. 
The interior fittings should be of the most substantial character, 
the construction and arrangement of stalls being in accordance 
with approved plans on file in the office of the Quartermaster 
General. 

Before loading the animals the quartermaster in charge 
should satisfy himself that ample forage and water are provided 
for the voyage; that the provisions for lighting and ventilation are 
satisfactory; that there is a sufficient number of attendants; that 
adequate veterinary supplies, disinfectants, and appliances for feed- 
ing, watering, grooming, and policing are on board, and that the 
ship is clean and sanitary. 

All animals suffering from infectious or contagious disease 
and those which are weak or very old should be separated as unfit 
for embarkation. 

For short voyages and immediate service upon landing the 
animals may be shod; but when the voyage is to occupy a month 
or more the shoes should be removed. 

Animals should not be watered or fed for several hours bo- 
fore embarkation. 

EMBARKATION 

With the transport at the wharf the animals are led on board 
on ramps, or they are hoisted by means of slings or flying stalls. 



586 MILITARY TRAINING 

The ramps, decks, etc., should be covered with sawdust or litter; 
the ramps should have closed sides 5 feet high. On reaching the 
stable deck the animals are at once led to the farthest stalls, where 
a feed of hay should be ready for them. 

When animals are slung, all the apparatus is carefully in- 
spected beforehand, and great care is taken to prevent injury in 
hoisting or lowering. Timid or restive horses should be blind- 
folded. 

When a transport can not move alongside a wharf the 
animals must be conveyed to it in lighters or flatboats and hoisted 
or led on board. To reach the lighters from shore, gangways or 
temporary platforms may be used. 

Horses that are accustomed to each other should be put in 
contiguous stalls. 

In rough weather, bags filled with anything soft will often 
preserve animals from injury. 

TONNAGE TABLES 

Gross tonnage is the total cubic space below deck and the 
total cubic contents of closed spaces above deck. Net tonnage is 
the gross tonnage minus all spaces not available for freight and 
after deducting accommodation for crew and space ^occupied by 
engine rooms, coal bunkers, etc. Gross and net tonnage are figured 
at 100 cubic feet per ton. Freight tonnage is a measure of cubic 
capacity, a freight ton being 40 cubic feet of cargo space. 

In making calculations as to gross tonnage required by a 
body of troops, 4 tons per man and 9 tons per animal and 10 tons 
per vehicle for ocean voyages should be allowed. For short voy- 
ages the above allowances for men and animals would be reduced 
as no fittings would be provided for the men, and only the simplest 
fittings, consistent with security, for the horses. 

As regards the tonnage required for guns, vehicles, etc., the 
stowage of such articles depends solely on clear deck or floor space, 
and all height above that of the vehicle is lost tonnage. In some 
ships the holds may be only just deep enough to take the highest 
vehicles, while in others there may be several feet to spare, yet 
only the same number of vehicles can be stowed in each. 

CONVOYS BY LAND AND WATER 

The term convoy on land is usually applied to those trains 
by which supplies are forwarded to an army from depots or maga- 
zines in rear, and to trains bringing in supplies collected by requisi- 
tion. The trains directly attached to a military force are generally 
sufficiently protected by the presence of troops and by train guards. 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 587 

Wagon Convoys. — As the difficulty of controlling and pro- 
tecting a convoy increases rapidly with its length, it should not, as 
a rule, contain more than 100 wagons. Such a train occupies about 
1 mile of road space. An officer, with such assistants as may be 
available, is placed in charge of the transportation. He divides the 
train into sections of 20 to 30 wagons and places a non-commis- 
sioned officer or wagon master in charge of each section. Military 
police are assigned to preserve order, protect property, render 
assistance in case of accidents, and take part in the defense. With 
hired or impressed transportation a strong guard is required. 

A convoy marches with a distance of about 25 yards between 
sections, about 2 yards between wagons, and at a rate of 2 to 2^'2 
miles an hour, including halts. The march is similar to that of a 
body of troops, except for breathing spells in ascending long slopes 
and delays to lock wheels on steep descents. Long halts are 
avoided. The slov/est teams are placed in the lead. Broken 
wagons are removed from the road, their loads being transferred 
to spare wagons or distributed among other wagons of the train. 

Security. — Security for a convoy is furnished by the escort, 
which, as a rule, is composed of infantry, with enough cavalry for 
scouting and communication, and some engineers. The proportion 
of cavalry varies, being greater in open than in close country. The 
strength of the escort depends upon the importance and size of 
the train, the risk, nature of the country, length of journey, etc. 
A train containing explosives requires a strong escort in order to 
keep the enemy from firing into it. 

The senior line officer on duty with the troops commands 
the convoy. He consults with the officer in charge of the trans- 
portation, and, if practicable, defers to the later's wishes as to the 
hours of starting, length of marches, parking of the train, military 
police, etc., Officers casually with a convoy exercise no authority 
therein. 

Distribution of Troops. — When a convoy is to march, the 
commander assigns military police to the different sections, and 
distributes the remainder of the escort. The advance cavalry, if 
any, precedes the train 3 to 5 miles, scouting to the front and flanks. 
It is accompanied by the necessary guides and interpreters. Care- 
ful examination is made of bridges and defiles and of the country 
in the vicinity; temporary guards are left at such points until the 
support comes up. The remainder of the advance guard marches 
about a mile in front of the train. The advance guard commander 
examines the country with a view to selecting suitable places for 
halting or parking the convoy, should the enemy be encountered. 
The head of the train is never permitted to enter a defile until the 
advance guard is in possession of the farther end. 



588 MILITARY TRAINING 

The main body marches at the most important point, which 
may be near the head, in rear, or opposite the center of the train, 
the latter being the usual position. If the main body marches 
opposite the center it is generally advisable to place a section of 
infantry at the head and another at the tail of the train for its 
immediate protection. 

The rear guard marches a short distance in rear of the train, 
with the usual rear guard formation. Its strength is ordinarily 
about one-sixth of the escort. 

Camping. — The place for camping is usually selected by the 
advance guard commander, due regard being paid to the water 
supply, fuel, grass, and facilities for defense. A field inclosed by 
wire fence is advantageous. Herding should not be undertaken 
unless there is little danger from attack, or lack of forage de- 
mands it. 

On going into camp or during long halts, the train is parked, 
the formation depending upon the proximity and character of the 
enemy and the amount of ground available. When the enemy is 
known to be distant the train is usually parked in column of sec- 
tions or half sections, with distances of about 20 yards between sub- 
divisions, and intervals of 6 to 8 yards between wagons. A com- 
pact formation is secured by placing the wagons axle to axle and 
tying the animals to picket lines in front of the wagons. 

For purposes of defense wagons may be placed in two lines 
facing each other, or in the form of a square, rectangle, oval or 
circle, the poles inside; the inclosure thus formed furnishes shelter 
for the men and animals. When there is time, wire entanglements 
are constructed and shelter trenches dug outside the corral. 

A diamond-shaped corral is recommended for emergencies, 
as it can be rapidly formed and the march quickly resumed. The 
animals of the first two sections are unhitched and placed inside; 
openings are left where necessary. If the nature of the ground 
permits, the teams of the first two sections may countermarch 
before forming the corral, thus obviating the necessity of un- 
hitching. The camp is protected by the necessary outposts. 

Defense of a Convoy. — The chief duty of the escort is to keep 
the enemy from gaining a position permitting effective fire on the 
train. With efficient security a convoy can not be surprised. 

The flanks of a convoy are its most vulnerable parts. If the 
enemy is reported near, the wagons are closed up and the march 
is continued in the most orderly manner possible; if practicable, 
the wagons are formed in double column. 

The escort fights only when necessary, and does not pursue 
when the enemy is repulsed. If the enemy holds a commanding 
position or a defile on the line of march, he is either dislodged by 
the escort or the convoy takes another road. 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 589 

The advance cavalry reports the presence of the enemy with 
the utmost dispatch so that the commander may change the direc- 
tion of march, park the train, or, if necessary, begin a retreat. 

If menaced by small parties of the enemy, a convoy continues 
its march under protection of the escort; if attacked by a superior 
force, the train is parked or a corral formed, skirmshers being 
thrown out to delay the enemy and gain time for the formation. 
The commander selects good defensive positions at some distance 
from the train, intrenches if possible, and prepares for a stubborn 
resistance. Couriers are dispatched to apprise the nearest troops 
of the situation. Should the enemy be repulsed, his retreat is 
carefully verified before the march is resumed. 

If it is evident that the train can not be saved, the com- 
mander endeavors to escape with the most valuable part, the re- 
mainder being set on fire or otherwise destroyed. 

Attack of a Convoy. — The most favorable time for attacking 
a convoy is when it is passing through woods, a defile, or over a 
bridge; when it is going around a sharp bend in the road; when 
ascending or descending difficult slopes or passing over bad sec- 
tions of the road; when the convoy is beginning to form a corral; 
when the teams are being watered; or, generally, whenever the 
conditions are such that the escort can not quickly prepare for 
defense. 

The attacking force endeavors to bring the convoy to a halt, 
and to throw it into confusion by making an attack from an un- 
expected quarter. The fire of artillery and of machine guns is 
very effective. If a convoy is captured, the parts that can not be 
carried off are destroyed. 

CONDUCTING PRISONERS 

In addition to an escort to repel attempts at rescue, a guard 
of about 10 foot soldiers and several mounted men is required for 
every 100 prisoners. The captives are formed into companies and 
marched in column, their officers marching separately. Prisoners 
are treated kindly, but must be given to understand that any at- 
tempt to escape will draw fire. If the convoy is attacked, they are 
ordered to lie down. At night they are placed in suitable well- 
lighted buildings or inclosures. 

CONVOYS BY WATER 

On interior waterways, water transportation derives its 
security principally from the presence of troops in the field. For 
protection against guerillas and raiding parties, a shallow-draft 



WO MILITARY TRAINING 

steamboat, provided with machine guns and shelter against rifle 
fire, carries part of the escor£ and precedes the transports. Means 
for rapidly disembarking the escort are provided in order that 
hostile parties on shore may be quickly dislodged. In the case of 
narrow streams or canals lined with woods or other cover, it may 
be necessary to have the escort march on both flanks and clear the 
country as it advances. 

At sea, on the Great Lakes, and on large rivers, inlets, and 
estuaries, convoy escort duty is performed by the navy in accord- 
ance with the following rules prepared by the joint board: 

1. All matters relating to the purchase, charter, fitting out, 
equipping, and maintenance of transports, engaging their officers 
and crews, and providing rules for their government, their interior 
discipline and administration, is controlled by the army. 

2. If practicable, all transports carrying troops or animals 
are supplied with distilling apparatus adequate for the supply of 
water required. As a reserve in case of emergency, a distilling 
ship, furnished by the navy, if practicable, accompanies each 
convoy. 

3. All matters relating to the loading of the transports with 
troops, animals, or stores, and the quota or cargo to be assigned 
each vessel, is under the charge of the army. The discharge of 
troops, animals, and stores from the transports into the boats and 
their transfer in boats to the shore is in charge of the navy, and is 
carried out at such time and in such order as the army commander 
may decide. 

4. An expedition oversea which requires naval convoy being 
decided upon, as soon as the transports begin to assemble at the 
rendezvous a naval officer of suitable rank appointed as convoy 
commander and is supplied with information concerning the 
strength of the expedition and its proposed objective. The army 
authorities furnishes him with facilities for inspecting the trans- 
ports as they assemble, for the purpose of ascertaining whether 
they are properly fitted with ground tackle, boats, lines, and all 
equipment necessary for the proper management and control of the 
convoy while in transit and while disembarking men and animals 
under the conditions which will probably be met. Defects in this 
direction are by him called to the attention of the proper army 
authority, who uses every effort to remedy such defects, in accord- 
ance with the judgment of the naval convoy commander. 

5. A naval lieutenant and a junior or warrant officer and four 
quartermasters or signalmen for each transport and supply vessel 
under convoy are supplied by the Navy Department and are de- 
tailed by the naval convoy commander to the vessels when they are 
ready to proceed to the anchorage determined upon as the final 
rendezvous for departure. Means of making flag, hand semaphore, 



TRANSPORT AND CONVOYS 591 

and wigwag signals by day and night are also provided by the 
Navy Department. 

6. The orders as to the destination of convoy and time of 
sailing are issued by the army commanding officer under the 
authority of the War Department and communicated to the naval 
convoy commander. Should circumstances arise after sailing which 
render a change in plan or destination necessary or desirable, which 
change it is not practicable to refer to higher authority, the army 
commander, after consultation with the naval convoy commander, 
decides as to such change. The naval convoy commander has 
control of all movements of the convoy and establishes all orders 
of sailing and formation. He makes provision for emergencies, 
such as an attack by an enemy or dispersion of the convoy by 
weather or other circumstances. He makes his subordinates, 
placed on the transports and supply vessels, familiar with his dis- 
positions and plans. Should the transports be separated from the 
convoying vessels by accident or design, the senior naval officer 
present and on duty takes charge of the convoy and controls its 
movements in accordance with the plans of the convoy commander. 

7. The senior naval officer attached to a transport or supply 
vessel, under the authority of the naval convoy commander and in 
obedience to his orders and signals, controls entirely movements 
of the vessel in which he is embarked, including her anchorage. 
He has no other authority on board. The master and officers of 
the vessel perform their navigation duties affecting her speed and 
movement under his direction, and should there be any opposition 
to or interference with his authority in any way he calls upon the 
commanding officer of troops on board, who takes such steps with 
the force under his command as may be necessary to enforce the 
authority of the naval officer attached to the vessel. 

8. The time, place, and order of landing is decided upon by 
the army officer commanding, who consults with the naval convoy 
commander as to naval assistance, such as the covering and pro- 
tection of the landing by the artillery of the men-of-war and use 
of naval boats. This assistance the naval convoy commander ren- 
ders to the utmost extent practicable and with the sole object in 
view of assisting to the utmost the plan of campaign of the army 
commanding officer. After the order of landing is made known to 
him, the naval convoy commander, in accordance therewith, con- 
trols the placing of the transports and supply vessels for disem- 
barking the troops, animals, munitions, and stores, and controls 
the loading and unloading of boats and has control over such area 
of the beach as may be necessary for the proper execution of the 
above. The naval convoy commander also controls the withdrawal 
of transports, when discharged, to the harbor and anchorage 

38 



592 MILITARY TRAINING 

selected. In case of re-embarkation under naval convoy the same 
general procedure governs. 

9. It is deemed desirable that the army commanding officer, 
if convenient, be embarked in the flagship of the naval convoy com- 
mander. If not convenient, the army commanding officer's trans- 
port should be out of the formation and near the flagship of the 
naval convoy commander, in order that communication between 
them may be readily had at any time, and in this case the senior 
naval officer assigned to transports should be embarked in the 
same transport as the army commanding officer. 

TONNAGE TABLES 

Gross tonnage is the total cubic space below deck and the 
total cubic contents of closed spaces above deck. 

Net tonnage is the gross tonnage minus all spaces not avail- 
able for freight and after deducting accommodation for the crew 
and space occupied by engine rooms, coal bunkers, etc. 

Freight tonnage is a measure of cubic capacity, a freight- 
ton being 40 cubic feet of cargo space. 

In making calculations as to the tonnage required by a body 
of troops 4 tons per man and 12 tons per horse for ocean voyages, 
and 2 tons per man and 8 tons per horse for short voyages should 
be allowed. An ocean voyage in this connection means that troops 
are conveyed in transports fitted up in accordance with the Ad- 
miralty Transport Regulations. For short voyages no fittings for 
men would be provided and only the simplest fittings, consistent 
with security, for the horses. 

As regards the tonnage required for guns, vehicles, etc., the 
stowage of such articles depends solely on clear floor space, and 
all height above that of the vehicles is lost tonnage. In some ships 
the holds may be only just deep enough to take the highest 
vehicles, while in others there may be 9 or 10 feet to spare, yet 
only the same number of vehicles can be stowed in each. No 
attempt is, therefore, made to give this information. The space 
required for the various vehicles in common use can be obtained 
from prepared tables. 



CHAPTER XXI 

WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 
AND TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT 

In wheel transportation, the wagon is the unit, and each 
animal can haul, on a conservative estimate, 1,200 pounds gross or 
700 pounds net load. In pack transportation, the animal is the unit, 
and each can carry, also on a conservative estimate, 300 pounds 
gross or 225 pounds net load. A given quantity of freight carried 
on packs requires three times as many animals as would be neces- 
sary to carry it on wheels. The larger number of animals means 
a proportionate increase of the forage to be provided and in the 
labor of feeding, shoeing, etc. If, however, the country and sea- 
son are favorable for grazing, the pack mule will get on without 
any forage, while the draft mule can not. Other disadvantages of 
pack service are that packages must be limited in size and weight 
much more closely than for wagons; long articles, as tent poles, 
can not conveniently be carried except by special construction, and 
loading of pack cargoes is an expert service which must be per- 
formed by a few trained men, while loading of wagons is work in 
which all can participate. 

The great advantage of pack transportation is its mobility, 
and this consideration is often paramount. A good pack train, 
well handled, can make 2 miles to 1 of the best wagon trains on 
good roads and more on bad ones, and can besides go where there 
are no roads and where the country is so rough that roads could 
hardly be made and wagons could not pass them if they were made. 

Wagon transportation should be used unless the country is 
impracticable or the rate of march too rapid for wheels. The per- 
manent pack train should be limited to the probable requirements 
of rapidly moving columns, and in those the baggage, etc., should 
be kept down to an absolute minimum. When great difficulties of 
wagon transportation are foreseen, the draft mules should be 
broken to pack service and enough aparejos carried in the train so 
that in case the wagons must be abandoned, % to l /3 of the loads 
may be placed on the mules and the march continued. The combi- 
nation of harness and pack saddle which naturally suggests itself in 
this connection, is not practicable. Such a combination would make 
a very poor harness and a worse pack saddle. 



594 MILITARY TRAINING 

The mule is the standard draft and pack animal of the United 
States service. He can best be described and understood by not- 
ing his points of difference from the horse, which he resembles 
very closely. The points of difference in conformation are mainly 
larger, thicker head, longer ears and smaller feet, larger girth, 
shorter legs, and longer body. The relative disposition of bones 
and their angles are the same as for the horse. 

Where extensive bogs are found, as in some parts of Alaska, 
horses are used for pack service, selection and breeding being 
conducted with a view to the maximum size of foot. 

The mule is tougher and hardier than the horse, less sub- 
ject to disease or to inflammation from slight injuries, and usually 
yields more readily to treatment. He is nearly exempt from some 
common diseases of the horse, and especially from colds In the 
field, colic and kicks or other contusions, are his principal troubles. 
When injured he does not exhibit lameness as quickly as the horse, 
and on this account needs more careful watching. 

Selection of Mules. — The cross between a jack and a mare 
is that most used and is the best. Of these, experience seems to 
indicate that mules resemble the sire — that is, small or medium 
sized, with strong markings, large ears, and small feet — are hardier, 
while those resembling the mare, good-sized, smaller ears, larger 
feet, and no jack markings, are likely to show less endurance. 
Color does not seem to give any indication of constitution or dis- 
position except as above noted. Mules for immediate use should 
not be taken under 4 years old. A mule sound and healthy at 4 
years should, with proper care and treatment, last until he is 18. 

A mule should be judged as to his age, strength, endurance, 
and disposition. Indications of age are not very precise as to exact 
years, but are clear enough as to the question whether the mule 
is too young or too old for service. At 4 years, which should be 
the minimum age, 4 of the 6 incisors in each jaw are permanent, 
and the others, the end ones, are temporary or milk teeth. The 
difference is plain, as the milk teeth are white and smaller than the 
others and are smooth outside and grooved inside while the perma- 
nent teeth are grooved outside and smooth inside. 

For indications of disposition look to the head and eye. 
Avoid mules with extra long heads; also those with hollow or 
dish faces. The eyes should be set well apart and stand out 
prominently. Eyes close together or sunken show a mean dis- 
position. A good mule has a soft, kindly look in his eye which is 
difficult to describe but is easily recognized. The ears should be 
mobile, and in young animals constantly moving; one pointing 
forward and one back is a good sign; laying both ears clear back 
when approached is a bad sign; but animals at rest and undis- 
turbed frequently lay the ears back. 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 595 

Feeding. — The ration for the mule is 9 pounds of oats or 
corn and 14 pounds of hay, the latter the same as for the horse, 
the former % less. Bran when issued is in lieu of grain, pound 
for pound. One hundred pounds of straw per month is allowed 
for bedding, or the same amount of hay if straw can not be had. 
The smaller grain ration is determined by the smaller average 
size of the mule and does not mean that he is a lighter eater than 
the horse or that he can do the same work with less nutrition. 
The ration is right for the average mule at average work. If he 
is extra large or is worked beyond this limit, he must have more 
grain or its equivalent in other food, or he will fall off in con- 
dition. 

While the mule is less particular about his food than the 
horse, and will keep himself alive when a horse would starve, it 
is none the less important that his food should be clean and sound. 
He. is particularly sensitive to sudden changes of diet even when 
the old food and the new is each good of its kind. Changes from 
grain to grass and the reverse, or from one kind of grain to an- 
other, should be made gradually. In addition to a proper quantity 
of food, the animal must have time to eat it. All of the hay and 
more than half' of the grain should be fed at night, and the morn- 
ing feed should be given at least an hour before hitching up. Pack 
mules frequently have the entire ration at night and are not fed at 
all in the morning. In the field, the mules can be fed at the picket 
line by putting a layer of hay along the line, making a hollow or 
nest in front of each mule and pouring the grain into it. When 
no hay is fed and the ground is not dry and clean, lay down sacks 
on which to place the grain. 

Bran moistened with water to the consistency of brown 
sugar should be given occasionally, and always if there are signs 
of constipation. It may be given alone or mixed with a part ra- 
tion of grain. It must be freshly mixed to make sure that it is 
not in the least sour. This and a little fresh grass when it can be 
had are sufficient usually to keep the bowels right. Purgatives 
should not be given except under the advice of a veterinarian or 
when constipation persists in spite of the simple remedies sug- 
gested. An ounce of nitrate of potash, or, if this can not be had, 
about a pint of wood ashes mixed with the bran mash, will slightly 
increase its laxative effect. 

Salt. — Mules require a certain amount of salt, of which they 
are the best judges. The allowance is 2 ounces per week for each 
animal, which may be increased to 12 ounces per month, in the 
discretion of the commanding officer. In a corral, lumps of rock 
salt may be kept in boxes from which the mules will lick as much 
as they need. If glanders should make its appearance anywhere in 
the vicinity, the use of these boxes should be discontinued and salt 



596 MILITARY TRAINING 

fed to the animals separately. This is best done in the bran mash. 
On the march salt must be fed in the same way. If the mules are 
found licking each other or the harness, or gnawing wagons or 
mangers, it is an indication of lack of salt. 

If the mules are herded for grazing at night, there should 
be a bell horse to keep them from straggling. The bell horse 
should be hobbled but not picketed if it can be avoided. There 
also should be a herd guard on duty. Pack animals are habitually 
trained to follow a bell horse, but draft mules are not. Horses 
have a peculiar fascination for the mule, and if one is turned into 
a corral with a bunch of mules for 2 or 3 days, they will follow 
him anywhere and can not be induced to leave him. If a pack 
train is short of grain, the bell horse should have an ample ration, 
since he can not graze along the line of march while the pack 
mules can and do. 

In open country a white or gray bell horse will make it possi- 
ble to locate the train at a much greater distance. This may or may 
not be desirable, according to circumstances. This remark ap- 
plies also to white or gray mules. 

Water. — A mule requires from 4 to 6 gallons of water a day, 
depending on the season and his work. In an arid climate 2 or 3 
times as much may be required. In an emergency, he may be 
worked with what he will drink at one watering a day, but when- 
ever possible he should be watered two or three times a day. In 
corrals there should be, except in freezing weather, a constant 
supply so that the animals can drink whenever they desire to do so. 
It is as important that the water be pure and wholesome as for 
any other animal. In fact the mule is rather particular about his 
drinking water. In every herd, some animals will refuse water 
which others drink and which appears to be good. No pains should 
be spared to find water which these animals will drink. 

If the mules have had enough water at night they often will 
not drink before starting in the morning. In such case every effort 
must be made to get water at the end of the first hour's march. 
Especial attention is required on this point, as the watering of 
draft mules on the road generally involves unhitching the teams 
or carrying the water in buckets, either of which operations causes 
trouble and delay and is likely to be neglected. In crossing a 
Stream with soft bottom, if the mules are thirsty they should be 
watered before driving in; otherwise they may stop to drink and 
mire themselves or the wagon. A stream encountered at the end of 
a march should usually be crossed before going into camp. 

Disease and Treatment. — The normal condition of a mule 
is indicated by a pulse of 34 to 38 per minute, and a temperature 
of 99 degress. The pulse can best be taken inside the lower jaw 
or inside the foreleg just above the fetlock. Temperature is taken 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 597 

by a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum for five minutes. 
Disease is almost always accompanied by an increase of tempera- 
ture or pulse, or both. The pulse may run to 100 per minute 
or even more. A strong, full pulse of normal rates is a very good 
indication of freedom from disease or injury. The temperature in 
some diseases runs from 107 to 109 degrees. In taking either tem- 
perature or pulse, avoid exciting or worrying the animal. The nor- 
mal rate of respiration when at rest is 12 per minute. 

The diseases and injuries here described include those most 
likely to be encountered in field service, those in which effective 
treatment can be given by persons who are not skilled veterinari- 
ans, and those in which prompt action is necessary to prevent 
contagion. 

Administration of Medicines. — Liquid medicines are given as 
a drench. Put the liquid into a long-necked bottle without a 
shoulder, and see that there are no sharp edges or projections 
about the mouth or neck. Raise the animal's head until the mouth 
is higher than the throat. Insert the neck of the bottle in the 
side of the mouth between the incisors and the molars. Point it 
toward the throat and allow the medicine to run out slowly and 
with intermissions if necessary. 

Powders without any disagreeable taste or oder may be dis- 
solved in water and sprinkled on the feed or put into the drinking 
water. 

Balls to contain dry medicines may be made by the ad- 
dition of honey, sirup, or soap, using oil meal if necessary for re- 
quired consistency. They should be about 2 inches long and f£ 
inch in diameter, freshly made, and inclosed in tissue paper or 
gelatine capsules. 

The mixture may be given a sticky consistency and placed 
on the tongue with a paddle or spoon. This form is called an 
electuary. 

Diarrhoea. — Usually results from too laxative diet or ex- 
posure. Put the animal on dry feed without salt and keep dry 
and warm. Do not work more than necessary. In aggravated 
cases give ^4 pint of raw linseed oil or 1 dram of powdered opium. 

Spasmodic Colic. — The animal appears to be in distress, 
looks around at its flanks, paws, kicks at its belly, attempts to 
evacuate the bowels and to pass urine. Pulse and respiration 
accelerated. The attacks are intermittent and between them the 
animal returns to apparently normal condition. 

Give a drench of 1 pint of raw linseed oil. If the animal 
has not been overfed and the case is light, 1 dram of powdered 
ginger mixed in water will do. Give ample room to move about. 

Flatulent Colic. — More serious and less frequent than the 
former; pain apparently less severe, but continuous; animal un- 



598 MILITARY TRAINING 

steady on its legs; extremities cold; excessive distention of 
abdomen. In severe cases it is necessary to puncture the animal 
to relieve the distention. The puncture is made in the right 
flank in the space bounded by the backbone, the hip bone, and 
the last rib, and at the point of greatest distension. The puncture 
is made with the trocar directly downward and inward. Leave the 
cannula in the opening temporarily. 

Poll Evil. — An abscess on the top of the head immediately 
behind the ears. Troublesome mainly for its unfavorable situation 
for treatment. Keep bowels open and reduce inflammation by 
applications of cold water. After pus has formed, open clear to 
the bottom so that pus can readily run out from the lowest part. 
Poultice and keep open until discharge of pus has entirely stopped. 
Use antiseptic dressings. 

Strangles. — An inflammation of the glands of the throat 
and neck, resulting in the formation of an abscess. Good care 
and soft food, varied as much as possible to stimulate the appetite, 
are all that is required until the tumor heads, when it should be 
freely opened and drained until it is free of pus. 

Glanders. — A yellowish, sticky discharge from the nose, with 
ulcers inside the nostrils, at first distinct, then with ragged edges 
and finally confluent; enlargement and hardening of one or both 
glands below the jaws; staring coat; difficult respiration; extreme 
debility and profuse perspiration on the slightest exertion; fetid 
odor from nostrils in advanced cases. The disease is contagious 
and incurable. As soon as suspected, the animal must be isolated, 
and when the disease is recognized, he should be killed and burned 
or deeply buried. 

Farcy. — A different and milder manifestation of the same 
poison as in glanders. Ulcers appear on head, body or legs; they 
are commonly called farcy buds or buttons. When the legs are 
affected, they swell, and the buds are usually below the knees 
or hocks., oftenest in a line down the front of the fore leg, begin- 
ning at top and running to the bottom. In the early stage, the 
buds are hard lumps beneath the skin. Later they enlarge and 
suppurate through the skin. Before this condition is reached, the 
animal should be killed. 

Surra. — A disease resembling glanders, prevalent in the 
Philippine Islands. It is probably a wound disease, caused by con- 
tact of the infectious agent with a wounded surface, either skin 
or mucous membrane. At first loss of appetite, constipation, fever 
and thirst; later a dropsical swelling, usually beginning around 
the belly and immediately or quickly extending to legs and feet, 
with rapid and extreme emaciation. Sometimes the submaxillary 
glands are involved, with discharge from the nose resembling that 
of glanders. A very characteristic symptom is dragging the hind 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 599 

feet in walking. The disease runs from 3 to 4 weeks and some- 
times longer. No remedy is as yet known. Isolate as soon as 
suspected, and, when the diagnosis is certain, destroy the animal 
and burn or bury the carcass. 

Mange. — Small pustules form on the skin,, usually beginning 
at the roots of mane and tail. The discharges form a crust under 
which the hair loosens and falls out. The disease is contagious and 
animals affected must be isolated and usual precautions taken. 
Cleanse the affected parts thoroughly with soap and water. If 
the skin is affected over a large surface, only a part of it should 
be gone over with the carbolic solution each day, to avoid car- 
bolic-acid poisoning. 

Scratches. — An inflamed condition of the skin of the heel 
with crusts giving a watery discharge. Caused by exposure to wet 
and cold, sometimes by trimming the fetlocks. Keep the parts 
dry and clean. Wash, if at all, with warm water and castile soap 
and dry thoroughly after washing. If the skin is unbroken, use 
fresh lard and vaseline; dust with powdered alum twice a day. A 
dry place for the animal to stand is necessary to a cure. 

Thrust. — A disease of the frog, usually behind, accompanied 
by an offensive discharge. It results from uncleanliness. Keep 
the frog clean and dry; pare away ragged parts and open the 
cracks to facilitate discharge; dust with calomel and dress with 
iodoform or pine tar. 

Laminitis or Founder. — An acute inflammation of the proc- 
esses which connect the wall of the hoof with the coffin bone. 
More common in the front feet; very painful and causes extreme 
lameness and stiffness with much heat in the foot. Overexer- 
tion, indigestion and watering when heated are most frequent 
causes. The animal can scarcely be induced to move and tries to 
take the weight off the toes by standing on the heels, or, if the 
fore feet only are affected, by drawing the hind feet forward 
under the body. 

Lockjaw. — Induced by pricking the foot with rusty iron, or 
by punctured wounds. The disease is caused by a microbe which 
thrives in rich soils,, as of highly cultivated gardens, and in the 
tropics. Common in the Philippine Islands as a result of punc- 
tured wounds. 

There is difficulty in swallowing and rigidity of the limbs; 
ears erect and to the front; nostrils dilated; legs spread apart, and 
tail persistently held erect. General muscular rigidity; obstinate 
constipation and torpidity of the liver. The climax usually comes 
in 3 or 4 days. 

Rope Burns. — Abrasion of the skin under the fetlock by 
rubbing against a rope. Very frequent, especially with mules 
not accustomed to being tethered or picketed. If not severe, 



600 MILITARY TRAINING 

cleanse with soap and apply ointments or any kind of clean 
grease. For severe cases, use the same treatment and bandage. 

Pricking the Foot. — This may result from picking up a 
nail or from one improperly driven in the shoe. If the point of 
injury can not be seen, locate it by pressure. The mule will flinch 
when the sore spot is touched. If suppuration has not set in, 
clean the part, treat it with antiseptic, and stop the orifice with 
a plug of sterilized material. If pus has formed, a free exit for 
it must be provided and maintained. It may be necessary to cut 
away a considerable amount of horn to do this. A puncture of 
the frog is managed in a similar way. 

Wounds and Bruises. — The prime requisites of treatment are 
the arrest of hemorrhage; removal of foreign objects if possible; 
cleansing and sterilizing the wound; replacement of parts in 
proper relative positions by stitches or bandages, and a provi- 
sion for the discharge of pus from the bottom of the wound. In 
some cases the greatest possible freedom from motion is de- 
sirable. 

The healing of wounds in mules is almost always by sup- 
puration. Before the tissues unite they assume a granular ap- 
pearance. This granulation should begin at the deepest part and 
progress regularly outward. If granulation appears first near the 
outside, care must be taken to preserve a channel by which the 
pus may discharge freely from below. A tube, or a string of tow 
or other clean fibrous material dipped in melted wax or paraffin, 
will answer. This can be withdrawn when the wound is dressed,, 
the accumulated pus pressed out, and the string replaced. 

Spring Tonic. — If mules are sluggish in early spring, lose 
their appetites, and are slow in shedding out, their condition may 
be improved by giving a small quantity of saltpeter in soft feed 
once a week for a month or so. If nothing else can be had, 
give a teaspoonful of powdered sulphur and a half pint of wood 
ashes. 

Shoeing. — A mule's feet are designed to carry his weight 
partly on the lower edge of the outer wall and partly on the 
sole and frog. The pressure of the frog on the ground gives 
a better foothold, and besides causes a lateral pressure on the 
inside of the wall which resists the natural tendency of the hoof 
to contract. The wall is constantly growing, and on a soft 
elastic footing it wears away at a rate equal to its growth and 
is always of the right length to take its share of the load. On 
a harder footing, such as is presented by most roads, the wall 
wears faster than it grows, and is constantly shortening, letting 
the sole down so that it carries too much of the load and lame- 
ness results. To prevent this, shoeing is resorted to. But when 
shoes are on, there is no wear of the walls, which grow longer and 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 601 

raise the sole and frog, removing the internal pressure from the 
wall and allowing it to contract and cause lameness. The art of 
good shoeing consists in providing a metal armor for the lower 
edge of the wall with the least possible interference with any 
other part of the foot, or with the natural relations of wall, sole, 
and frog. If the sole and frog have received proper daily care 
there will be no excuse for the shoer to touch either of them 
with any tool. If the bottom of the foot is foul, the shoer may 
clean it out, but always with a scraping, never with a cutting, tool. 
Cutting the sole and frog is the business of the veterinarian or 
farrier, not the shoer. 

Mule shoes are supplied in several sizes. Numbers 2 to 5 
will answer all ordinary requirements. The No. 2 shoe is 3}%. 
inches wide by 5^ inches long, and the No. 5 is 4^4 inches wide 
by 7 inches long; all are J / 2 inch thick, and are punched for 4 
holes on a side. The top surface of the shoe is slightly beveled, 
the outside being 1/32 inch higher than the inside. The nail holes 
on each side are connected on the bottom of the shoe by a counter- 
sunk groove. The shoes are packed in kegs of 100 lbs. each. A 
keg of No. 2 contains 100 shoes; of No. 3, 85 shoes; of No. 4, 72 
shoes, and of No. 5, 60 shoes. 

The nails used with the above sizes of shoes are Nos. 5, 6, 7 
and 8. No. 5 is 2 inches long; No. 6, 2% inches, No. 7, 2*4 inches 
and No. 8, 2^2 inches. The heads and point bevels are formed on 
the outside; the inside of the nail is a plane surface. Nails are 
supplied in kegs of 100 lbs. No. 5 nails run 190 to the lb.; No. 6, 
140; No. 7, 100 and No. 8, 80. 

The old shoe should be carefully removed by cutting off the 
clinches and drawing the nails singly. Starting the shoe and pry- 
ing it off, bringing all the nails with it, is dangerous. The bottom 
of the wall should then be cut down level with the sole at the toe 
and left a little longer at the heel. The heel wears a little under 
the shoe and will rarely require much cutting. The rasp is used 
to cross level the bottom on the wall, which should be accurately 
done, so that the mule will stand square on the shoe. The shoe is 
now to be fitted accurately, so that its outer edge will follow the 
circumference of the hoof all around. The fit must be made close 
enough so that no filing of the sides of the wall will be necessary 
to complete it. The shoe is then applied hot for a moment, and 
the high points indicated by burning are worked down. The shoe 
should then be applied hot long enough to slightly sear the lower 
surface of the wall, but no longer. It should then be cooled and 
nailed on. In nailing, begin with the front or toe nails and drive 
them in their order to the rear. After all are driven, cut off the 
points near the hoof, rasp the clinches thin enough to turn easily, 
but do not let the rasp cut the horn. Turn the clinches down 



602 MILITARY TRAINING 

snug, but do not try to drive them into the hoof, nor use a file on 
them to smooth up. 

Management of Vicious Mules. — Ordinary cases can be 
handled by lifting the foot with a strap or rope. Take hold of the 
pastern and be sure that the rope can not slide so far as to cause 
a burn. For a hind foot, draw forward between the legs or to a 
collar; for a fore foot, bend sharply at the knee and strap the 
pastern to the upper leg. For bad cases in the field, throw the 
mule and shoe him while down. For the shop, construct a frame 
of stout timbers in which he can be tied in every direction by 
ropes, straps or canvas bands. Twitches on the ears should never 
be used. If absolutely necessary to control the animal, put a 
twitch on the nose. 

Animal Power. — The capacity of an animal to exert a trac- 
tive effort decreases as speed and time increase. As a basis, it 
may be assumed that an average draft mule can pull on a level 80 
pounds at 2y 2 miles an hour for 10 hours every day, or, in other 
words, can pull 80 pounds over 25 miles of average level roads 
every day. If a pull of 160 pounds is required, it can be made 
over \2y 2 miles a day only, the lesser distance being covered by 
a slower gait or longer rests, or as is usually the case, partly by 
each. An animal can exert 2y 2 times the normal pull for a few 
minutes at a time, and 5 times for a few seconds, provided in each 
case the demand is not repeated too frequently. 

The load which can be hauled on any pull depends mainly 
on the kind and condition of the road and a little on the wagon, 
especially as to width of tire and size of wheels. For the standard 
Army wagon and on a level average dirt road in good condition 
the load corresponding to 80 pounds standard pull may be taken 
at 1,000 pounds per animal. Of this, 300 pounds will be wagon, 
leaving 700 pounds net freight. Any reduction of this load to 
lessen the pull must come out of the 700 pounds. To reduce the 
pull to 40 pounds, 500 pounds must be taken from the freight, 
leaving 200 pounds only to be hauled. This 200 pounds pulled 
over 25 miles would equal 5,000 pounds pulled over 1 mile, while if 
the full load of 700 pounds is hauled over \2 l / 2 miles, which can be 
done with the same effort, the result equals 700X12^ = 8,750 
pounds hauled 1 mile. If the length of the march is fixed, the 
animals can be relieved only by reducing the pull; otherwise it is 
better to relieve them by shortening the march. 

On hilly roads there is no traction on the down grades and 
an increased gait is usually taken without appreciable extra exer- 
tion. This saves time, which may be spent in rests, allowing 
greater effort on the up grades. Up to 8% grade, the load can be 
retained by reducing the distance. Up to 3% grade, the distance 
can be maintained by reducing the pull. Above 8%, both pull and 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 603 

distance must be reduced. The reduction of pull may be accom- 
plished by removing part of the freight, by doubling up teams, or 
by putting men on drag ropes. 

The foregoing is based on the supposition that the animals 
have the full ration every day and remain in as good condition as 
when they started. In emergencies they can do more work than 
indicated, but will go off in condition and some will give out en- 
tirely. In campaign, animals are overworked as a rule, and finish in. 
very poor condition. This is necessary because adequate transpor- 
tation is rarely available and what there is must be worked at 
a killing rate. When marches are intermittent, mules may be 
pushed, since what they lose in 2 or 3 days' overwork can be made 
up by a week's rest with good care. 

Harness. — The harness supplied for heavy draft is of three 
kinds, known as army wagon harness, 4-mule ambulance and wagon 
harness, and ambulance harness. The first is distinguished by the 
absence of a saddle; by its breeching, which is of flat leather un- 
stitched, and its traces, which are of chain throughout and pass 
through leather pipes to prevent chafing. The second is distin- 
guished by its traces, which are of leather to the breeching, with 
chain extensions. The third has all leather traces. 

Most 6-mule teams are driven with a jerk line, the driver 
riding the near wheeler. Four-mule teams in the bridge train are 
driven in the same way. All other 4-mule teams are driven with 
lines from a seat on the wagon. The 6-mule harness includes a 
riding saddle, jerk line, check rein, jockey stick, and blacksnake 
whip. A set of 4-mule harness includes a pair of wheel lines, a 
pair of lead lines, a whipstock, and lash. 

Proper fitting of the harness is very important. The bridle 
should be loosely fitted, the crownpiece and throatlatch not too 
tight; the brow band band in the right place; the cheek pieces 
so adjusted that the bit will hang in the mouth just clear of the" 
angle of the lips, not far from it and not touching it, especially not 
drawing it up into wrinkles. . The bit should be of the right length 
for the width of the jaw. Less damage will be done, however, if 
the bit is too long than if too short. If the bit tends to irritate 
the mule's mouth at the ends, relief may be given by putting a 
large leather washer around the bit inside the ring. The blinds 
must be so adjusted as not to touch the eyelashes. 

The fit of the collar requires close attention. If it is too 
small it will cut off the wind; if too large it is likely to make the 
shoulders sore. When the collar is on and adjusted, there should 
be room to insert the open hand between the bottom of the collar 
and the windpipe, and not much more. Collars should always be 
buckled when off the mules. A collar which is the right size but 
not the right shape can be improved by soaking it in water and 



604 



MILITARY TRAINING 



putting it on wet. A day's work in the rain will produce the same 
result. The undersurface of the collar should be kept clean and 
soft. Do not scrape it, but rub or wash it clean. The same remark 
applies to every part of the harness which touches the mule's skin. 
Cleaning the outside of a harness is good for the harness only; 
cleaning the inside is good for both mule and harness. The driver 
should be provided with two or more small pads of sheep skin with 
throngs attached. If the skin is abraded by the harness, two of 
these pads may be lashed to the underside, one on each side of the 
sore, and will afford relief until the march is over and regular treat- 
ment can be applied. The hames should be so adjusted to fit the 
collar closely without pinching it out of shape. 



? 



7TH" 01V. 2ND. VOL. ENGRS B 




SctJe of Feet 

T n «• ■ ■ 1 



SPRING TOOL WAGON. 



To clean harness, hang a set on a pole or line; wet a sponge 
in clean water and rub gently over the harness until the dirt is 
softened. Rinse the sponge frequently and renew the water as 
often as necessary. Next rub the sponge on the harness soap until 
a good lather is formed. Give the harness a thorough coating of 
it and continue the rubbing until all dirt is removed. It may be 
necessary to use a thin piece of wood to get some spots clean. 
When the harness is clean rub up a very thick lather and coat the 
leather evenly with it, allowing it to dry without rubbing. After 
the lather has been absorbed and the leather is dry, dip a small 
clean sponge in harness dressing and touch the harness lightly, 
rubbing just enough to spread the dressing evenly. 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 605 

If the leather is very hard, after cleaning as above, take a 
pint of neat's-foot oil and a teaspoonful of lampblack to each single 
set. Mix thoroughly until a black glossy appearance is produced 
and apply an even coat with a small sponge, rubbing it well in. 
In cold weather warm the oil enough to make it flow freely, but 
do not let it get hot. After thoroughly dry, apply harness dressing. 

Harness should be looked over carefully every day. If 
stitches are broken, leather worn or cut, or any metal parts cracked 
or broken, have the defect remedied at once. If stitches are taken, 
be careful not to leave knots on the inner surface of the harness. 
Fasten at beginning and end by drop stitches. In the field provide 
supports for the harness and keep it off the ground when not in use. 




COMPANY TOOL WAGON. 



Wagons. — For general freighting, the wagons in use in the 
United States service are the army six, weighing 1,950 pounds, and 
carrying 4,000 pounds with a 6-mule jerk-line team, and the escort, 
weighing 1,500 pounds and carrying 3,000 pounds with a four-line 
team. The army six-wagon is no longer furnished by the Quarter- 
master Corps for use in campaigning, being limited to use in garri- 
sons. 

The bridge equipage is carried on two types of wagons, the 
ponton wagon, weighing 2,200 pounds, and carrying 2,900 pounds, 
and the chess wagon, weighing 1,750 pounds, and carrying 2,300 to 
2,700 pounds. The ponton wagon is used for the wooden ponton. 
The chess wagon is used for all other bridge loads. 



606 MILITARY TRAINING 

To keep a wagon in order it is only necessary to keep all 
nuts tightened, the wheels greased, and to wash the mud off when 
opportunity offers. Four to six pounds of axle grease per wagon 
per month will be ample. In dry sand wagons in constant service 
should be greased daily. On hard roads they should be greased 
every 40 to 50 miles. Always clean off the old grease before put- 
ing on the new. In washing use as much water and as little rub- 
bing as possible. 

The following spare parts and extras should be carried on 
each army six and escort wagon: 1 axe; 2 extra axle nuts; 1 
galvanized-iron bucket; 1 horse brush; 1 currycomb; 1 pick; 150 
feet rope, ^ inch or Y\ inch; 1 doubletree; 2 cans axle grease; 1 
lantern; 3 open links; 1 pole, extra; 1 reach,, extra; 2 singletrees; 
1 wrench; coil of stove wire. 

A similar list should be carried for the bridge wagons, but 
preferably in supply wagons, not on the wagons themselves. For 
the latter, spare wheels should also be carried. 

Pack Saddles. — The adopted pack saddle is of the Spanish 
type, and is commonly called by its Spanish name, aparejo. Its 
principal parts, are the body, the cover, the cincha, and the crup- 
per. These parts have subdivisions, which are less important, 
The accessories added to the above to make the aparejo complete 
are the corona, the blanket,, the lash rope with its cincha, the 
sling ropes, the lair ropes, and the mantas or pack covers. 

The body of the aparejo consists of 2 pieces of heavy leather 
24 inches wide by 58, 60 or 62 inches long, sewed together at the 
edges and across the middle of the length, forming 2 pouches, 
into which moss or hay is stuffed to form pads fitting the con- 
tour of the animal on either side of the backbone. In the Ameri- 
can form, the pads are given a peculiar elastic stiffness by means 
of ribs of wood or metal extending from a saddle piece at the 
top of each pouch to a boot piece at the bottom. These ribs 
are stiffer at the front and more flexible at the back, varying 
uniformly between. They convert each pad into an elastic lever, 
by which the pull of the cincha on the bottom acts to raise the 
aparejo and its load from the backbone, while the stuffing dis- 
tributes the load uniformly over a large space on the ribs. The 
stuffing is introduced through a hand-hole in the middle of the 
underside of each pad, through which it is always accessible,, and 
the finest art of the packer consists in fitting the pads to the 
shape of the particular animal which is to carry the aparejo, and 
keeping them so regardless of changes in the animal's condi- 
tion by shifting, removing, or renewing the stuffing. If a bunch 
rises on the animal, it can be worked down by taking out stuffing 
immediately over it so as to take off the pressure at that point. 
Determine the proper point by wetting the top of the bunch and 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 607 

laying the aparejo on the mule. Aparejos and mules are num- 
bered and the same pack is always on the same mule. 

The function of the crupper is not what would naturally be 
expected. If the aparejo is properly set up and fitted there will be 
no tendency to move back or forward. The crupper is in reality a 
steadying lever to keep the aparejo from rocking fore and aft as 
the mule travels. For this purpose, the dock piece is large, 
smooth and soft, and the crupper is wide, stiff and firmly laced 
to the body. The crupper is adjustable in length, and must be 




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accurately fitted so that when the aparejo is in its proper place 
the dock piece will ride between tail and dock without pressing 
on either. 

The cover is permanently attached to the body and may be 
considered a part of it. 

The cincha is of heavy canvas, doubled, and 10 inches wide. 
It is long enough to reach from the«near boot under the mule 
and around the aparejo to a little beyond the middle. The ends 
are connected by the latigo, or cincha strap. 



608 



MILITARY TRAINING 



The corona is a pad usually of several thicknesses of blanket, 
with a number or design which identifies the pack. It is im- 
portant that the corona shall not be separated from its aparejo. 

Off the mules the aparejos are placed in a row on the 
ground or on skids, standing on their boots. The cincha, folded 
with the latigo inside, rests on the aparejo. The crupper is 
turned so that the dock piece rests on the cincha. The corona is 
placed on top of all. Canvas covers are stretched over the line 




APAREJO PROPERLY ADJUSTED. 



of aparejos and tied down. The line'of aparejos so arranged is 
usually referred to as the rigging. 

Each packer is provided with a blind. The mules are trained 
to stand perfectly still when blinded, and if it is necessary to move 
a mule even by a step, the blind should be lifted. 

To place the aparejo on the mule the corona is first put 
smoothly on, followed by the blanket folded to 6 thicknesses. The 
aparejo is then put on slightly in rear of its place. The crupper 
is turned, the dock piece adjusted, the aparejo settled to its place, 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 609 

and the cincha unfolded, placed and tightened. Never put on or 
adjust a pack with the mule's head uphill. 

Loads are divided into side packs and top packs. Side 
packs should be of approximately equal weight and size. A keg 
of paint on one side and an equal weight of oakum on the other 
do not make a proper load. Side packs should not be longer than 
30 inches, wider than 20 inches,, nor deeper than 12 inches. If the 
side packs do not fill out a load, the rest is placed between them 
as a top pack. Articles which by their size and shape are not 
suitable for side packs are carried on top. The centre of gravity 
of the entire load should be below the top of the saddle, and 
the lower the better. For miscellaneous cargoes, the freight 
is made up into side and top packs, each wrapped in a manta, 
or canvas cover, and tied, or laired up with lair ropes. If a pack 
contains articles of different weights, place the heaviest at the 
bottom. The side packs are slung across the aparejo by the sling 
ropes and lashed on with the lash rope and cincha in the form of 
the diamond hitch. Such a load must remain unbroken until the 
end of the march. 

In taking off the lashed packs, the lash rope is removed; its 
cincha laid on the ground in the middle of the line to be occu- 
pied. The lash rope is coiled down on the cincha and its end 
stretched out 10 feet to one side. The sling rope is then un- 
fastened, the packs dropped from the aparejo and laid on the 
lash rope lengthwise with the cincha. The sling rope is coiled 
on the packs, and tne end of tne lasn rope brought up on top. The 
cincha of the second pack is laid down on one side of the first 
and parallel to it at 2 feet distance, but with the end of the lash 
rope on the opposite siae. Tne packs,, etc., are placed on it. The 
third pack is placed on the otner siae of the middle one, and so 
on until all are down in a line. After all cargoes are off, the 
aparejos are removed. Cargoes are also covered with pieces of 
canvas called cargo covers. Mantas may be used if there are 
spare ones. 

Marches. — A draft mule is rested by a halt; a pack mule is 
not unless unloaded. Wagon trains should start early and make 
frequent halts. These should be of two classes, longer ones at 
regular time intervals, and shorter ones of a minute or two after 
every unusually hard pull. The length and interval of the longer 
halts will depend upon the time and distance to be made. 

As a rule, if a mule has made one dead pull, he will not 
try to pull again on the same load in the same place. When it 
is evident that the team must stop, the driver should stop it before 
it is stalled; otherwise, in most cases; he can not get another pull 
out of the team. A very slight change of conditions will often 
encourage stalled mules to pull again. Cases have been reported 



610 MILITARY TRAINING 

in which reversing the near and off mules had the desired effect. 
A little visible assistance, as a few men on dragropes, has an ex- 
cellent effect. Most mules on a hard pull will not go into the 
collar gradually as a horse does, but will throw themselves for- 
ward, and if the load does not move,, will immediately fall back. 
It is difficult to get a steady lay-down pull out of a team of mules 
in which every animal is doing his best at the same moment. A. 
team of two mules on a hard pull will often seesaw on the double- 
trees without pulling as much as either could alone. It is better 
to have stop chains on the doubletrees, leaving only enough slack 
to prevent one mule from shirking. 

It may be quicker in case of great obstacles, to unload 
wagons and take them to pieces and carry over, than to attempt 
to haul over. A portage may also be made when otherwise the 
train could not advance at all. 

A pack train should be allowed to make its march without 
halts except for water, if it can be done. They may start later or 
get in earlier, according to circumstances. If the column is of 
great length, no relief can be given them in this way, and they 
must halt with the rest. 

When going into bivouac or camp, the company and head- 
quarters ration and baggage wagons are conducted at once to the 
sites of their respective kitchens. If a bivouac, they remain there 
all night, unless in the presence of the enemy; if a camp, they are 
unloaded, and join the rest of the train in park. 

The train is parked in line, preferably to leeward of the 
camp, and on ground which does not drain toward it. The picket 
line will be stretched parallel to the wagon line and preferably in 
front of it, though always on dry, gently sloping ground, if it can 
be found. The best site is along a ridge with the ground sloping 
both ways from'the line. The mules stand on both sides, and there 
should be 3 yards of line for each 4 mules. If the 4-mule wagons 
are 3 yards apart in park and the 6-mule wagons A x / 2 yards apart, 
tongue to tongue, each team at the picket line may stand in 
front of its own wagon, which is a very convenient arrangement. 

Picket lines are of two kinds, ground and high. A ground 
line is stretched on the ground, attached at its ends and at inter- 
vals of about 30 yards, to stakes or some other form of holdfast. 
A 1-inch diameter rope of sufficient length should be carried for 
the purpose, but, if necessary, a ground line may be made up of 
picket or. lash ropes. A high line is stretched on trees or stakes 
set in the ground. If stakes are used, they should be at least 8 
feet long set 3 feet in the ground. At A l / 2 feet from the ground, 
holes should be bored large enough to take the line. From each 
end post the line should run obliquely to the ground and be at- 
tached to a holdfast. A high line for temporary use may be ob- 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 611 

tained by running every fifth wagon to the front and stretching 
the line across them. The end wagons should be loaded ones, 
and all must have the brakes set. Picket lines will be stretched 
with tackle if any is at hand; otherwise, by the following method: 
Attach the rope at one end and lead it through all the supports or 
fastenings; about 15 feet from the other end make a bowline in 
the rope, pass the end around or through the end fastening and 
back through the bowline. By hauling on the end of the rope the 
necessary strain may be set on the line, the bowline acting as a 
.single block. The end stakes of a high line should incline outward 
slightly. 

The picket line should be ditched if it is to be used for 
some time, and if rain threatens it should be ditched even for a 




GROUND PICKET LINE. 



bivouac. The only exception is when the line is on a ridge and 
the ground slopes from it in both directions. Open a ditch on the 
high side about 3 yards from the line. If the ground slopes along 
the line, the ditch will be parallel to it, and will have an outlet 
at the lower end; otherwise, the ditch must be farther uphill at 
the middle,, and will have an outlet at each end. This drainage 
should be kept in mind in locating the line. 

Stable Duties. — The prime requisites in stabling mules are 
free circulation of air without drafts, equable temperature, dry- 
ness, and cleanliness. Grain is fed at reveille by the stable order- 
lies. When the animals have finished eating, those to be used 
are harnessed and hitched up. The rest are turned into the corral 
or tied at the picket line. The stable police then fork all clean 



612 MILITARY TRAINING 

and dry bedding to the head of the stall and work the rest of the 
manure into piles ready for loading. The manure wagon is 
driven down the aisle and loaded. The hay is then distributed to 
the mangers and the additional bedding is procured and spread. 
The aisle may then be washed with hose and brooms if the air 
is dry; if damp, do not wash, but sweep up with stable brooms.' 
The evening feed is put in the mangers at afternoon stables. 

Mules of the same team should stand together, and their 
harness should be hung on racks in rear of their stalls. It is much 
better to have harness covers to keep off dust. 

Grooming is quite as important to the mule as to the horse, 
but he does not get so much of it, and in the nature of things he 
can not. He should be groomed every day if it can possibly be 
done. When coming in from a long muddy march the wet mud 
should be wiped off with a wisp of straw before it dries and 
hardens. If the animal will not stand, tie up a hind foot. Always 
tie up the foot on the side opposite to that which is to be groomed. 

Shipping Mules by Rail. — The cars furnished may be either: 

The palace stock car, length 36 to 40 feet, capacity 16 to 20 
head; each animal in a separate stall, with a compartment for atr 
tendants, or 

The improved stock car, length 36 feet, capacity 20 to 24 
head, with facilities for feeding and watering in car, or 

The ordinary stock car, length 30 to 34 feet, capacity 16 to 
20 head, with no appliances of any kind. 

Before loading, examine the car carefully to see that the 
floors are not rotten or broken; that the sides are secure, and that 
there are no projecting nails or splinters on the inside. The car 
should be cleaned and the floor covered with sand or sawdust. 
Hay or straw should never be allowed in a stock car on account 
of the danger from fire. The man in charge should be provided 
with a lantern, bucket and hatchet. The latter is to be used to 
cut away part of a board in case an animal gets his hoof through 
the side of the car. 

Except in very hot weather, pack the animals snugly in the 
car, as they will ride better than if loosely packed. If an animal 
falls down in the car it will be almost impossible for it to get up 
without assistance. The attendant should enter the car at the 
end and crawl along the side nearest the animal's head until he 
is reached. Take him by the halter and raise his head. With this 
assistance he will probably get up. For loading, use the railroad 
platform or the loading ramp found at railroad stations, or make 
a ramp well supported, with strong sides, and with cleats on the 
floor to prevent slipping. Lanyards should be attached to each 
side of the floor near the middle and made fast to truss rods or 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 613 

door fittings of the car to prevent the ramp from sliding off the 
doorsill. 

If lumber is not at hand a ramp may be made of poles and 
brush supported on trestles and floored like a bridge. As a last 
resort throw up a ramp of earth, reaching as near as possible to 
the side of the car, and bridge the gap with the car door. For 
loading with improvised facilities, always try to get the car into a 
shallow cut. 

Lead the animals up the ramp and into the car and take off 
the halter straps but not the halters. If the mules are shy of the 
ramp a little hay thrown on it will make them less timid. Very 
obstinate cases can be handled by passing a rope around the 
haunches and having a few men pull on each end. The first 
animal is led to one end of the car and the second to the other 
end, leaving the middle for the last ones loaded. The animals 
face opposite sides of the car alternately. Each one led in must 
be held until the next one is in place. Load quietly and avoid 
exciting the animals either by haste or by unnecessary delay. It 
may occasionally be necessary to blindfold an animal before he 
can be led in. Animals in transit should be fed and watered once 
a day at least, or twice if opportunity offers. If closely packed in 
ordinary cars they should be unloaded and exercised once in 48 
hours and given 6 hours' rest. 

Shipping Animals by Sea. — Ships must be especially fitted 
up and equipped for this service. Free ventilation and cleanliness 
are of the utmost importance. Air ports should be large and 
numerous and wind sails must be set up in every hatch to each 
deck. If there are dead spaces, special air shafts must be built 
to supply them. If there is machinery on board, forced ventilation 
should be employed. Animals do best on deck, except in very 
heavy weather, and should never be put below the water line. 
Stalls are built in double rows lengthwise of the ship facing each 
other,, with a 4-foot aisle between. There should be a passageway 
athwartships at each end of each compartment, and if the vessel 
is wide enough the outside rows of stalls shouuld be 3 feet from the 
sides of the ship. 

Stanchions 6 by 6 inches are set up 30 inches center to center, 
lengthwise, and 6 feet 6 inches center to center athwartship be- 
tween the posts of the same stall. The stanchions are well 
secured at top and lightly to the deck. Before setting up, the 
stanchions are mortised for the side boards. The stanchions 
should be further stayed near the tops by ties in both directions, 
fastened to or firmly butting against the framework of the vessel. 
The ties should run straight, disregarding the curve and sheer of 
decks. A false floor of 2-inch plank 8 to 12 inches wide is spiked 
or bolted to the deck, the planks running lengthwise of the stalls, 



614 MILITARY TRAINING 

with 34-inch space between them. If the ship is to be used for 
this purpose for a considerable time, the floor should be double, 
with tar paper between the courses. The floor is cut closely around 
the feet of the stanchions. Hardwood cleats are placed across 
the stall and fastened to the false floor with screws. In spiking 
down the false floor the nails should be so driven that their 
heads will be covered by these cleats. Larger cleats are laid 
lengthwise from foot to rear posts. The stall partitions are of 
2-inch plank, smoothly planed inserted in the mortises in the 
stanchions, and the rear ends are closed by haunch pieces. These 
are fastened by lag screws to a plank bolted to the rear posts. 
The haunch piece is adjustable in height and should be placed so 
that its bottom edge will catch the mule 2 inches above the hock. 
The front is best closed by a heavy canvas band 8 inches wide, 
with re-enforced edges, a spreading stick at each end and a grom- 
met in each corner for lashing it to the front posts. A light strap 
over the neck will keep this band in place like a breast collar and 
the lashings may be left slack enough to permit the mule to 
sway and ride easier. Projecting nails must be avoided, edges and 
corners smoothed and rounded, knot holes trimmed out and splint- 
ers removed, and all parts which the mule can reach with his 
teeth should be sheathed with metal or wrapped with wire. 

For deck stalls the posts are capped to form supports for a 
roof of 2-inch stuff, which should be covered with tar paper. The 
stalls must also be strongly cross-braced. This is best done by 
inserting diagonals between the posts of every fifth or sixth 
partition. The entire structure must be thoroughly strapped or 
tied down to the deck. 

Under no circumstances should any stock be loaded until the 
ship is ready to sail, completely equipped, supplied and manned. 

Watering is easily done by buckets filled from a hose, the 
nozzle of which is carried along the aisle. The nozzle should have 
a cock to enable the flow to be controlled at the end. The supply 
should not be less than 10 gallons per mule per day. If condensers 
are used, there should be several days' supply in fresh-water tanks 
to provide against a breakdown of the machinery or the use of 
water not thoroughly cooled. 

Feeding is best done on the false floor in front of the stalls. 
Cleats may be nailed down to form shallow boxes to hold the 
grain in place. In heavy weather it may be better to use nose- 
bags. Grain should be fed early in the morning. None should be 
given the first day out. The second day a half ration should be 
fed and increased by small quantities if found necessary to keep 
the animals in condition. Bran mashes with salt should be fed once 
a week. After feeding, the deck should be thoroughly cleaned 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 615 

and such disinfectants as are to be used should be applied. Then 
the hay should be fed. 

It is better to leave one vacant stall in each tier. Remove 
the side boards and shift the next animal into the vacant stall 
Clean his stall thoroughly and shift the second animal into it, anci 
so on. 

In loading and unloading the animals should be led up and 
down ramps and gangways if possible. If they are to be trans- 
ferred to or from lighters, or dropped into the water to swim 
ashore, a sling or flying stall must be used. After landing, animals 
should be corraled with the shortest possible march and should 
be allowed to rest 3 or 4 days under conditions which permit 
gradual increase of activity. 

The sling should be 5 feet long and 2 feet wide, of heavy 
canvas, reinforced at the edges by a 2-inch binding of the same. 
A hem is made at each end to take a 2-inch spreader. A loop of 
1% inch rope is attached to each end, around the sticks, one 9 
inches long and the other 3 feet long, measured from the middle 
of the sticks to the middle of the loop when stretched. The long 
loop has a heavy iron ring, 3 inches inside diameter fixed at its 
middle point. Breast and haunch ropes 24 inch diameter are sewed 
across the canvas 3 inches from the sticks and on the outside of 
the sling. They should be 9 feet long each way from the center 
of the sling. The sling is placed under the mule's barrel, the end 
of the long loop passed through the short one and the hook of 
the hoisting block engaged in the ring. The small ropes are passed 
around the shoulders and haunches and tied. The animal should 
be lifted from his feet quickly and set down gradually. 

The flying stall is a stoutly framed box open at the top and 
high enough to prevent the mule jumping out. The inside should 
be smooth, 6 feet 6 inches long and 30 inches wide. The ends 
should be hinged at the bottom to open outward, with heavy 
latches at top arranged to be operated by lines from a distance. 
The floor should have several cleats running from side to side. At 
each corner a J^-inch rod should run from bottom to top, termi- 
nating in a heavy eye or ring. To the rings slings should be fast- 
ened converging to the center where they are joined together to 
take the hook of the fall. The slings should be kept apart by 
spreaders high enough to clear the mule's head to prevent a cross 
strain on the sides. Guys should be provided to control the stall 
in raising and lowering to prevent its striking the edges of hatches. 

For a short voyage and work immediately on landing, ani- 
mals may be shipped with shoes on. In this case shoes should be 
recently set. For long voyages, shoes should be removed. 

Animals should not be shipped in high condition. If not 
worked up to the time of embarking, give exercise and reduce feed. 



616 MILITARY TRAINING 

Accountability for Public Animals. — A file of descriptive 
lists of public animals is kept with the records of every officer re- 
sponsible for such animals. It contains a description of every ani- 
mal received and transferred, showing the kind, name, age, size, 
color, marks, brands, or other peculiarities of each; how and when 
acquired, and, if disposed of, in what manner; the name of his rider 
and driver, and the use to which applied. 

A complete descriptive list of each animal is made at the 
time of purchase and accompanies him wherever he may be trans- 
ferred. 

When public animals are issued or transferred, the person 
in charge is provided with full and accurate descriptive lists, which 
he delivers to the receiving officer. 

Public animals on the day received are branded with the 
letters "US" on the left fore shoulder, the letters to be 2 inches 
in height. 

Public animals are assigned to their riders or drivers, who 
do not exchange or surrender them to the use of any other person 
without the permission of the company commander, quartermaster, 
or other officer responsible. 

Company Packs. — The ordinary transport packs carry man- 
tas (or pack covers), blinds, lair ropes, slings ropes, lash ropes (all 
furnished by the Quartermaster Corps), forage and miscellaneous 
supplies not part of the prescribed pioneer equipment. The special 
pack boxes are carried on the ordinary transport aparejo, on which 
they are slung by a special small leather saddle 10 by 24 inches, 
which fits along the ridge of the aparejo and is lashed thereto with 
a leather thong. This saddle has two hooks on each side, from 
which are hung the pack boxes. The pack boxes are further se- 
cured on the aparejo by means of a cincha 22 inches long, fastened 
to the lower part of the boxes and passing under the mule. 

Diamond Hitch. — The formation of the diamond hitch and 
tightening of the load are accomplished by two packers, one, termed 
the "near" packer, who stands on the near side of the animal, fac- 
ing toward the rear; the other, termed the "off" packer, stands on 
the off side of the animal, facing toward the front. The side packs, 
being slung on the animal, the "near" packer throws the end of 
the lash rope over in rear of the animal and the cincha portion 
tinder the animal's belly convenient to the " off" packer, who picks 
up the end of the lash rope and the cincha portion with the left 
hand and stands erect. 

The " near " packer takes hold of the lash rope with the right 
hand about 5 or 6 feet from the cincha and another hold with the 
left hand, holding about 2 feet between the hands; he stands close 
to the animal's neck with both hands extended downward; he 
draws the right hand backward and, with one motion, swings the 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 617 

rope so when it falls it will lie fore and aft between the side packs, 
clearing the animal's haunch, and the packer dropping the rope 
held by the left hand. 

With the right hand still holding the rope, he draws a por- 
tion between the packs by lowering the right hand by his side, 
arm's length; then, reaching up, he grips the rope with the left hand 
keeping the thumb under the rope, he draws another portion be- 
tween the packs by lowering the left hand by his side, arm's length. 




THE DIAMOND HITCH. 



The packer then swings the hanging portion outward to the 
right, bringing the left hand, still holding the rope, to the elbow of 
the right arm; then raises both hands, leaving the loop on the out- 
side of the right arm. 

Now, bring the right hand, holding the rope, to the center 
of the pack and, with both hands, throw the standing rope held in 
She right hand over the center of the load to the "off" packer, and 
the running rope between the packs held in the left hand over the 
animal's neck, allowing the back of the left hand to rest on the ani- 



618 MILITARY TRAINING 

mal's neck. With the right hand draw 6 feet or more of the run- 
ning portion between the packs to form the rear half of the dia- 
mond and throw this rope to the rear of the "near" pack, freeing 
both hands of the rope. 

The "near" packer takes hold of the running rope on the 
mule's neck with the left hand forward of the right and, with the 
assistance of the "off" packer brings the running rope to the center 
of the load on the side of the standing rope, at the same time slip- 
ping the right hand down the rope to a point about midway between 
the pack and the "boot"; reaches for this rope by passing the left 
hand between the standing rope and the aparejo and grips the 
rope above the right hand; slips both hands down the rope, at the 
same time parting them from each other for a space of about 10 
inches; then, holding the rope in a horizontal position, jams this 
portion down between the two cinchas under the aparejo, and the 
hitch is formed on the "near" side ready to tighten. 

To make the hitch on the "off" side, the "off" packer, having 
picked up the end of the rope and cincha, holds them in the left 
hand with mouth of cincha hook to the front. He looks for the 
standing rope to be thrown over the center of the load by the 
"near" packer. As the rope comes over, he grips it as high as his 
arm can conveniently reach and immediately places the cincha hook 
about 6 or 8 inches under the aparejo and draws down the slack 
on the standing rope by one or two quick pulls; then, lowering the 
cincha hook for convenience, he engages the standing rope on the 
cincha hook from inside, drawing the rope outward, or from above, 
drawing downward. This will leave the standing rope next to the 
aparejo and the running rope on the outside of the hook. 

The left hand, holding the end of the rope, is now placed on 
top of the running rope between the right hand and the cincha 
hook; both ropes are gripped with the thumb under the running 
rope; the right hand is allowed to slip upward on the running rope, 
and, with the assistance of the "near" packer, this rope is brought 
to the center of the load; the left hand will immediately follow 
the right hand to the center of the load, which brings both hands 
together. 

With the right hand draw the end of the rope forward which 
is held by the left hand so that about 12 inches will fall on the 
"near" side of the animal's neck, and the hitch is formed, ready to 
tighten. 

The Double Hitch. — The double hitch is made as described 
for the single diamond hitch, with the two following exceptions: 

The "near" packer, before passing the running rope to rear 
of pack, brings the running rope up, from the animal's neck, and 
lays it on the center of the load, in front of the standing rope. 
He then takes sufficient slack on the running rope between the 



WHEEL, PACK AND MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 619 

packs and lays or throws it to rear of load, thus causing it to ride 
over both the running and the standing ropes; he then takes the 
rope in front of the standing rope and brings it down from right 
to left between the standing rope and pack and under the boot of 
the aparejo in the customary manner. 

The "off" packer, instead of placing the end of rope between 
the standing and running ropes, places it under both, then raises 
to center of load, and drops about 12 inches of end on "rear" side 
of animal's neck, and hitch is formed ready to tighten. 

The hitch is tightened in the usual manner, as in the opera- 
tion of the "diamond." 



MOTOR TRANSPORTATION 

The company commander of an organization equipped with 
motor transportation is responsible for everything connected with 
its operation and maintenance. He should formulate rules for the 
proper handling of the vehicles on the road and in camp or garri- 
son and see that the same are rigidly enforced. He should estab- 
lish the division of responsibility with reference to operation, re- 
pair, and upkeep of the mechanical equipment of his company and 
see that each member is thoroughly familiar therewith. He should 
personally see that all motor governors are properly sealed and 
keep the sealing tool in his personal possession. He should keep 
accurate check on all gasoline, lubricating supplies, tools, and spare 
parts. It is a favorite practice to use gasoline for many purposes 
except fuel. Motor parts, being high priced and readily salable, 
can only with difficulty be protected against theft. 

Chiefs of section are responsible for the proper operation 
and maintenance of the motor vehicles under their direct supervi- 
sion. This especially applies when, as will frequently happen, the 
section is operating detached. In this case a mechanic, if available, 
should always be assigned to duty with the section. 

MBCHANICS 

In organizations supplied wholly or in part with motor trans- 
portation a mechanic or mechanics are designated to assist in the 
repair of vehicles. In the telegraph company five mechanics are 
provided; a chief mechanic and one for assignment to each section, 
if desired. 

The chief mechanic, assisted by the other mechanics, has 
general supervision over the mechanism of the motor vehicle equip- 
ment, as well as the detailed repair work. He is in charge of the 
company repair outfit and utilizes it for the above purpose as ne- 



620 



MILITARY TRAINING 



cessity requires. He sees that the assistant mechanics are quali- 
fied and if necessary instructs them. 

DRIVERS 

The duties of the driver include the keeping of his assigned 
vehicle and its equipment in proper repair and working order. He 
is required to be familiar with the mechanism of his vehicle and its 
proper operation. Repair work performed by drivers is limited to 
that class designated as minor repairs. Work on the motor, igni- 
tion and lighting systems, or on the interior mechanism of running 
parts should be performed normally under direct supervision and 
orders of the chief mechanic or one of his assistants. Drivers are 
responsible for proper lubrication at all times and promptly report 
any defect noted or repair needed. Each is responsible that the ve- 
hicle under his charge is not subjected to abuse of any kind and 
that all regulations in force regarding operation and maintenance 
are properly observed. 

CLASSES OF VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT 

Field trucks furnished organizations by the Quartermaster 
Corps are of standard make and are normally equipped with the 
war body. The inside dimensions of this body are as follows: 





Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


1 V^-ton 


Feet 
10 
12 


Feet Inches 

5 1 

6 6 


Feet 
2 




2 







The most suitable car for loading vehicles of all kinds 
shipped on their own wheels (except motor vehicles^ including 
artillery, engineer and signal corps organizations, is the 36-foot 
drop-end gondola car. 



CHAPTER XXII 

BRIDGES, PONTOONS, METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION 
AND THE CROSSING OF RIVERS 

When an army has to cross a stream passage may be made 
on a bridge, by fording, by use of boats, rafts or ferries, or on ice. 
Tactical requirements will determine the general location of the 
point of crossing, and within the limits imposed by these require- 
ments the site of crossing must be selected and the method 
adopted that is best suited to the site. 

When once constructed a bridge is the most rapid means 
of crossing a stream. Its disadvantages are the time and material 
required and the small chance of secrecy in its construction. 

The site is selected as a result of reconnaissance to verify 
and complete the information shown by existing maps. To meet 
tactical requirements the near shore in an advance should afford 
concealment for the preparatory work in connection with the 
bridge, and should, if possible, facilitate a converging fire upon 
the enemy, while the farther shore should be open to favor develop- 
ment. In a retreat it is desirable that the near shore shall have 
high ground suitable for defensive positions, while the farther 
shore should favor concealment. The best site is in a straight 
reach or a gentle bend; if in a bend the passage should be toward 
the convex bank in an advance and toward the concave bank in 
a retreat. The drawing exhibits a bridge-head composed of a 
redan with flanks, flanked by two redoubts on the opposite bank 
of the river. These works are supposed to be in the neighborhood 
of hills, from which it is necessary that they should be defiladed. 
This is effected by traverses to cover the bridge, and by a traverse 
across the center of each redoubt. The immediate banks should 
be firm and of equal height, the current regular, moderate, and 
parallel to the banks, and the bed should afford good anchorage 
and be free from snags, bowlders, and other obstructions. The 
velocity of current can be measured by timing the passage of a 
floating object over a measured length of stream. If not in excess 
of 3 or 4 feet per second no special difficulty need be expected; 
with greater velocities it will be necessary to use precautions such 



622 



MILITARY TRAINING 



as extra anchors or guy ropes leading to points on the banks up- 
stream. 

The reconnaissance should furnish information as to the 
liability of freshets and their probable height, the rise and fall in 
tidal streams, the width and depth of the stream, the presence or 
absence of navigation, the nature of existing facilities such as roads 
or fords, and the presence of bridge material such as timber, rope, 
or wire. The depth can be measured by sounding with a pole or a 
sounding line. The width should be measured as accurately as 
practicable. Narrow streams can be measured by stretching a 
line across. Wider streams can be measured by triangulation from 




BRIDGE-HEAD FLANKED BY TWO REDOUBTS. 



a base line, using the most accurate instrument at hand. Tributary 
streams near the site, especially if concealed from the view of 
the enemy, are advantageous, as they may be used for storage of 
material or the construction of parts of the bridge which are after- 
wards floated into place. An island may facilitate crossing by 
reducing the length of bridge required or affording secure 
anchorage for a bridge built below the island. The approaches 
are important. An easy exit is particularly essential. A bridge 
easy of access and difficult of exit will cause crowding, accidents, 
and delay. Where possible, the approaches should be straight and 
in line with the bridge for at least 20 yards next to the bridge; 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 623 

the grades should not be steeper than 1 on 10 if possible, and in 
no case steeper than 1 on 7. 

Kinds of Bridges. — The kind of bridge to be built depends 
on the nature of the obstacle to be crossed, the load to be carried, 
and the materials and time available. Military bridges are 
divided primarily into floating and fixed. The types of floating 
bridges most commonly used are the ponton bridge, built with 
the equipage carried with the army, and bridges built with boats 
or barges. Types less frequently used are the bridges built with 
casks, rafts, timber, inflated skins, and other means in the nature 
of bridging expedients. The fixed bridges best adapted to military 
use are pile, trestle, spar, and suspension bridges. Other types that 
may be used at times are cribwork, steel girder, trussed, and canti- 
lever bridges. The type selected should fit the conditions of the 
site, should be of simple design, and should admit of easy and rapid 
construction. 

Light Equipage. — With each cavalry division there is an 
engineer train, of which the ponton section consists of three divi- 
sions, each having 8 pontons, 2 trestles, and other materials suffi- 
cient for 185 feet of bridge. By combining the three ponton divi- 
sions a bridge about 510 ieet long may be built. The ponton con- 
sists of a frame which is knocked down for transportation and 
assembled when needed. A canvas cover placed on the frame com- 
pletes the ponton, which is 21 feet long, 5 feet 4 inches wide, and 
2 feet 4 inches deep. The balks are 4 z / 2 inches by 4 l / 2 inches by 22 
feet, except the trestle balks, which are 5 inches by 5 inches by 21 
feet 8 inches. The chess are \ l / 2 inches by 12 inches by 11 feet. 
The canvas pontons will not resist ice nor driftwood, and they are 
liable to injury in handling on shore or in water containing snags. 
In spite of these disadvantages the light equipage makes a prac- 
ticable and satisfactory bridge. 

Standard Heavy Bridge. — The bridge starts from a sill laid 
on the bank near the water's edge. If the water is too shallow for 
a ponton at 20 feet out from the sill, a trestle is used as the first 
support in the water. Additional trestles may be used if necessary 
and available. Pontons are then added to the bridge and are 
spaced 20 feet center to center. This is known as the construction 
by successive pontons and is the usual way of building the bridge. 
The bridge may be completed at the far side of the river with a 
trestle and a sill, or if there is deep water close to shore the trestle 
may be omitted. In a river with a moderate current each alternate 
ponton is anchored upstream and each fourth one is anchored 
downstream Every ponton that has a downstream anchor must 
also have an upstream anchor. 

The normal heavy bridge will carry infantry in column of 
squads, cavalry in column of twos, or a concentrated load of 4,750 
40 



624 MILITARY TRAINING 

pounds. By increasing the equipage 25 per cent and reducing the 
span between boats, the concentrated load may be increased to 
6,700 pounds. By increasing the equipage 50 per cent and further 
reducing the span, a concentrated load of 13,700 pounds may be 
carried. If there is a shortage of material, the interval between 
boats may be increased, in which case the capacity is reduced to 
a concentrated load of 3,400 pounds. The normal heavy bridge 
will carry the 3-inch field gun or the loaded escort wagon. It will 
carry the 1^-ton truck unloaded. If seven balk are used instead of 
five, it will carry this truck fully loaded, or the 4.7-inch gun, or the 
3-ton truck unloaded. The 3-ton truck fully loaded can be carried 
only in case the equipage is increased 50 per cent and the spans 
correspondingly reduced as mentioned above, and then only if an 
additional or much heavier floor is laid over the balk. In no case 
should the concentrated load placed on the bridge exceed 13,700 
pounds, and whenever it is desirable to pass a load in excess of 
the prescribed load for the bridge as built, the operation should 
be under the personal supervision of the engineer officer in charge 
of the bridge. 

Standard Light Bridge. — The bridge with the light equipage 
is built in the same way as the heavy bridge. The spans are 
shorter than in the normal heavy bridge, the pontons being 15 feet 
6 inches center to center, or 10 feet 2 inches in the clear. The light 
bridge will carry infantry in column of squads, cavalry in column 
of twos, the 3-inch field gun, the loaded escort wagon, or the V/z- 
ton truck unloaded. Nothing is gained by increasing the quantity 
of light equipage in a given length of bridge, as the normal bridge 
will carry as great a load as the boats will safely support. 

Weight of Troops. — Some of the loads (in pounds per linear 
foot) to which military bridges may be subjected are as follows: 

Infantry, single file 140 

Infantry, column of twos 280 

Infantry, column of fours 560 

Cavalry, single file 196 

Cavalry, column of twos 392 

Infantry in heavy marching order averages 200 pounds per 
man, and when unarmed 160 pounds. Infantry crowded in a dis- 
organized mass may weigh as much as 133 pounds per square foot 
of standing room. 

Transportation of Equipage. — When moved by rail ponton 
equipage is preferably shipped with all wagons fully loaded. The 
40-foot car of the end-opening gondola type is the most suitable, 
but flat cars can be used. Cars shorter than 36 feet are unsuitable. 
Each division of heavy equipage requires ten 40-foot cars, and 
each division of light equipage seven. For over-sea transportation 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 625 

the loads are removed from the wagons and the latter are taken 
apart. The pontons should be stowed so as to be readily accessible 
for use in landing. 

FIXED BRIDGES 

Pile Bridges. — Piles are posts driven into the ground, gen- 
erally in a vertical position. They are driven in bents, usually of 
three or four piles each. If more than 10 feet high the bent should 
be strengthened with sway braces, which are diagonal planks 
spiked or bolted to the piles. The piles may be driven with a maul, 
or with a pile driver operated by hand or by machinery. The 
bent is completed by sawing off the piles at the same level and 
placing on them a heavy timber called a cap, which is fastened to 
each pile with a drift bolt. The roadway bearers are laid from 
bent to bent, preferably extending over two bents and breaking 
joints. 

Trestle Bridges. — This type is applicable in a shallow stream 
with a firm bottom. Trestles may be framed of dimension lumber, 
or, as is more usual, they may be made of timber cut in the vicinity 
of the bridge. A bridge may be built with the trestles forming a 
part of the ponton equipage if the depth of the stream and the 
nature of the bottom are favorable. This is a two-legged trestle 
that may be quickly put together and launched in place from a 
ponton. Trestle bridges are dangerous in streams having a soft 
bottom and a swift current, as the bottom is liable to scour around 
the trestles, causing them to give way under a load. 

Trestles may be placed in position by hand in dry situations, 
and also in shallow streams of moderate current when the weather 
permits men to work in the water. This method facilitates rapid 
construction, as several trestles can be placed simultaneously. 
Alternative methods are slower of execution, since but one trestle 
can be placed at a time if the bridge be built from one end, or two 
if work is prosecuted from both ends. 

Spar Bridges. — These are bridges built with round timbers 
lashed together, and are used for crossing compartively narrow 
and deep depressions, either watercourses or dry ravines. There 
are two general forms, the single lock and the double lock. In 
the first form, two inclined frames meet and lock together at their 
tops. In the second form, two inclined frames each meet and lock 
with an end of an intermediate frame lying horizontally between 
their tops. Each frame is built like the two-legged trestle. In each 
case the roadway is completed with round or sawn timbers, de"- 
pending on what is available. In building a spar bridge it is im- 
portant to make an accurate cross section of the opening to be 
bridged and also to construct the frames with great care, other- 



626 MILITARY TRAINING 

wise they will not lock properly. The single lock is suitable for 
spans of 30 feet or less, and the double lock for spans not exceed- 
ing 45 feet. The most important members, the legs or standards of 
the frames and the crosspieces or transsoms that carry the road- 
way, should be timbers 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The roadway 
bearers or balks should be 6 inches in diameter for spans of 15 
feet. The remaining timbers may be from 3 to 6 inches in diam- 
eter. The lashings are made with rope one-half inch in diameter. 

CRIB CONSTRUCTION 

In dry situations the cribs are built on the site and no fasten- 
ings are required. The ground is prepared to receive the bottom 
timbers, level and bearing firmly toward the ends and but lightly 
in the middle. The sticks of the next course are laid across their 
ends, noting that they rest fair and do not rock. If logs are used, 
the ends are flattened sufficiently to give bearing surfaces. With 
dimension timbers each piece which does not lay fair must be 
given a solid bearing by shims or wedges before the next one is 
put on. These small pieces must be fastened so that they can not 
jar out. 

The part of a crib that is to stand in water must be tied to- 
gether and adapted to form a cage for the ballast. Enough of the 
ballast to overcome the flotation of the wood should be so con- 
fined that it can not escape. For the rest, it is better to leave the 
ballast free to run out through the floor of the crib and fill any 
cavities in the bottom which may exist or be formed by the scour 
of the current. A crib may be given a level bearing on a rough 
or sloping bottom by holding it in the desired position and throw- 
ing in ballast which runs through. 

Cribs are built on shore usually on inclined ways, and when 
up to a sufficient height to form a substantial raft may be launched. 
They are built up to a little more than the depth of the water in 
which they are to stand and are floated to their places. The sink- 
ing ballast is then placed in the closed compartments or on the 
floor prepared to receive it, until the crib is well grounded. 

LANDING PIERS 

Temporary piers for the discharge of vessels are usually 
built in the same manner as bridges with pile or cribwork supports. 
The chief difference is in the provision made against lateral thrusts, 
which are much greater than in the case of bridges. Vessels warp- 
ing in and out and even striking the pier, which can not be avoided, 
cause excessive lateral strains which call for special features in 
addition to much heavier construction throughout. 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 627 

Lighters can be discharged at a properly constructed dock in 
considerable seaway. Transports can also be discharged in a mod- 
erate seaway by providing adequate mooring devices at bow, 
stern, and on the outside, so that the vessel can be held alongside 
of the pier, but not touching it. Only in perfectly protected situa- 
tions can a large ship lie directly against a pier. 

The best mooring is a massive structure of piles driven close 
together and connected near their tops by a cable, or by bolts, or 
both. Such a construction is often called a dolphin. It yields 
readily to the first impact and develops resistance steadily but 
rapidly. 

FLOATING BRIDGES 

Bridges of this class have several disadvantages, due to 
change in grade of roadway with change of water level and with 
change of load, and to their limited capacity, which can not exceed 
the flotation of the supports. As a rule, such bridges are resorted 
to only when the materials for them are plentiful and the materials 
for other kinds scarce. 

This rule finds an important exception in the organized 
bridge equipage prepared in advance to be carried with an army. 
Such a bridge possesses a great advantage in the paramount ele- 
ment of time, since it can be laid, crossed, and taken up in less 
time than any other form of bridge can be built, and its component 
parts can be used as water transportation for several important 
purposes which no other kind of bridge can subserve. 

The bridge equipage adopted for the United States service 
is of two forms, heavy and light. The heavy equipage is sufficient 
in capacity for all requirements of an army on the march, and is 
mobile enough to be carried at the ordinary rate of marching. In 
the light equipage, capacity is somewhat sacrificed for the sake of 
further mobility to enable a bridge to be carried with a rapidly 
moving column. 

Both heavy and light equipage are organized into trains and 
in each the train is composed of four divisions each complete in 
itself, with the necessary materials and tools for repairs and the 
requisite wagon transportation for land carriage. With one tram 
four short bridges can be built, or two twice the length in the same 
or different localities, or three three-fourths the length or one of 
four times the length in the same locality, with obvious inter- 
mediate combinations. 

The principal parts in both forms of bridge are pontons or 
boats; the longitudinal bearers or stringers joining them called 
balks; the cross planks, called chess, and the beams which hold the 
chess in position, called side rails. 



628 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Heavy Equipage. — A division is loaded on 16 wagons. Eight 
of them are called pontoon wagons and carry each a pontoon, 7 long 




FLOATING BRIDGE BY SUCCESSIVE BAYS. 

balks, anchor, cable, 5 oars, 2 boat hooks, 20 lashings, 6 rack sticks, 
2 scoops, ax, hatchet, bucket, and 20 pounds spun yarn. Four 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 629 

of the wagons carry chess or floor planks only, 60 each, or enough 
for 3 bays, and are called chess wagons. Two wagons carry eacn 
a complete trestle, 7 long balks, 7 trestle balks, 2 abutment sills, 
and 2 coils of rope. The tool wagon carries axes, shovels, picks, 
tools and materials for carpentry, saddlery, calking and painting, 
and spare cordage. The forge wagon carries a forge, smithing 
tools, iron and other materials. Each wagon is drawn by 6 mules 
with one driver. 

Supporting Power of Boats. — The boats of the heavy train 
are of wood, of about 9 l /i tons displacement, and weigh 1,600 lbs. 
Each can carry 40 infantrymen armed and fully equipped besides 
its crew, a total of about 9,300 lbs. This load crowds the boat and 
should be used only in favorable conditions. In rough water or 
swift currents 20 men and the crew make a suitable load. The pon- 
toon is cranky, and uneven loading and shifting of load must be 
avoided. 

Boat Bridges. — When it becomes necessary to use boats 
found on the stream or elsewhere, select those as nearly of one size 
as possible. Of these, use the largest for the shore ends and for 
the swiftest currents. Estimate their supporting power roughly 
by comparing their size with the pontoon boat, heavy or light. Sup- 
port the balks on saddle sills and transoms blocked up from the 
frames of the boats. If boats differing very much in displacement 
are used, make the bays supported by the small boats shorter than 
those supported by the larger ones. Avoid getting a very large 
and a very small boat adjacent. With scow-built barges, which 
will usually have excess of supporting power, a serviceable bridg"e 
is readily built. If the boats are large and well decked, they may 
be placed endwise in the bridge, separated by 20 feet or more, the 
intervals spanned by bays of roadway and the decks used for road- 
way on the boats themselves. With boats of different shapes and 
sizes, such a bridge should be attempted with great caution, and 
only under exceptional circumstances. 

Barrel Piers. — When barrels are available, floating piers can 
be made by assembling a sufficient number of them by means of 
timbers or lashings, or both combined. An ordinary 50-gallon 
barrel has a buoyancy of about 400 pounds when completely sub- 
merged; those of other sizes in proportion to their capacity. The 
supporting power of any barrel or keg can be determined with 
sufficient accuracy by weighing it when full of water and again 
when empty; the difference will be the supporting power. 

The number of barrels required for a pier is obtained by 
dividing the total load to be borne by the supporting power of one 
barrel. A margin of 20 or 25 per cent should be allowed, as the 
barrels of a pier must not be completely submerged. 

In forming the piers the barrels are laid out in line with the 



630 



MILITARY TRAINING 



bungs uppermost. The gunwale timbers are placed over and the 
rope slings under the ends, the slings secured to the gunwales at 
each end of the line. Between each pair of barrels on each side a 
brace is secured to the sling and then led around the gunwale on 
its own side, round the opposite brace rope and back again to its 
own gunwale, where it is made fast. Care must be taken in launch- 





BARREL PIERS, 
ing to avoid injuring the ropes by chafing on the ground. The 
rafts so formed may be united into larger ones. 

Where timber is available the best method of forming a 
barrel pier is to make an inverted box crib of lumber or timbers 
nailed, bolted, or lashed together. If the crib is as strong as it 
should be, it may be inverted over the barrels, which will require 
no other fastenings. 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 631 

Raft Piers. — Rafts of timber may be used for floating piers 
when other materials are not at hand. They are durable if not dis- 
turbed and secure against being sunk by hostile fire. Their defects 
are comparatively small and decreasing buoyancy, great weight 
and bulk. 

Construction of rafts is done in the water if possible. Ar- 
range the logs side by side to form upstream. The upstream ends 
should be beveled on the lower side. The logs are held together 
by cross timbers pinned or spiked over the tops. Where the logs 
are of small size additional sticks may be placed in the intervals 
between the others, or two or more courses may be built up, the 
logs of each layer at right angles to those below. The latter 
method has been found advantageous in constructing rafts of 
bamboo. 

Anchorage of Floating Bridges. — The anchorage of the piers 
of a floating bridge is of the greatest importance. The piers should 
be so constructed and placed as to present the least obstruction 
to the current. In non-tidal streams all the bows are placed up- 
stream; in tidal estuaries they should alternate up and down 
stream. The piers near the shore should be secured by strong 
cables to rocks, trees, or deadmen on the shore both above and 
below. 

For the heavy and light bridge equipage the anchors pro- 
vided are sufficient, and in moderate currents it will answer to 
anchor alternate boats upstream and every fourth one downstream; 
the downstream anchors always on boats which have upstream 
anchors also. In swifj: currents it may be necessary to anchor 
every boat upstream. Even in slack water every second or third 
boat should be anchored both up and down stream to reduce 
oscillation. 

For any other kind of floating bridge every pier must be 
securely anchored. Ordinary anchors can be relied upon in good 
holding ground only; when it is poor or the current unusually 
swift, two anchors may be used, one backing up the other. 

Construction' of Floating Bridges. — The regular bridge 
equipage is designed for unloading, construction, removal, and re- 
loading in the shortest possible time. There are four methods ot 
construction, depending upon the character of the stream, the kind 
and location of materials, the force available, and the proximity 
of the enemy. It may be desirable to combine two or more of 
these methods. The methods available are: (1) by successive 
bags, (2) by parts, (3) by rafts, and (4) by conversion. 

Comparison of the Four Methods. — The method of construc- 
tion by successive pontons possesses the great advantages over 
the others of being applicable to all streams, whatever may be 
their velocity, and of requiring the minimum quantity of equipage, 



632 MILITARY TRAINING 

the fewest pontoniers, and the shortest time for its construction. 




FLOATING BRIDGE BY RAFTS. 
However, the labor of constructing a bridge by this method 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 633 

increases rapidly with the number of bays. Thus the balk and chess 
carriers in constructing a bridge of 40 bays are obliged to walk 
6^4 miles; in one of 50 bays, nearly 10^2 miles; of 60 bays, 14^4 
miles; and of 100 bays, 40 miles. 

The method by parts ordinarily is used in connection with 
the method by successive pontons. When the bridge is to be more 
than 40 bays in length these methods are combined as follows: 
The bridge is begun at both ends, if possible, by successive pon- 
tons and is pushed on rapidly toward the middle of the stream. 
The two portions thus formed are connected by parts which are 
constructed in the meanwhile along the river bank above the 
bridge. 

The method by rafts is employed when the passage of a 
river is to be forced, and when the rafts can be constructed un- 
observed by the enemy, in which case the pontoniers will be ex- 
posed to fire but a short time; that is, while the rafts are floating 
into position and being connected. In order that this method of 
construction should be. successful, the current must be moderate, 
and there must be a reasonable distance above the bridge posi- 
tions where the rafts can be constructed undisturbed by the enemy. 
Such positions would be afforded by islands or tributaries in our 
possession. This method is also employed when the bridge is 
liable to injury from floating bodies, as the portion threatened 
can be readily disconnected, dropped out of the bridge, and re- 
stored to its place when the danger is past. It may be used by 
an army hard pressed in retreat, as the rafts on the enemy's side 
of the river may be disconnected and moved to a place of safety. 

The construction by conversion is a still more difficult 
operation. To insure success the current must be moderate, the 
holding ground good, and the pontoniers skillful, intelligent, and 
cool. The awkwardness of a single man, the dragging of an 
anchor, or the parting of a cable may cause the failure of the 
entire operation. The opportunities for employing this method 
successfully are exceedingly rare. 

Draw Spans in Floating Bridges. — To form a draw a raft is 
introduced into the bridge over the channel of navigation. The 
attachments of the false balks are adapted to convenient removal 
and replacement. To open the draw the raft is disconnected from 
the bridge, the upstream cables slacked off, the raft dropped out 
of the opening, made fast at one end to the bridge and allowed to 
swing around. If the current does not suffice, the raft must be 
moved by hauling on the downstream cables and on a swinging 
cable laid for the purpose. A wide draw in a strong current may 
be made of two rafts, one swinging on each end of the bridge. 
The draw is closed by hauling the raft around until parallel to the 
bridge and just below it, and then hauling it into the gap. 



634 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Care must be taken to provide a free hinging motion be- 
tween abutment or trestle bays and those next to them. In case 




DRAW SPANS IN FLOATING BRIDGES. 



of a staunch boat with straight sides, the balks may join on one 
gunwale, one set only extending across. The hinge should be on 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 635 

the side toward the abutment or trestle. A saddle sill on the first 
pier to receive the balks will answer. In fact, with the exception 
of the heavy bridge train, balks will usually be supported on saddle 
sills. 

Precautions in Passing Floating Bridges. — Infantry must 
break step and music cease; distances must be maintained or ex- 
tended; riders and drivers must dismount and all horses must be 
led. Halting on a bridge should be avoided. If it is absolutely 
necessary to halt on a floating bridge, concentrated loads, such as 
the wheels of wagons and guns, should rest between piers. Inter- 
ruptions of the column of march and alternations of direction 
should be made as few as possible. The greatest strains on the 
bridge occur when part of it is empty and the rest loaded. The 
column should also be so arranged as to make the alternations 
among the different classes of loads, as troops, artillery, and trains, 
as infrequent as possible. • 

If a bridge begins to sway or oscillate considerably the 
column must be halted and not allowed to resume its march until 
the swaying has ceased. 

Protection of Floating Bridges. — The bridge must be kept 
clear of drift and other floating objects, especial attention being 
given to the anchor cables. If the objects are not too large or too 
numerous they may be passed under the bridge by men working 
with pike poles from the piers and roadway. Large trees may 
be disposed of in this way by sawing them up into logs of manage- 
able length. Floating objects may be prevented from striking 
the bridge by a guard upstream, or by a draw span in the bridge, 
or by a floating boom crossing the stream obliquely. 

A guard, if used, is placed about 1,000 yards above the 
bridge. It is stationed in boats at different points across the 
stream and is provided with cables, grapnels, anchors, dogs, ham- 
mers, saws, etc. The business of this guard is to anchor or tow 
ashore dangerous drifting bodies. 

The floating boom is constructed of trees united by chains 
and forms a continuous barrier to surface drift. Its general direc- 
tion should form an angle of about 20° with the current, giving it 
a length about 2^4 times the width of the river. A boom is not 
a very reliable protection. 

A guard should always be posted at a floating bridge with a 
sentry at each end, and, if the bridge is long, at intermediate 
points. Sentries turn out the guard whenever the bridge is in 
danger from any cause. The body of the guard should be stationed 
near one end of the bridge. 

Ice, if thin or rotten, is a serious obstacle to crossing a 
stream; if thick and sound, it is a very good bridge itself. Boats 
used in ice must be protected with chafing pieces, especially near 



636 MILITARY TRAINING 

the water line at the bows. Heavy ice, rapidly moving, makes a 
crossing impracticable. With sound ice, infantry may pass on 3 
inches thickness and cavalry on 4, but with large intervals. Field- 
pieces are safe on 6 inches, and ice 10 inches thick will carry any 
load that an army is likely to have. 

Loads may be carried on lesser thicknesses or on unsound 
ice by distributing the weights. Infantry may cross on lines of 
planks. The wheels of wagons may be skidded on planks. Wagon 
boxes may be placed on boards and used as sleds to cross supplies. 
Animals may be hauled across on platforms. 

In shallow lakes, springs are apt to cause weak spots. A 
path should be carefully examined by chopping through the ice at. 
frequent intervals to determine its thickness and quality, and when 
a safe track is found it should be marked on both sides by bushes 
stuck in holes in the ice. 

BARGES 

Barges are useful in towing and lightering, are easy to 
manage, and are staunch in rough weather. In swift currents the 
barge or scow cannot be held broadside to the stream. The road- 
way must then be made across instead of along the deck. To make 
the bridles, attach the end of the main cable at the middle of the 
bow. Stop the bight of a line to the cable 50 to 75 feet above the 
scow and lead its ends to tackles on the starboard and port sides. 
By slacking the port tackle and holding the starboard a bridle is 
formed to the right, and by the reverse process a bridle is formed 
to the left. If it be desired to stop quickly, as on landing or avoid- 
ing floating objects, let both tackles go, and the scow rides at 
ease on the main cable. 

A barge which is operated by the force of the current is 
designed to carry two field pieces, with four horses each, side by 
side. It has a traveler or trolley running on a cable stretched 
across the stream. Instead of being decked it has the flooring on 
the bottom of the boat. For temporary use, loose planks called 
dunnage can be laid on the bottom frames. 

CANTILEVERS 

A cantilever is a projecting or overhanging support, trans- 
mitting all of its load to one of its ends. 

The cantilever principle may be utilized in military field 
bridges for short spans and moderate loads. The main points to 
be observed are that the maximum pressure on the abutment is 
greater than the heaviest load, live and dead, on the projecting 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 637 

part ©f the cantilever; that any settlement of the abutment causes 
a greater disturbance of the bridge; and that the weight or resist- 
ance of the anchor multiplied by its distance from the abutment 
must be greater than the greatest concentrated load multiplied by 
the length of the projecting part, or the greatest uniform load 
multiplied by half that length. 

If the anchorage is beneath the beams, the roadway may be 
laid directly upon them. If the anchorage is above the beams, 
separate road bearers must be provided resting on transoms car- 
ried by the cantilevers, and high enough at the inner end to pass 
over the anchorage; or the cantilevers may be at the sides only. 

The safe load of a cantilever, concentrated or uniform, is Y\ 
of the corresponding safe load of the same beam supported at both 
ends with the same span. The deflection of the cantilever under 
any load less than the safe load is 10 to 16 times greater than the 
deflection of the same beam under the same load when supported 
at both ends. Much greater vibrations must be expected than in 
girder or truss bridges. 

If the two cantilevers meet at the middle of the bridge they 
must be fastened together. This doubles the safe concentrated 
load for the bridge, making it equal to one-half the safe uniform 
load of both cantilevers instead of one, or one-half the safe con- 
centrated load on a beam of the size and length of one cantilever 
supported at both ends. 

If the cantilevers do not meet, the gap is filled by a girder 
or truss supported by the ends of the cantilevers. This arrange- 
ment may be useful in case timbers too short to span the gap have 
to be used. To get the maximum strength for timbers of a given 
size, the cantilevers should be Vi and the girder % of the span. 

When objects of sufficient mass and stability are available, 
the counter-balance is not necessary and the cantilevers take the 
form of brackets. If the opposite brackets meet and are well con- 
nected the structure becomes of the spar-bridge type, and there is 
no overturning moment on the abutments. 



TRUSS BRIDGES 

A truss is a compound beam the parts of which are so dis- 
posed as to form one or more triangles in the same plane. The 
triangle is the only closed figure which is rigid. Four given sides 
may be formed into an infinite number of quadrilaterals, and simil- 
arly for a greater number of sides. It is only the resistance of the 
joints to bending which prevents the distortion of any of these 
figures, or its complete collapse. But a given three sides can be 
formed into one triangle and only one; hence, if the joints do not 






638 MILITARY TRAINING 

separate, no side of a triangle can leave the position in which it is 
placed for another in the same plane. 

Except in some of the simplest forms, the parts of a truss 
are subjected to tension and compression only, transverse strains 
being practically eliminated. For this reason parts can be com- 
bined into a truss of much greater length and supporting power 
than a possible single beam. The simplest form is the trussed 
beam, in which a part of the load is taken up at an intermediate 
point and transferred directly to the ends. 

In the king-post truss, the upright member is in tension and 
carries x /> the gross load on the truss, or % the gross load on the 
bridge. One-half of this, or % the gross load on the bridge, is 
transmitted in compression by the inclined struts from the apex 
to the ends of the beam, causing stresses. 

In the queen-post truss, two points of the beam are sup- 
ported, forming three equal bays. The counter braces in the mid- 
dle panel are frequently omitted, and the resulting combination of 
two triangles and a parallelogram is not rigid and is not a true 
truss. As half of the bridge is loaded the other half tends to rise, 
permitting the loaded half to sink, the beam taking the form of 
an S. If the beam be stiff enough to withstand this double bending 
effect, the bridge will be safe, but no stronger than if the beam 
were divided into two bays instead of three. In this form each post 
carries ]/e of the total load, dead and live, on the bridge, all of 
which is transmitted down the corresponding strut. 

The stresses in king and queen post trusses depend upon the 
load and the inclination of the struts. The load may be stated in 
tons or lbs. for the entire bridge. The inclination of the struts is 
represented by the ratio between the height of posts and the length 
of bay. 

Besides the stresses on rods and struts there is a tension 
on the beam. It varies in the same way as the other stresses, and 
sufficient cross section must be given the beam to withstand it, in 
addition to that figured for the transverse strength. In the queen- 
post truss the upper horizontal member or straining beam takes 
this same stress, but in compression. 

Inverted Forms. — Both king and queen post trusses may be 
inverted. All stresses of tension and compression are then re- 
versed. The principles of design are not affected by the change, 
but wood must be used for posts, and iron is much better for the 
inclined members and for the lower chords of queen-post trusses. 
The rods are best made double, one on each side of the beam, and 
fastened to bolts through the beam at the middle point of its depth. 
Three or more inverted trusses may be placed beneath a single- 
track roadway. Of the erect type but two can be used. Double- 
track bridges are often built with three erect trusses. 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 



639 



Erection of Small Trusses. — With a single beam long enough 
to span the opening the truss may be built in place. The same may- 
be done with a spliced beam, provided it is stiff enough to support 
its own weight plus that of the men and materials necessary to 
complete the truss. 

The simplest way to get a beam across an opening is to at- 
tach a rope to one end and pass it over to the other side; then 
launch the beam out and haul the front end up with the rope. 

The Fink Truss. — This is a superposition of king-post truss- 
es. It is practicable in the inverted form only, but may be elevated 
on posts. In this case all the posts are better made of equal 




FINK TRUSS. 



length to form the supports of the roadway. A primary post sup- 
ports the middle, which becomes a central support for two secon- 
dary trusses, and the two points supported by the secondary posts 
BB, become in turn supports for four tertiary trusses CC, and so 
on. The stresses for secondary and tertiary trusses are worked 
out in the same way, taking l / 2 the load on the bridge for the 
secondaries and % for the tertiaries. 

The Howe Truss. — This useful form consists of two parallel 
chords, usually continuous built-up beams, divided by posts in ten- 
sion into equal panels, each of which has diagonals in compression. 
The upper chord is in compression, the lower in tension. Each 



640 



MILITARY TRAINING 



chord is made up of three or more parallel timbers of uniform size, 
with lengths adapted to properly distribute the splices. The tim- 
bers are separated by the diameter of the largest rods so that the 
latter may pass through the spaces. The main braces are one less 
in number than the pieces in the chord and abut, top and bottom, 
against angle blocks of metal or hard wood, triangular in section 
and extending entirely across the chord. Against these blocks 
the counter braces, one less in number than the main braces, 
also abut. The vertical rods of each post are equal in number to 
the main braces. The ends of struts abut squarely against the ends 
of the block and are kept in place by tightening up the nuts on the 
rods. Iron angle blocks are formed to hold the braces in place 
even if slightly loose. When wooden blocks are used, cleats should 




HOWE TRUSS. 



be nailed on or dowels inserted in the ends of the braces for the 
same purpose. The timbers of the Howe truss are all square- 
sawed and have no mortises or tenons. 

The stresses in a chord of a Howe truss are a maximum at 
the center and when the truss is loaded throughout its length. 
This maximum stress = the total load on the bridge X span in feet 
-f- 16 times height of truss in feet. 

The chord stress in the end panels will not exceed J4 the 
load on the bridge unless the length of the panel is greater than 
its height, which should never be the case. Between these lower and 
higher limits the chord stresses vary, but not by equal increments. 
The change is more rapid near the ends and less so toward the 
middle. For wooden trusses, convenience in framing requires that 
all chord pieces have one dimension the same, and it is not cus- 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 



641 



tomary to make more than one change in the aggregate chord 
sections. This is done by bolting extra timbers on each side of the 
lower chord over its middle third. 

The Pratt Truss. — The form and the distribution of stresses 
are the same as the Howe truss. The disposition of materials in 
web members is reversed, the verticals being of wood and in 
compression and the diagonals of metal and in tension. The 
arrangement at panel points is modified accordingly. The chords 
are the same as for a Howe truss of the same span, height, and 
load. 




PRATT TRUSS. 

In both Howe and Pratt trusses care must be taken not to 
introduce unnecessary initial strain by setting up the rods too 
tight. The upper chord should be V/2 inches longer than the lower 
one for each 100 feet of span; the excess to be divided equally 
among the panels. This prevents the upper chord becoming short- 
er than the lower when it is compressed and the lower one 
stretched by the load. The effect when the bridge is light is to 
give the truss a slight crown or camber. 

The Lattice Truss. — This truss may be constructed entirely 
}f 2 or 3 inch planks and wooden pins, avoiding the latter if bolts 
:an be had. The disposition of material is clearly shown in the 
drawing. If there are three sets of planks, the pairs must be in the 



642 



MILITARY TRAINING 



position of braces and the single planks of counter braces. The 
planks are 2 or 3 inches thick and 9 to 12 inches wide, according 
to the span. They are placed about 2Yi feet apart, measured along 
the edges. Two to four pins or bolts, depending on width of plank, 
are placed at each intersection. The chords are formed of planks 
or timbers, with an aggregate cross section determined by the 
general rule for trusses, and are pinned or bolted to the upper and 
lower edges of the lattice as indicated. 

If the roadway be on the lower chord, its upper edge must 
be so placed that the transom can pass through the lattice and rest 
on it. 

The lateral bracing may be as described for other trusses, 
and is very important, as a chief defect of the lattice truss is its 
lack of lateral stiffness. 

The lattice truss may be used for highway bridges up to 150 
feet span with depth of one-sixth the span. 




LATTICE TRUSS. 



SUSPENSION BRIDGES 



In this type of bridge the roadway is hung to two or more 
cables stretched from bank to bank, with their ends attached to 
fastenings called anchorages. The cables are allowed to sag; the 
greater the sag the less the tension, but the more the vibration. 
A sag of one-seventh to one-twelfth the span is the best for field 
bridges. This fraction is referred to as the ratio of deflection. 
The cables are usually passed over elevated supports called towers, 
to keep their lowest point above the roadway. The parts of the 
cable between the towers and the anchorages are called backstays. 
The connection between cables and roadway is by rods called 
suspenders, ties or slings. There is a sling at each end of each 
transom. 

In military field operations the suspension bridge is best 
adapted to light loads or long spans or the two combined. The 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 643 

construction of a suspension bridge for heavy traffic is usually 
impracticable with field equipment. When materials for a non- 
floating bridge must be carried with a column, the suspension type 
is best, because it is lightest for a given capacity and its materials 
are divisible into small portions for transportation. 

Tension on Backstays. — If the cables are free to move on 
the tops of the towers, the tension on the backstays will always be 
the same as that on the cables. In this case the towers are station- 
ary and should be massive. 

If the cables are fixed to the tops of the towers, the tension 
on the backstays will be equal to, less than, or greater than the 
tension on the cable, accordingly as the slope of the backstay at 
the top of the tower is equal to, less than, or greater than the 
slope of the cable. It is usually best to make these slopes equal. 

Stresses on the Towers. — When the slopes of cables and 
backstays are equal, the stresses on each tower will be vertical and 
equal to the entire weight and load of the clear span. 

When these slopes are unequal the pressure on the towers 
will be oblique. If the slope of the backstay is less than that of 
the cable, the tower will tend to revolve or slide toward the an- 
chorage, and the pressure on each tower will be less than the 
weight and load of clear span. If the slope of the backstay is 
greater than that of the cable, the towers will tend to revolve or 
slide toward each other, and the stresses in each will be greater 
than the weight and load of clear span. 

When possible, the horizontal distance from the foot of a 
tower to the corresponding backstay should be Ya, of the clear span 
or greater. In such case the tension on the backstay will not ex- 
ceed that on the cable, and the pressure on the tower will not ex- 
ceed the total weight and load of the clear span. 

Anchorages. — These are of prime importance and must be 
secure and as rigid as possible. Their character will often be de- 
termined by accidents of the site. When the stumps of large trees 
are available they will usually be chosen. Ledge rock or large 
bowlders are the best, but require care and some skill in making 
the fastenings. Heavy staples leaded or wedged into holes drilled 
into the rock will usually be most convenient. If Portland cement 
:an be had, a grouting will hold the iron firmly after it is set. 

Lengths of Slings depend upon the curve of the main cables 
ind the camber of the roadway. The latter must be liberal in field 
suspension bridges. The cables will stretch, especially those made 
)f wire rope, and the anchorages and tower footings will give more 
or less. One-fiftieth of the span will usually be enough. 

The lengths of slings are reckoned from the cable to the 
ower side of the transoms in a vertical line. They must be deter- 
nined in advance and adhered to during construction, regardless 



644 



MILITARY TRAINING 



of the appearance of the bridge when partially done. When the 
roadway is completed the distortion will disappear. 

Railway Bridges. — A railroad bridge should not be built on 
an incline if it can be avoided. The approaches at each end should 
be straight and nearly level for a distance equal to at least twice the 
maximum train length. 

Foundations must be especially unyielding, as settlement is 
more troublesome than in other bridges. 

For a single-track standard-gauge railway bridge, the clear 
width between trusses or girders should be 14 feet. In double- 
track bridges the distance from center to center of tracks must not 
be less than 13 feet. No part of the truss may be less than 7 feet 
from the center of the nearest track, at a height exceeding 1 foot 
above the rail. The clear headroom must be 21 feet above the base 
of the rail for a width of 6 feet over each track. 

Stringers are put under the rails and are best made in two 
or more pieces long enough to span two bays and breaking joints. 
The pieces are separated about 2 inches by blocks and well bolted 
together. Ties are placed 18 to 24 inches center to center, and 
every third or fourth one should be spiked to the stringers. A 
guardrail should be placed along the ends of the ties, and it is 
better to place under the tie a lighter stringer and bolt the guard- 
rails to it. 

Thickness of flooring in inches to carry wagons and artillery 
for varying distances between balks. 





Thickness 


of Flooring. 


Distance Between 






Balks (s. in feet). 


Wagons and Light Artillery. 


Siege Artillery. 




Plank. 


Poles. 


Plank. 


Poles. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


1.0 


1.4 


2.3 


2.0 


3.5 


1.5 


1.7 


3.2 


2.4 


4.0 


2.0 


2.0 


3.5 


2.8 


4.4 


2.5 


2.2 


3.8 


3.2 


4.8 


3.0 


2.4 


4.0 


3.6 


5.1 


3.5 


2.6 


4.3 


3.7 


5.4 


4.0 


2.8 


4.5 


4.0 


5.6 



For a footbridge, the thickness of flooring in inches may be 
safely taken as one-half the span between balks in feet. 

Ferries. — A ferry may be operated by stretching a cabh 
across the river and pulling the boat by hand along the cable 
Another method is to use a long rope fastened to a point upstream 
either on the bank or to an island or anchor in midstream, and nav- 
igate the boat back and forth by utilizing the force of the current 



BRIDGES AND PONTOONS 645 

acting obliquely on the boat. This is called a flying ferry. The 
wooden ponton will carry 40 infantrymen armed and fully equipped, 
in addition to the crew, under favorable conditions. In rough 
water or swift currents the load should be reduced to 20 men be- 
sides the crew. The normal load of the canvas ponton is 20 men 
and crew; this should be reduced for unfavorable conditions. 

Fords. — Fords may be used by small bodies of troops with- 
out bridge equipage, but they are unreliable crossings and are gen- 
erally unsatisfactory for large bodies. If the current is moderate 
a depth of ZYz feet may be passed by infantry and Ay 2 by cavalry. 
Artillery and wagons can cross water 3 feet deep, but if the con- 
tents of wagons are to be kept dry the depth should not exceed 
2]/ 2 feet. The bottom should be even, hard, and tenacious. The 
presence of large stones, mud, or sand will make fording difficult 
or impracticable. A ford may be rendered impassable by a freshet 
or by the deepening resulting from the loss of material stirred up 
and carried away during the passage of troops. Infantry should 
•cross in column of squads and cavalry in column of twos. All men, 
ianimals, and vehicles should maintain sufficient distances to pre- 
vent any damming effect on the stream. Boats or mounted men 
should be stationed downstream to rescue any men that may be 
-swept off their feet. A ford may be destroyed by filling the deep- 
est part with harrows, teeth up, or with planks filled with spikes, 
with barbed wire, or other obstructions. 

Swimming. — Small parties of selected men may swim a 
stream successfully, but the attempt to cross with any considerable 
lumber by this method is likely to result in heavy losses by drown- 
ng. If boats or rafts are available, horses may be taken across 
)y swimming. The horse equipments, except the bridle, are taken 
)ff, and a man on the boat or raft holds each horse by the head 
luring the passage. If there is little or no current, the horses can 
iwim on both the upstream and downstream sides of the boat or 
aft; if the current is swift, they can swim only on the downstream 
ide. Three horses can be conducted across on one side of a pon- 
on, or six if they can go on both sides. 

Aerial Ropeways. — If a stream has high banks, with trees 
»r other means available as anchorages, it may be practicable to 
tretch a rope across and transport men and materials in chairs, 
•askets or slings suspended from the rope. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUC- 
TION, MINING AND DEMOLITIONS 

Fortification is the art of increasing by engineering devices 
the fighting power of troops occupying a position. These devices 
have for their object to increase the effect of the fire action of 
troops protected by the fortifications and their mobility on the 
field, or to diminish the effect of the fire action of the assailant and 
his mobility. 

Field fortification decreases losses and increases the offen- 
sive power of troops who use it properly; it permits troops to halt 
in safety under fire and to resume the advance when conditions 
are more favorable. In order to avoid enormous losses it is abso- 
lutely necessary to employ it and to fortify step by step the 
ground won. It likewise enables troops to hold the enemy with 
weak forces on one part of the front in order to mass forces and 
strike him on another part. 

LOCATION 

No natural or artificial strength of position will of itself 
compensate for loss of initiative when an enemy has time and 
liberty to maneuver. The choice of a position and its preparation 
must be made with a view of economizing the power expended on 
defense in order that the power of offense may be increased. 

The influence of ground upon the effect of fire must be one 
of the first considerations in selecting a position. A clear field 
of fire and ground over which artillery and infantry can act in 
combination are of great importance, but this importance is rela- 
tive to the ground over which the enemy must move; thus it is 
better for the defense to have moderate facilities for the co-opera- 
tion of infantry and artillery fire and for the attack to have none 
than for the defense to have good ground, but the attack better. 
The most favorable ground for the ultimate assumption of the 
offensive is that which lends itself most to the co-operation of all 
arms, and especially that which allows the advance to be covered 
by artillery and infantry fire. Ground from which any portion of 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 647 

the front or flanks of a position can be enfiladed is dangerous to 
the defense. 

When it is intended to occupy a defensive position the chief 
points to be noted are: (a) The best distribution of the infantry 
and the means of protecting the flanks, (b) The positions for the 
artillery, which should be posted so as to command: (1) The posi- 
tions which the enemy may endeavor to seize in order to develop 
an effective fire against the position. (2) The probable positions 
of the enemy's artillery, (c) Any points the possession of which 
might exercise a decisive influence on the issue of the fight, (d) 
The most favorable lines of attack. (e) The most favorable 
ground for the counter attack, (f) Ground to be occupied by the 
general reserve and by the cavalrv. (g) Positions to be occupied 
in case of retreat. 

ORGANIZATION OF A POSITION 

. J The organization of a position does not imply the estab- 

I lishment of a continuous firing trench. The terrain in front of a 
: position is best covered by a combination of frontal and flank fire 
from distinct elements such as trenches, blockhouses, prepared 
buildings, etc., separated by small intervals; thus economizing 
i in personnel,, which is one of the advantages of fortification, and 
j minimizing the effect of the enemy's artillery fire. Each of these 
elements is occupied by a fixed garrison, which should always be 
a complete unit, the strength of which, variable according to 
circumstances, may be as much as a platoon. These elements are 
not uniformly distributed along the front; their distribution is 
determined by the features of the terrain, the necessity of having 
I a greater volume of fire at one point than at another, in one direc- 
; tion than another, and other tactical considerations. A line can 
i always be forced at some points so that it is necessary to have 
I elements in rear which come into action when the first have fallen. 
It is therefore necessary to disperse the elements laterally and 
in depth. 
I A strong point is a group of elements, thus disposed, which, 

1 by their mutual support, should permit the garrison to hold and 
• stop the enemy by its fire. It should be surrounded by a con- 
i tinuous obstacle. It should always be occupied by a fixed unit 
responsible for its defense. The strength of this unit depends 
■ upon the importance of the strong point; it is generally a com- 
pany or a subdivision of a company. The strong points should 
be distributed along the front according to the importance of 
1 the portions of the terrain to be held, and the facilities for flank- 
ing fire. They will then be grouped together in places, leaving 
intervals between them, varying in width. 



648 MILITARY TRAINING 

Fire action alone will not always be sufficient for the de- 
fense of a position; the defensive position should be organized 
with a view to the execution of immediate counter attacks for 
the purpose of recapturing any part of the position that has 
been taken by the enemy. For this purpose it is necessary to have 
other strong points in rear of those of the firing line, and reserves 
for the purpose of executing counter attacks. 

The strong points should be grouped together laterally . 
and in depth. These groups are called supporting points. Their 
defense should be assigned to a tactical unit, usually a battalion 
or regiment, which will furnish the garrison of the different 
strong points and the force for the local reserves. Artillery 
may sometimes be assigned to certain supporting points. The 
supporting point is generally surrounded by a continuous ob- 
stacle. The intervals between supporting points are covered b}' 
means adapted to the tactical conditions and the terrain. 

The combination of several supporting points under one 
commander forms a sector. Each sector furnishes its own re- 
serves distinct from those of the supporting points. It gener- 
ally has artillery attached. 

The organization described is called an intrenched zone; 
that nearest the enemy is called the first intrenched zone. In 
rear, there should always be organized a second intrenched zone,' 
and if advisable a third, all similar to the first. 

The trenches nearest the enemy are called the firing trenches; 
close behind these and connected with them at frequent intervals 
by approach trenches are the cover trenches, which are usually 
continuous within each strong point, and afford easy lateral com- 
munication. The combination of these trenches forms the strong 
points for the firing line. 

In rear of the strong points of the firing line is a line of! 
strong points made up of firing, cover, and approach trenches and ' 
called the support trenches. These strong points are usually 
connected laterally by communicating trenches, and with the strong 
points of the firing line by approach trenches. 

In rear of the support trenches are strong points organized 
in a manner similar to those in advance, and called reserve trenches; 
these are usually connected laterally by communicating trenches; 
and with the support trenches by approach trenches. Between the 
support and the reserve trenches there may be strong points 
called intermediate trenches. The approach and communicating 
trenches may be prepared for firing at certain points to cover 
effectively, by frontal and flanking fire,, ground not well covered 
from the strong points. 

The above organization is a gradual development made dur- 
ing a prolonged occupation of a position in trench warfare such 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 649 

as developed on the western front in Europe. In the initial 
occupation of a position the first step would be the construction 
of the strong points for the firing line, with their firing trenches 
and obstacles first, then their cover, approach, and communicating 
trenches. Ordi-narily this construction would be all that would 
be done by hired labor in the preparation of a defensive line not 
in the presence of the enemy, such as the defensive line for the 
mobile forces intended for the defense of a seacoast city. The 
next step would be the construction of the strong points for the 
support trenches, with the necessary communicating and approach 
trenches. Finally the defensive zone would be completed by the 
construction of the reserve and intermediate trenches organized 
into strong points, and all of these into supporting points and 
sectors. 

FIRING TRENCHES 

These should usually be constructed in short lengths for 
a squad, section or platoon, arranged so that they are mutually 
supporting and thoroughly cover the ground by both frontal and 
flanking fire. If longer than required for a squad they should be 
of an irregular or indented trace and be traversed at intervals 
of from 5 to 8 yards so as to give protection from enfilade fire and 
localize the effect of shell bursts. 

If the firing trenches are located under fire when an attack 
has been halted, the location is determined by the line at which 
the troops are forced to halt, and dig themselves in. This line 
may in some cases be a hostile trench captured in the course of 
the attack. Ordinarily each man will construct individual cover in 
the form of a lying trench, which he will gradually improve to 
a sitting, kneeling or standing trench. Small adjustments of 
position may be made by the officers with a view to getting the 
best possible line under the circumstances. The individual pits 
are connected up into squad or longer length when night falls, 
iand the trace and location can then be rectified. 

If the enemy has been found in a strong defensive position 
.and an attack has not been made, or has resulted in a withdrawal, 
,a line of firing trenches may be located under cover of night from 
.500 to 600 yards, or even more from the enemy, the exact distance 
depending upon the ground, the facilities for natural cover, and 
!the tactical condition. This line may be made fairly strong and 
:omplete before any further advance is attempted. Then under 
:over of darkness or fog, or a heavy bombardment, a new firing 
:rench may be constructed at a distance of 200 to 300 yards from 
,:he enemy. 

When not in the presence of the enemy, a careful reconnais- 



650 MILITARY TRAINING 

sance should first be made and the firing trenches can then be 
located with due rer n rd to the terrain, the tactical requirements and 
economy of men. 

The following general rules should govern the location 
of the firing trenches: (1) The field of fire should be such as to 
expose an attacking enemy to fire for at least the last 200 to 300 
yards of his advance. To insure this it may be necessary to 
clear the foreground. With well-trained troops a shorter field of 
fire may be sufficient, provided it is covered by frontal and flanking 
fire and is strengthened by a good obstacle, which should be well 
screened from the distant view of the enemy. (2) Concealment 
of the trenches is of the greatest importance. (3) The de- 
fenders should be screened from the enemy's view and sheltered 
from his fire by natural or artificial cover so arranged as to afford 
the maximum development of rifle fire. (4) The foreground should 
contain natural obstacles to break up the formations of attacking 
troops, but not afford them cover. (5) There should be good 
communications within the position and over ground that may 
be used for counter attacks. (6) The trenches should not be placed 
too near unalterable features that reveal their location or furnish 
good range marks for the enemy. (7) The location of firing 
trenches on the crest or forward slope, though exposing them to 
view and bombardment, gives a feeling of superiority to the troops 
and increases their morale; enables the support, reserve, communi- 
cating and approach trenches to be well concealed; offers greater 
facilities for observation and for the assembly of troops for the 
assault close to the firing trenches and unobserved. (8) The 
location of firing trenches behind the crest of a slight ridge screens 
them from view and fire of the enemy's artillery, unless he has in 
his possession high ground giving a view of the reverse slope. 
Special conditions, such as the enemy's local superiority in artil- 
lery, may justify the deliberate choice of such a position, but it 
must not be too far down the reverse slope, arrangements must 
be made to deny the enemy access to the crest of the ridge, and 
there must be a number of saps forward to the crest to allow a 
continuous observation of the front slope. (9) In woods the 
trenches should be located 10 to 20 yards from the front edge; 
the natural appearance of the woods should not be changed, but 
a clear field of fire obtained by cutting some of the brush, small 
trees and low branches. 

PROFILES 

Profiles for firing trenches should satisfy the following 
conditions: (1) The trench should be as narrow as possible, yet 
wide enough to allow of movement behind the line of men manning 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 651 

the parapet. The slopes should be kept as steep as possible. The 
width at the top is usually from 2y 2 to 3 feet at first; later, when 
enlarged for the movement of men along it, 4 to 5 feet. (2) The 
height of the parapet should be as small as possible, while great 
enough to give a clear field of fire. This height should not usually 
be over 1 foot. (3) The parapet must be bullet proof and have 
a flat front slope. A thickness of 5 feet is usually sufficient. (4) 
The relief should be such as to permit firing. This requires 1 
foot lying down, 3 feet kneeling, and A l / 2 feet standing. The rear 
of the trench is deepened later for communication. (5) There 
must be a parados to give protection against the blast of high 
explosive shells. (6) A 1-foot berm should be left on both sides of 
the trench to keep loose earth from falling into it. The front 
berm serves as an elbow rest. (7) The profile should be progres- 



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PROFILE. 



sive and rapidly executed; it should give protection and permit 
firing while being constructed. 

Cover, approach and communicating trenches should ordi- 
narily have a width at the top of from 4 to 5 feet and a relief of 
not less than 7 feet, with a parapet from 1 to 2 feet high. They 
may be prepared for firing on one or both sides by providing a 
firing banquette ty 2 feet below the crest of the parapet and widen- 
ing the trench. 

Traverses. — Traverses afford the best method for protection 
against enfilade fire and to localize the effects of shells bursting 
in the trench. To be effective against heavy artillery they must 
be at least 2 yards wide on top and constructed if possible of undis- 
turbed earth. They should be spaced from 5 to 8 yards apart and 



652 MILITARY TRAINING 

should project at least 1 yard beyond the face of the rear wall of 
the trench. They may be provided with a firing banquette to 
permit a flank fire along a trench in case part of it is captured. 

For straight-approach trenches the best type is the island 
traverse, with the trench going around it on both sides. Sections 
of trench subject to special exposure are sometimes protected 
with bridge traverses built across the top of the trench or indi- 
vidual niches may be constructed between traverses. Approach 
trenches are usually protected from enfilade fire by giving them a 
zigzag trace. 

Head cover is the term applied to any horizontal cover 
which may be provided above the plane of fire. It is obtained 
by notching or loopholing the top of the parapet. 

(a) Notches. — When the relief of the trench is too great for 
a man to fire standing or when the height of the parapet is more 
than 1 foot above the level of the ground, notches may be made in 




DETACHED TRAVERSES. 

the parapet. The simplest way to make them and give support to 
their sides and make them the least visible is to arrange sand bags 
on top of the parapet. 

(b) Loopholes. — When overhead cover is used loopholes are 
necessary. They may be constructed of sandbags, wood,, steel, 
hurdles or other material. The sky as a background should be 
avoided by raising the parados or placing a canvas curtain behind 
the loophole and closing the opening with a metal cover, which can 
be removed when the loophole is in use. Loopholes should be 
concealed by using grass, brush, canvas or empty sandbags. 

In addition to their visibility, loopholes have the disad- 
vantage that they cause a pause in the fire of the defender when 
the attack reaches the most deadly zone of fire, because the de- 
fenders have to withdraw their rifles to prepare for bayonet 
fighting. Arrangements should therefore be made for firing over 
the parapet by constructing banquettes between the loopholes. 
In all firing trenches, however, a few loopholes are desirable for 
the use of snipers, and there may be one or two between each two 
traverses. All night firing should be over the parapet. 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 653 

Overhead Cover. — The garrison of a trench must have shel- 
ter against bombardment by high explosive shells and against the 
weather. This is secured by shelters, which are classified as 
splinter proofs or bombproofs, according as they are designed to 
afford protection against splinters of shells bursting over or near 
them or against shells hitting them direct and bursting on impact. 

(a) For the garrison of the firing trench small shelters may 
be constructed under the parapet, but the greater part of the 
garrison should be protected during a bombardment by shelters 
constructed along the cover trenches. Shelters under the parapet 
of the firing trench must: (1) Not interrupt the line of fire. (2) 




TRENCH FOR FIRE THROUGH AND OVER PARAPET, 



Be capable of construction after the trench is finished. (3) Permit 
the parapet to be manned quickly. 

(b) In the cover trenches there must be a number of shelters 
so that the garrison which must be kept there in the heaviest bom- 
bardment will be completely sheltered. To limit the effect of 
hits there should be a number of small shelters rather than a few 
large ones. The maximum capacity should be 25 men. Cave shel- 
ters must be used if the soil and natural features are favorable for 
their construction and arrangements can be made to get out of 
them quickly. 

(c) In the support and reserve trenches and in rear cave 



654 MILITARY TRAINING 

shelters and shelters utilizing natural cover, such as quarries and 
cellars of buildings, may be used. The shelters may also be 
larger. 

(d) General Principles. — (1) A shelter is valuable only when 
it offers complete protection and permits the men to get out of 
it in time. For complete protection it should have a roof strong 
enough to keep out the heaviest shells. Splinter-proof cover is 
afforded by a layer of logs or beams 6 or more inches thick covered 
with not less than 12 inches of earth. Bomb-proof cover against 
6-inch high explosive shells is afforded by a layer of rails or beams, 
18 inches of earth, a layer of brick or broken stone, 2^4 feet of 
earth, another layer of brick or stone 6 to 12 inches thick, and over 
all 6 inches of earth. Cave shelters may be as much as 30 feet 
under undisturbed earth. 

(2) To enable men to get out in time there must be a look- 
out placed to one side of the entrance in a protected niche in the 
parapet, and provided with means to give the alarm. The exit 
may also be held under fire of an arrangement known as a traverse 
block house, built of rails and concrete. Certain shelters may 
also be provided with long periscopes to be placed in the venti- 
lating hole of the shelter. 

(3) A burster layer of 6 to 12 inches of brick or stone should 
always be provided near the top surface of the roof. Over this 
burster layer should be a layer of not less than 6 inches nor more 
than 12 inches of earth to decrease danger from the scattering of 
the brick or stone by the burst of the shell. 

(4) The water tightness of the roof is secured by placing 
over the layer of logs roofing paper, corrugated iron, tin,, canvas, 
tiles, etc. 

(5) Drainage should be secured by sloping the floor of the 
shelter toward a drainage pit constructed near the entrance. 

(6) Ventilation should be provided by holes which may be 
drilled with an earth auger, near one of the walls of the shelter. 

(7) Protection against asphyxiating gas is secured by placing 
two curtains of canvas at the entrance, which should be lowered 
when the alarm is given. There must always be in the shelter 
a barrel of solution of hyposulphite of soda, which is sprayed into 
the air. 

(8) The walls of deep shelters should be strongly revetted 
to prevent their caving in. Tools should be stored in them so that 
the men can dig out if the exit is blocked by a shell burst. An 
earth auger enables a hole to be bored rapidly, through which 
food, water and air may be obtained quickly. Cover shelters 
should always be provided with two entrances. Food, water, 
ammunition, grenades and rockets to warn the lines in rear 
should be stored in the shelters. 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 655 

(9) Arrangements should be made for heating and drying the 
shelters with stoves. 

Revetments. — The deep, narrow trenches, with steep walls 
now used require careful revetment, especially where the soil 
does not weather well. To keep the men comfortable and the 
trenches clean and free from mud requires a substantial revetment. 
Some soils are apparently firm and stand at a steep slope when 
first excavated, but under the action of the weather the side walls 
soon slough off, obstruct the trenches, and make them muddy in 
rainy weather. In case of long-continued occupancy of the 
trenches, timber and plank revetment will gradually replace the 
lighter forms. The trench walls, the seats, benches and steps in 
soft ground, especially if they are likely to be much used, should 
be revetted. If possible this should be done when the trenches are 
first constructed. 

When of planks or boards, they should be placed on top of 
one another, behind stakes, and backed up with earth. The stakes 
should be driven in at the foot of the slope at the desired inclina- 
tion and at intervals of from 1 to 2 yards. Every second or third 
stake should be anchored to stakes under the parapet by means 
of wire, withes, or rope, fastened at about two-thirds of the height 
of the revetment. 

When of branches or brush, the branches or brush is heaped 
up, like the boards, behind the stakes and sufficiently pressed 
together to keep the earth at the back from filtering through. 
If it is not desirable or possible to anchor the stakes separately, a 
pole can be fastened along them near the top, and this can be 
anchored at intervals of from 4 to 6 feet. 

When of woven brush the pickets are driven at intervals of 
from 1 to 1^2 feet; they are temporarily joined together at the top 
with a pole. The wattles are alternately passed in front and 
behind the pickets and interwoven. The pickets should be an- 
chored. 

When of hurdles, they are placed close together and the 
sharpened stakes driven into the ground and anchored. Hurdles 
are especially suitable for use after a work is finished to 
strengthen it. 

When of sod, the sod should be cut to a size of 18 by 9 by 4 
inches. They are laid grass down like brick masonry. If bricks 
are used, the method of laying them is the same. 

When of fragments of hard earth, stone or sand bags, the 
method of construction is the same as for sod or brick. 

When of expanded metal, it should be supported by stakes 
about 2]/ 2 inches in diameter, at intervals of about 18 inches; the 
stakes should be anchored, and the metal fastened to them with 
42 



656 MILITARY TRAINING 

staples. Rabbit wire or poultry wire netting may be used in the 
same way. 

Fascines are generally used for making steps; they may also 
be used for wide trenches. 

Gabions may be used for very wide trenches, such as assem- 
bly points. They are placed side by side. 

Steps. — Trenches must be provided with means to permit 
troops to leave them rapidly to make an attack. Steps should be 
revetted with one or more rows of fascines. Ladders have the ad- 
vantage of not widening the trench. They are placed vertically 
against the front wall of the trench. Ramps parallel to the firing 
trench may be constructed at the ends of the branches of a zigzag 
communicating or approach trench. 

Drainage. — Drainage is essential to the preservation of the 
trenches and the health and comfort of the troops. In deliberate 
works it is well to study the drainage question in detail and to con- 
struct special ditches of ample capacity before work on the trenches 
proper is begun. In trenches constructed in the presence of the 
enemy, drainage pits should be constructed which can be emptied 
by bailing or pumping. The bottom of the trench should slope to- 
ward the back where a shallow ditch may be constructed, sloping 
to a drainage pit. Where the soil is impermeable an endeavor 
should be made to reach a permeable layer by boring with an earth 
auger. In hilly terrain the water may be drained off by pipes 
placed under the parapet. 

The drainage and flooring of approach and communicating 
trenches, constantly used, is specially important, and should be 
considered in their location. A good form of floor grating is in 
lengths of 6 feet, 18 to 24 inches wide, made of cross pieces of Y\ 
by 4 inch boards, nailed to two longitudinal pieces of timber about 
3 by 4 inches, set on edge. When timber for flooring is not avail- 
able, drains filled with broken stone should be constructed in the 
bottom of the trench, which should always be convex. 

Obstacles. — The object of an obstacle is to check a hostile 
rush and delay the enemy under the close fire of the defense. An 
obstacle should be at such distance from the parapet that it is 
difficult for hostile bombers to crawl up to it and throw bombs 
into the trench. On the other hand, the obstacle should be under 
close observation and fire of the defense. If the front edge of the 
obstacle is 40 yards from the trench, these conditions are fulfilled. 
If possible the obstacle should be concealed for purposes of sur- 
prise and to decrease its liability to injury by artillery fire; it should 
form no shelter for the enemy. Some form of wire entanglement 
is ordinarily used. Obstacles are ordinarily placed all around 
strong and supporting points and often on both sides of approach 
trenches. Passages through them for counterattacks are usually 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 657 

covered by machine gun fire. The quantity of wire required is 
enormous; for a strong defensive position at least 100 miles of wire 
to the mile of front must be provided. At important points the wire 
entanglement is placed in belts 20 feet wide, two or more belts 
about 20 yards apart being used. The trace of the obstacle should 
not be parallel to the firing trench, so that it can be flanked by 
rifle and machine gun fire can not be used by the hostile ar- 
tillery for ranging on the trenches. The modern form is a com- 
promise between the high and the low wire entanglement and is 
generally from 2 to 2^ feet high. The wire is strung loosely, and 
many forms of spirals and hoops have been devised. Barbed wire 
is ordinarily used; the posts are of wood or iron; the iron ones; 
are provided with eyelets for attaching the wire, and the lower end: 
is auger twisted for about 18 inches so that it can be screwed se- 
curely into the ground at night without noise, a great advantage 
when in close proximity to the enemy. There are usually three 
rows of posts set in quincunx order from 6 to 8 feet apart. 

When the lines are too close to permit the placing of posts 
portable obstacles in the nature of a chevaux de frise, triangular 
pyramids of timber thoroughly wired, or timber or steel frames 
and sawbucks wired, are thrown out in front of the trenches. 

Concealment. — The trenches and other works should be made 
as nearly invisible as possible, and their concealment should be 
completed by treating the front slope of the parapet so that its- 
appearance from the front and from aircraft will correspond to 
that of the surrounding ground. Crops should be replaced where 
disturbed, and carefully arranged; bushes should be planted to hide 
the parapet, the men on watch, riflemen, and observers. Sod should 
be preserved and placed on the parapet and parados. 

Dummy Trenches. — Dummy trenches and works should be 
freely employed so as to deceive the enemy as to the strength of 
the defender and to scatter his fire. These works should be made 
slightly more visible than the regular works, so as to attract the 
attention of the enemy, without causing him to suspect their true 
nature. Their occupation should also be simulated and the damage 
caused to them by artillery fire must be repaired, so that the enemy 
will not discover his mistake. 

Observations. — The observation of the enemy is of first im- 
portance in position warfare. It should give •complete knowledge 
of all elements of the hostile line and prompt information of any 
movement of the enemy. It is effected by observation from the 
ground and from aircraft. 

Observation from the ground is divided into three echelons: 

(a) In front of the firing line from small posts and listening posts. 

(b) On the firing line by sentinels and lookouts, (c) In rear of 



658 MILITARY TRAINING 

the firing line, by artillery observers, sentinels, and lookouts of the 
shelters. 

Small posts or listening posts consist of pits, shot holes, or- 
ganized shell craters, or short trenches for from 1 to 8 men in front 
of the firing trenches and connected with them by sap or low mine 
gallery. They should be as nearly invisible as possible and provided 
with loopholes. Protection at short range from grenades is secured 
by a network of wire. 

Observation on the firing line is effected by lookout posts 
organized preferably at the salients where the view is more ex- 
tended. They are provided with periscopes, range finders, and 
large-scale maps. They should be concealed by all possible means, 
as good observation is possible only when done without knowledge 
of the enemy. The posts should preferably be constructed on the 
right of a traverse and in an excavation in front of the trench wall. 

The observation posts, even of the infantry, are not necessar- 
ily in the firing line or in the listening posts. Often in rear, points 
will be found which will give an excellent view and will not attract 
the enemy's attention. The term " observatory " is often employed 
for observation posts of this kind; they should be protected and 
have means of communication such as telephone, heliograph, mes- 
senger, carrier pigeons, wireless. They may belong to the infan- 
try, the artillery, or higher commands. The observatory may be 
occupied by the commander himself or by an observer who repre- 
sents him. In any case the observatory should be near the command 
post. It must have a low parapet, be defiladed from view, and 
proof against large projectiles. 

The location of the lookout posts and observatories must be 
determined in accordance with a complete plan for each supporting 
point or sector of defense. No part of the hostile front should be 
free from observation, and parts of the front favorable for an at- 
tack by the enemy should be specially watched. An observatory 
should be located near the command posts of the commanders of 
strong points, supporting points, and sectors. Those of the last 
two must have extended views over the whole of the terrain. 

Illumination of the Battle Field. — In position warfare it is 
necessary — (a) To discover and keep in touch with the movements 
of the enemy at night, (b) To seek out and illuminate hostile ob- 
jectives so as to fire upon them, (c) To blind the enemy. 

These results are obtained with searchlights. The smaller 
ones, about 12 inches, are acetylene and have a short range. The 
larger, about 24 inches, are electric and have a longer range. They 
can also be used for signaling. They are placed in shelters similar 
to those for machine guns, located so as to flank the line of fire. 
Flares, rockets, etc., are also used. 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 659 

Lines of Information. — During a bombardment the mainten- 
ance of lines of information becomes very difficult, but it must be 
accomplished by all possible methods, such as: (a) Installing tele- 
phones under strong shelters, (b) Using lead-covered cable, buried 
6 feet deep, especially for the lines connecting the regimental, bri- 
gade, division, and corps headquarters, (c) Placing rockets in all 
shelters and observatories where officers or sergeants are posted, 
(d) Preparing posts for visual signaling, safe from bombardment 
and defiladed from view of the enemy. These posts are constructed 
in shelters similar to those for searchlights, and are provided with 
horizontal loopholes with openings to the flank or rear. 

Depots for Material and Ammunition. — These consist of gal- 
leries of variable dimensions, opened in the walls of the trenches, 
and usually lined with timber. The entrance should be closed with 
a strong door. They are used to store water, rations, ammunition, 
grenades, pioneer tools, portable searchlights, field glasses, maps, 
range finders, periscopes, lighting pistols, and rockets. Depots for 
engineer material are usually installed in the angles of the approach 
trenches. Depots for water, rations, tools, and sand bags are usu- 
ally established about 20 yards to the right of the company com- 
mand post. Depots for arms, ammunition, bombs, grenades, and 
rockets are about 20 yards to the left of the same post. An inven- 
tory of material should be kept up to date at the company com- 
mand post. 

Machine Guns. — The general principles of their employment 
are: (a) The personnel and material should be protected from 
fire as much as possible. 

(b) In order that they may be available at the moment of 
attack, it is indispensable that they survive the bombardment. 
Their protection must therefore be specially provided for by em- 
ploying all the following means: (1) Placing them under shelter. 
(2) Making their emplacements invisible. (3) Dispersing them 
laterally and in depth by arranging them in echelon. 

(c) Casemates must be used only when they can not be seen 
by the enemy, such as on the reverse slope, or in woods, or in vil- 
lages. 

(d) The great importance of making them invisible necessi- 
tates the construction of firing emplacements outside the shelters, 
but close enough to enable the guns to be put into action with the 
least possible delay. 

(e) The firing emplacement may be protected by a light 
roof with very small height, or it may be entirely without over- 
head protection. The emplacement may consist simply of a pit 
in the open field, situated in front or in rear of the firing trench, 
and connected with the shelter by an underground passage. The 
machine gun should be placed in action at the last moment; it may 



660 MILITARY TRAINING 

be simply placed on the edge of the pit without any protection, or 
preferably it should be covered by a light shield, or a low parapet 
carefully blended with the natural slope of the ground. The pit 
should be carefully hidden so that it can not be discovered by the 
enemy. Emplacements of this nature are frequently employed in 
rear of the firing line. 

(f) When the firing trench is situated on the reverse slope, 
machine guns should be emplaced in concealed pits in front of 
the trench, on the crest if practicable, and connected with the 
trench by underground passages. 

(g) The requirement of concealment makes it necessary to 
conceal all the approaches to the firing emplacements by making 
them underground, and to increase the number of emplacements 
so that it will not be necessary to fire daily from those to be used 
in case of an attack. 

(h) The emplacement of too many machine guns in the firing 
line is dangerous; in order to stop an attack they should be eche- 
loned to the rear. In favorable terrain, flank fire should be pro- 
vided, to mow down the attacking lines as they push forward. 
Therefore, the available machine guns should be distributed be- 
tween the firing trench and the terrain in rear, with each emplace- 
ment prepared in a manner suitable to the terrain and the tactical 
requirement. 

Trench Weapons. — In trench warfare, batteries of light mor- 
tars and other trench weapons are generally emplaced between 
the cover and support trenches. They may be with or without over- 
head cover. When overhead cover is used, alternative emplace- 
ments without it should be constructed near by, if practicable. The 
emplacements should be concealed as much as possible, and their 
parapets should not be higher than those of the adjacent trenches. 
The guns should be dispersed laterally and in depth as are machine 
guns. 

Command Posts. — Besides their combat positions near the 
firing trenches each commander of a tactical unit should have an 
individual rest shelter. Each must have a specific identifying let- 
ter or number so that the positions of all headquarters can be defi- 
nitely known. They must be marked by large signboards and on 
the map, so that they may form definite reference points. They 
must be large enough to shelter the commander and his immediate 
staff and orderlies, and be supplied with the necessary equipment 
for a field headquarters. Company command posts must have near 
them the depots for materials, so that the troops will always know 
where to find these materials. 

First-aid Stations. — These should be connected with the cover 
and firing trenches by a communicating or approach trench wide 
enough for a litter to be carried through it. They are constructed 






FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 661 

like other shelters. The walls should be covered with straw or 
hurdle work, which must be frequently changed. They should be 
at least 8 by 12 feet in plan. Two cots should be placed against 
one wall, and a bench for the wounded to sit on against the other. 

Kitchens. — These should be constructed in shelters. The 
stove pipe should project somewhat above the top of the shelter 
to secure good draft. In addition, numerous ventilating holes must 
be made. The shelters should be large enough to accommodate 
the rolling kitchens. Small fires built of dry wood in the bottom 
of deep trenches do not betray their positions. 

Latrines. — These should be constructed in the vicinity of all 
trenches. They may be covered or open, revetted if practicable, and 
provided with seats or supports. They must be kept constantly 
clean; the excreta covered with earth and the position changed 
when the pit is three-quarters full. When trenches are occupied 
for more than a few days the excreta must be caught in tins and 
removed daily. They are usually arranged on both sides of a spe- 
cial communicating trench, which should be paved with stones for 
about 10 yard-s. 

Lavatories. — These should be improvised of tin or wood so 
as to form a number of basins in a row, with holes in the bottom, 
placed above a trough which receives and carries off the water to 
a drainage pit. There should be a grating for the men to stand on 
and the floor of the trench should have a decided slope for drain- 
age. They should be constructed on a special trench, covered it 
practicable. 

Shower Baths. — These should be installed in a deep shelter 
or a cave shelter. A simple arrangement is to provide one or two 
kettles for heating water, tubs or casks for storing it, placed about 
9 feet above the celling of the shelter. The casks should be con- 
nected with a pipe fitting with sprinklers, properly spaced. There 
should be a grating on the floor and the bottom of the approach 
trench should have a steep slope toward a drainage pit. 

Water Supply. — This usually consists of several large casks 
filled through pipes if practicable; otherwise the water is carried 
to them. There should be an interval of at least 10 yards between 
casks to avoid crowding and mud puddles. 

Sign-posting the Approach and Communicating Trenches. — 
At all crossings two sign boards must be set into the berm so that 
they may be seen by a person going in either direction. An ap- 
proach must keep its name or number throughout its length. At 
all crossings the main approach should be about a foot deeper 
than the intersecting trenches or minor approach. Generally sep- 
arate approach trenches should be provided for traffic to the front 
(in) and to the rear (out). Everything that hinders movement in 
approach and communicating trenches should be rigidly suppressed. 



662 MILITARY TRAINING 

Maintenance. — Order and sanitary conditions must be rigidly- 
exacted in the trenches, or they will soon become untenable or very 
unhealthful. The trenches after prolonged use deteriorate, not 
only from the fire of the enemy, but also from the effects of the 
weather. They must be constantly repaired. Walls which break 
down must be revetted; firing banquettes must be constantly re- 
paired with planks, fascines, or other revetting material. Damaged 
parapets must be repaired; berms must be kept at proper width. 
Drainage pits must; be watched carefully and kept cleaned out. It 
requires constant work to keep the trenches clean and sanitary. 

When parts of trenches are captured, steps must be taken 
immediately to clear them of insects which swarm in them and 
transmit disease germs, particularly typhus. Straw should be 
burned in the trenches and shelters, and all woodwork should be 
whitewashed. 

Protection Against Asphyxiating Gas. — The principal and 
most effective protection is to provide all occupants of trenches 
with gas masks, and require them to be constantly ready to put 
them on when the gas alarm is given. They must not be removed 
except by order of the senior officer or non-commissioned officer 
present. Lookouts should be provided with some means of giving 
a special alarm at the approach of asphyxiating gas. 

Protection Against Bombs and Grenades. — This is secured 
by a grill of wire netting placed in front of the trench. The top 
of the grill should be placed so that a bomb passing over it will 
clear the trench. 

Trip and Alarm Wires. — These should be provided at import- 
ant points. They may be arranged to light a flare or give some 
other signal to disclose the advance of the enemy. 

Villages and Buildings. — Villages such as are found in Eu- 
rope, placed in a state of defense, make the best kind of a support- 
ing point. If the defense is properly organized, their capture has 
usually proved a long and costly operation. Cellars with their roofs 
shored up and reinforced form excellent shelters, and good com- 
munications entirely underground can be made by breaking through 
from cellar to cellar. The organization of the defense of. a village 
is similar to that described for a supporting point. The field of 
fire for interior lines of resistance must be improved wherever nec- 
essary by the thorough demolition of buildings and the removal 
and spreading of debris. 

It is often advisable to include substantial masonry build- 
ings in the firing line. Experience shows it to be very hard to 
dislodge a determined defender from a properly organized build- 
ing. On the other hand, buildings in or near the front invariably 
draw much artillery fire. For this reason a building should not 
Hormally be occupied by day unless it has cellars which can be 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 663 




^~=; c/rid /irfq Uun ■■-—-^== d^= 



DEFENSE OF A FORTIFIED VILLAGE, 



664 MILITARY TRAINING 

improved to provide good bombproof cover, or similar cover can 
be made quite close to the building and connected with it by com- 
municating and approach trenches. Otherwise, if the building has 
been organized for defense, a garrison should be detailed which 
will occupy it only at the last moment in case of attack. The de- 
fensive arrangements should be concentrated on the first floor and 
cellar. 

In the building itself the work to be done is: (a) Reinforce 
the cellar roof, with concrete if possible, and shore it up to enable 
it to carry the extra protection and the debris which shelling will 
bring down upon it. (b) Loophole the walls as near the ground 
as practicable, (c) Reinforce the walls up to the loopholes with 
earth, sandbags, etc. (d) Block up and loophole the ground floor 
doors and windows, (e) Construct overhead cover over the loop- 
holes to protect from falling debris. 

Outside the building, construct firing trenches in front and 
on the flanks, and connect them and the building by communicating 
and approach trenches. 

In the drawing showing the defense of a fortified village, W 
shows the loopholed walls; P, parapets and ditches; c, ditto of 
casks; x, abatis; r, stockades; b, barriers; t t, free communication, 
road or passage; H, fortified house; K, keep. In the attack of this 
fortified village, D D, is a flying sap-parallel or trench of cover; 
B, open field battery; E, ditto, advanced to breach; F, one Im- 
pounder and one 24-pounder howitzer, to enfilade flanking defences 
e e' e", breaches; A, storming party; Z, supporting ditto; s s s, firing 
party and skirmishers; S a, false attacks, to divert the attention of 
the garrison at the moment of the real assault. 

Method of executing field fortification work. — When the 
tactical situation permits the execution of the work in safety: 

(1) Establish the trace, place the eye at the height of the 
interior crest (1 foot). Mark out the trace with stones, stakes, 
or tape. Mark the points of change of direction (maximum 
120°). Mark the position of each traverse between squads (min- 
imum thickness of traverse, 2 yards). (2) Deploy the working 
party along the trace by such method as the tactical conditions 
demand. (3) Place the rifles and packs on the rear side, the 
rifles in reach. (4) Mark out the tasks on the ground with a 
pick. Mark out the traverses in the same manner. (5) Strip the 
sod from the ground to be excavated and rapidly construct a 
mask or small parapet with it, with a steep slope on the rear. 
(6) Dig as vertically as possible. As soon as the parapet affords 
sufficient protection, the men designated construct the trench 
around the traverses, commencing at both ends. (7) Make a 
parados as soon as the depth of the trench exceeds that for a 
kneeling trench (2 feet). (8) Conceal the trenches by means of 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 665 

sod taken from the site of the parapet and parados and give them 
the appearance of the surrounding ground. (9) Arrange approaches 
masked from view by brush, etc. (10) Proceed with obstacles, 
head cover, clearing, etc. 

When circumstances render night work necessary, special 
dispositions must be made: (1) Except when absolutely impos- 
sible, stake out the trace before complete darkness. (2) If the 
trace can be marked only at night, utilize visible reference points 
such as white paper, stones, or tape, flash lights, etc. (3) For the 
distribution of the work and commencement of it, employ the 
same principles as for daywork. (4) Avoid, except the inevitable 
noise of the tools, anything that may reveal the presence of the 
workers (cigarettes, conversation, etc.). (5) Protect the workers 
by patrols stationed to the front. 

MINING 

Underground communications are classed according to their 
directions as galleries, which are horizontal or nearly so, and 
shafts, which are vertical or nearly so. 

Galleries are classed according to their size as great or 
grand galleries, which are 6 ft. high by 7 ft. wide; common gal- 
leries, 6 ft. by 3y 2 ft; half galleries, A l / 2 ft. by 3 ft.; branches, 
3y 2 ft. by 2y 2 ft, and small branches, 2*/ 2 ft. by 2 ft When the 
formation of the ground permits, earth augers may be used, 
forming bores or drill holes. 

Shafts may be drill holes or wells, or may range in size 
from the smallest in which a man can work, say 3 ft. by 3 ft., to any 
size which may be required, seldom more than 6 by 10 ft 

The dimensions of galleries and shafts are determined by 
the use to be made of them, their length, and the minimum space 
in which men can work. If troops or guns are to be passed 
through galleries they must be made large enough for that pur- 
pose. Grand and common galleries usually meet these require- 
ments. Galleries used only to reach the proper point to place 
the explosives are made of the size which is most rapidly driven 
and can be sufficiently ventilated. This is usually the half gal- 
lery in which men can work without too much constraint, through 
which the excavated earth can be transported by efficient methods, 
and in which reasonable ventilation can be maintained by simple 
means. 

Branches or small branches may be used when near the 
objective points. They are rapidly driven for short distances, 20 
feet or so, but when longer, the difficulties of digging, earth dis- 
posal, and ventilation become too great. When the soil permits 



666 MILITARY TRAINING 

the use of augers, bores will usually be employed for this purpose. 
The quantity of explosive placed at any point is called a charge. 
The place prepared for the reception of the charge is called the 
mine chamber or simply the chamber. 

The primary requisites of subterraneous excavations are 
accuracy of direction, prevention of caving, ventilation, drainage, 
and lighting. The restricted space usually requires not only that 
men shall work in constrained positions, but also that special 
tools be provided of smaller size than those used for open earth 
work. A special tool called the push pick is very convenient in 
soft earth. Picks and shovels for mining are similar in form to 
standard tools, but are smaller, and have shorter handles. 

Accuracy of direction may be secured in sufficient degree 
by refined application of methods described in Reconnaissance. 
The principal characteristic of underground surveying is the 
absence of daylight. All targets must be luminous, and readings of 
instruments may be made by artificial light. As a rule, the less 
light there is in the gallery, other than the target and reading 
lights, the better. The best target is a light of medium strength 
behind a narrow slit, and is easily improvised. 

In large galleries a transit may be used, and in smaller ones 
a plane table or prismatic compass. The box compass can not 
be sighted and read with sufficient accuracy for this work. Com- 
pass courses can not be relied upon as the needle is subject to 
abnormal fluctuation when used underground. At each change of 
direction the back azimuth and azimuth must be carefully read and 
the angle between them used to determine the change. The light 
used for reading a compass should be non-magnetic and non- 
electric, or if not so, must be held in exactly the same position 
during both readings. 

The greatest accuracy need not be maintained during the 
construction of galleries, though carelessness must be avoided. 
When the immediate vicinity of the chamber or other objective 
point is reached the entire line must be checked as accurately as 
possible, and the length and direction of the branch or drill hole 
necessary to reach the objective point must be determined. The 
digging having been substantially completed, the galleries may 
be kept clear of men to facilitate work when this final survey is 
made. 

The first step in any mining operation is to locate the 
objective point with respect to the point of departure by the best 
practicable measurements above the ground, preferably intersec- 
tions with a transit from a carefully measured base. This posi- 
tion should be plotted on a good map. If no obstructions are 
suspected, a straight line from the point of departure to the objec- 
tive should be adopted for the gallery, and its length and azimuth 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 667 

determined. A profile of the ground along the line of the gallery 
permits determination of the proper slope or slopes. 

The transfer of the azimuth underground depends on whether 
the gallery starts from a shaft, from a reverse slope, or, if not 
very deep, from a level with a descending branch. In the second 
and third cases, which will be the rule in military mining, the 
azimuth may be established in the gallery by a transit or compass 
used in the ordinary way. In the case of a shaft, which will be 
the exception, the azimuth must be established across the top or 
mouth and transferred to the bottom by means of plumb lines. 
The plumb lines should be fine wires, the bobs true and heavy, 
suspended in water if necessary to steady them, and the marking 
should be done by scratches on the heads of nails or tacks. Dur- 
ing construction the alignment may be kept by a line stretched 
along the gallery and the elevations by the field level. 

In case an unexpected deviation is necessary, as to avoid an 
obstacle, it may be made to suit the conditions found and after- 
ward measured and plotted on the chart. The necessary change 
to be made after the obstacle is passed, in order to direct the gal- 
lery again on the objective, is determined from the chart and the 
proper bevel made and sent into the gallery with instructions to 
make that change to right or left at a stated distance from the last 
angle. 

Gradients are determined by the field level. Points at which 
changes of slopes are to be made must be determined from the 
chart and the necessary data sent in, showing the point where the 
change is to be made and designating both old and new slopes. 
In checking, gradients should be determined with clinometer or 
transit, sighting from one horizontal angle to the next, if it can 
be done, otherwise taking as few sights as possible. 

Prevention of caving is accomplished by linings. In very 
firm soil it is sometimes practicable to drive small shafts and 
galleries short distances without lining them; but if they are to 
stand for any length of time there is always danger of their caving 
in, and especially so if the neighboring soil is shaken by the ex- 
plosions of projectiles or mines. When it is considered safe to 
use them, unlined shafts should be elliptical in plan, and the roofs 
of the galleries should be pointed arches. As a rule, however, 
both shafts and galleries should be lined. Those which are per • 
manent in their character, as the main galleries of the counter, 
mines of a permanent work, are lined with masonry. Galleries 
constructed during a siege are lined with wood. Wooden linings 
are of two general types, known as cases, and frames and sheeting. 

Cases are of plank, 6 to 9 inches wide and not less than \ l / 2 
inches thick, as a rule. They are formed of two pieces with tenons > 



668 MILITARY TRAINING 

called stanchions, and are placed vertically. The top is called a cap 
sill and the bottom a ground sill. 

In grand galleries the tenons at the top of the stanchions are 
usually shorter than the thickness of the cap sill, and those at the 
bottom, as well as the mortises in the ground sill, are omitted. 
The stanchious are kept from collapsing by blocks nailed to the 
ground sills. These blocks are 2 inches thick and wide enough 
(about 9 inches) to guide the wheels of a gun carriage and prevent 
the hub striking the stanchions. 

In cases for smaller galleries also the tenons are sometimes 
omitted at the bottom of the stanchions, the mortises in the ground 
sills cut an inch or two deeper, and the stanchions kept from col- 
lapsing by keys driven in the mortises. 

Frames are made of scantling. Pieces of the latter are 
named as for cases. Sheeting is of plank, sawed to the desired 
length and beveled at one end. Sheeting should ordinarily be 1 
foot longer than the distances between frames. Frame distance 
is generally 4 feet and the length of sheeting 5 feet. Round stuff 
may be used for frames and also for sheeting, though the latter is 
not easy. The middle of each cap and ground sill, both in frames 
and cases, is marked by a saw cut or otherwise. 

Precautions. — In sinking shafts especial care must be taken 
to make the excavation no larger than is required for placing the 
lining, since if a vacant space is left outside the lining the sides 
of the shaft may give way through its entire height and fall against 
the lining with a blow which will crush it in. This has often been 
the cause of fatal accidents both in shafts and galleries. 

/ Partly lined shafts, i. e., those in which the sheeting planks 
are separated from each other by greater or less intervals, should 
only be used for small depths and when they are expected to stand 
for a very short time. They are a constant menace to the miners, 
owing to the danger of their caving in, and in a much greater de- 
gree to the probability of stones, etc., falling from the unpro- 
tected parts and seriously injuring or killing the men at the 
bottom. 

Driving a Gallery With Frames and Sheeting. — If from a 
shaft, the direction of the gallery has already been marked by the 
scores on the shaft frames; but it must be verified by plumb lines, 
and two small pickets driven on the line of its axis, which is 
located exactly by small nails, one driven in the head of each 
picket. 

Two gage rods are prepared, giving the extreme height and 
breadth of the excavation, i. e., the height of the frame plus two 
thicknesses of top sheeting, and the breadth of the frame plus four 
thicknesses of side sheeting. The middle of each gage rod is also 
plainly marked. 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 669 

A gallery frame is set up against the side of the shaft, its 
ground sill flush with the bottom frame of the shaft; or its stanch- 
ions may rest upon the shaft frame as a ground sill. This frame 
is carefully located and fastened in position with battens and 
braces. If the shaft sheeting on that side has been omitted, which 
can usually be done, the top gallery sheeting is started on top 
of the cap sill and driven until held in place by the earth. It is 
given a proper upward pitch by a scantling laid across the outer 
ends and held down by fastening to or under the shaft frame. The 
side sheeting is started in the same way against the outer faces of 
the stanchions and given an outward slant by bracing the outer 
ends slightly away from the sides of the shaft. Earth is now 
excavated and the sheeting advanced all around, keeping the front 
ends in solid earth far enough to hold them steady. 

In this way the gallery is advanced one gallery interval, 
usually about 4 feet when a second frame is placed. Its position is 
verified by the score marks; for direction, by a line; for grade, by a 
spirit, mason's, or field level, and for verticality, by a plumb line. 
It is then secured in place by nailing battens' to it and the preced- 
ing frame. Wedges are inserted between the frame and the 
sheeting and the gallery is continued by the same methods. When 
the sheeting is advanced only by hard driving, the frames are 
slightly inclined to the rear at first and are afterwards driven 
forward until vertical. 

If, while advancing the sheeting, the pressure upon it be- 
comes so great as to spring it, a false frame must be used. 

This consists of a cap sill, ground sill and two stanchions, 
connected by mortises and tenons. The stanchions have tenons 
and the sills mortises at each end. The cap sill is usually rounded 
on top and, for facility in setting up and removing, its mortises are 
longer than the width of the tenons. The latter are held in place 
by wedges when the frame is in position. The false frame is usu- 
ally made of the same height as the common frames and, when 
side sheeting is used, wider by twice the thickness of this sheeting. 
When side sheeting is not used, its outside width may be equal to 
the clear width of the gallery. 

In using the frame the ground sill is first placed accurately 
in position at a half interval in advance, the stanchions are set up, 
and the cap sill placed upon them and wedged. The whole frame 
is then raised about 2 inches by folding wedges placed under each 
end of the ground sill, and is secured by battens. The sheeting 
will now rest directly upon the cap sill and stanchions and have 
enough inclination to clear the next frame by its own thickness, as 
is required. The next frame is then set up, the wedges driven 
under the sheeting, and the false frame removed, which is easily 
done, owing to its construction. 



670 MILITARY TRAINING 

If the gallery is not started from a shaft, a steep working 
face must be obtained and the first frame set up and braced, in cor- 
rect position with respect to the center line marked on the ground. 
The subsequent operations are as above described, except that 
means must be provided to hold the rear ends of sheeting to give 
them the necessary upward and outward slant, or else a false frame 
used 

If it has been necessary in sinking the shaft to drive the 
sheeting on the side from which the gallery is to be broken out, the 
gallery frame is set as before and the sheeting behind it driven 
down until it barely engages the bottom edge of the cap sill of 
the gallery frame. The top gallery sheeting is then inserted and 
partly driven as before. The shaft sheeting outside the gallery 
stanchions is then cut away and the side gallery sheeting started. 
The middle plank of the shaft sheeting is prized down with a bar 
engaged under the cap sill until free at the top, when it is pulled 
outward and removed. Excavation proceeds through the gap thus 
made, and as the other planks come free they are removed. I*f 
the earth runs too free at any stage of the operation it can be 
checked by short horizontal stop plank, placed against or inside the 
sheeting or inside the gallery frame after all sheeting has been 
removed. 

To continue the gallery in such soil a shield may be used 
to prevent the earth in front and above from caving into the 
gallery. When the excavation at top of gallery has advanced as 
far as it is safe to go without causing the caving to extend beyond 
the top sheeting, a piece of plank a foot wide and in length equal 
to the width of the gallery is placed directly under the top sheet- 
ing and against the face of the excavation and is held in place by 
braces at its ends secured to the gallery lining. The earth is exr 
cavated until a second plank of the shield can be placed in the same 
way as before under the first one. This is continued until the entire 
face is covered. The top and side sheeting are then driven for- 
ward and the top plank of the shield is removed and replaced in 
advance, after which each plank is removed and replaced in suc- 
cession, as above described. 

Partly Lined Galleries. — In very firm soil side sheeting may 
be omitted entirely, and in that less firm the side planks need not 
be in contact. When the side sheeting is omitted the width of 
excavation may be reduced to the clear width of the gallery and 
the stanchions be let into the side wall flush with its surface. In 
this case the ground sills are frequently omitted, the stanchions 
resting upon wooden blocks, stones, or directly upon the earth, 
To save material, the planks of the top sheeting are sometimes 
more or less separated also. This can only be recommended 
when rapid and temporary work is required with limited materials, 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 671 

and in these cases the earth between the planks should be sup- 
ported by packing of sticks, brush, etc. 

Inclined Galleries. — If the gallery, instead of being horizon- 
tal, is ascending or descending the proper slope is obtained by the 
use of a field level or a mason's level properly marked or set for 
the slope. 

In driving descending galleries better progress will be made 
and less material used if the frames are set at right angles to the 
axis of the gallery, and this is the usual custom. In driving ascend- 
ing galleries this is impracticable and the frames are set vertically. 
In all other respects inclined galleries are driven in the same man- 
ner as horizonatal ones. 

Change of Slope. — To pass from a horizontal to an ascend- 
ing gallery it is only necessary to give the top sheeting the proper 
angle by holding down its back end with a piece of scantling placed 
across the gallery for that purpose; and, to give the side sheeting 
the proper inclination, cutting trenches ih the bottom of trie gal- 
lery for the lower pieces, if necessary. 

In passing from a horizontal to a descending gallery the 
roof may be carried forward horizontally, and the floor given the 
desired pitch by increasing the height of the consecutive frames, 
until enough headroom is obtained to allow the top sheeting for 
the descending gallery to be inserted at the proper height and in 
the new direction. The frame at this point is made with a cap sill 
(upon which the sheeting rests directly), and a second crosspiece 
below it, serving as a cap sill for the descending gallery. From 
this point forward the frames may be set perpendicular to the 
axis of the gallery, as previously stated. 

If the descending gallery is very steep and the horizontal 
pressure of the soil great, it may be necessary to strengthen the 
stanchions of the last two or three vertical frames by crosspieces 
near their upper ends. 

In changing direction horizontally with frames and sheeting, 
if the soil will stand for a distance of one frame interval, or even 
less, its is only necessary to place one or more frames at an angle 
until the necessary change is secured. The sheeting on the outside 
is placed by running the forward end past the frame and then 
inserting the rear end behind the last bay of sheeting. 

In sinking a shaft with cases, a case of the required size 
is put together and accurately placed upon the site of the shaft, 
Whose dimensions are marked upon the ground outside of it. The 
case is then removed and the earth excavated to the depth of the 
case, which is placed in the excavation with its top flush with the 
surface of the ground. Its position is carefully verified and it is 
secured in position by packing earth around it. The excavation is 



672 MILITARY TRAINING 

then continued for the depth of another case, which is put in place 
as follows: 

One end piece is placed in position, the tenons of the two 
sides are inserted in the mortises at its ends, and the side pieces 
are pushed back into position; a pocket-shaped excavation is made 
with a push pick beyond the end of one of the side pieces and run- 
ning back 3 or 4 inches into the side wall; the remaining end piece 
is inserted in this cavity far enough to allow the mortise at its other 
end to slip over its corresponding tenon; it is then drawn back and 
the tenons at both ends fitted into their mortises. The notches cut 
in the sides of the pieces allow them to be easily handled. 

The next case is placed in the same waj", care being taken 
not to excavate two consecutive pockets at. the same corner. It 
is well to fill up these pockets by stuffing in sods from below 
before placing the next case. 

Driving a Gallery With Cases. — This is practicable only 
when the soil is somewhat firm. In breaking out from a shaft, a 
frame is first placed inside the shaft to support the ends of the 
shaft cases resting against the pieces which are to be removed. 
The latter pieces are then taken out and grooves are cut in the 
earth for the ground sill, stanchions, and cap sill of the gallery, 
and these are put in place in a manner entirely analogous to that 
described for sinking a shaft. This case is set flush with the inside 
of the shaft and supports the side pieces, whose tenons rest upon 
its stanchions. The projecting earth is then cut away and grooves 
are cut for the next case, which is placed in position and the exca- 
vation continued as before. 

If the gallery is not started from a shaft, a vertical face is 
obtained and the cases are placed as above described. 

When the earth shows a tendency to cave, which it fre- 
quently will in great galleries, the cap sill must be put in position 
and supported while the miner excavates the grooves for the 
ground sill and stanchions, for which purpose two crutches are 
used. 

Change of Direction in Galleries Lined With Cases. — Slight 
changes in direction in a horizontal plane can be easily and gradu- 
ally made by setting each case a little obliquely to the one preced- 
ing it and separating the stanchions on one side while they touch 
on the other, supporting the roof in the wedge-shaped openings, 
if necessary, with pieces of wood, etc. For an abrupt change it 
is better to break out a rectangular return from the side of the 
gallery and pass from this into the required direction by gradual 
change. 

If the return is to be of the same height as the gallery of 
departure, the cap sills of the latter, for a distance equal to the 
width of the return, are lifted off the tenons of the stanchions by 






FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 673 

struts and wedges, and the first case of the return is set as in 
breaking out from a shaft; the ground sill is, however, narrowed by 
the thickness of the stanchions of the gallery of departure so that 
the face of the case of the return is flush with the inside of the 
gallery of departure, and the ends of the cap sills of the latter rest 
upon the cap sill of the first case of the return. 

Ventilation. — A gallery can not be driven more than 60 feet 
without artificial ventilation. The only possible way of ventilating 
a gallery with a single opening is to force fresh air into the work- 
ing breast, which may be done through a duct of wood or metal, 
or through a canvas or other hose. A pressure blower, worked 
by hand or power, is among the essential items of a mining equip- 
ment. For excavations of moderate extent, a portable forge will 
form a convenient ventilating device. If a gallery passes under 
surface cover, a drill hole made through the roof and breaking 
the surface under protection of the cover may be used to promote 
ventilation. 

In a system of galleries, having two or more outlets, air 
may be exhausted from one and drawn in through the other. 
Screens or doors may be arranged to compel the desired distribu- 
tion of fresh air. Vacuum operation will never be so satisfactory 
as plenum. If there is considerable difference of level, as a shaft 
or rapidly ascending gallery, a fire built at or near the upper outlet 
will create a current throughout. 

Drainage. — Much water is not likely to be encountered in 
military mining, but what there is must be taken care of, or it will 
collect at the lowest point and flood the mine. If water shows 
itself or is suspected, dead-level galleries must be avoided, and all 
slopes should fall toward a point or points where the water can 
be disposed of. If the mine has a level outlet, nothing is required 
except to so regulate the slopes that all water will run to the 
mouth. If the mine is entered by a shaft, a pit or sump must 
be formed at the bottom into which water can collect and from 
which it can be raised to the surface by pumping or bailing. A 
slope of 1% will usually suffice for drainage if the floor of the 
gallery is sloped laterally and a fairly smooth gutter formed along 
one side. 

The mine chamber should be nearly cubical or a cylinder 
with length about equal to diameter. If it is to stand for some 
time before loading, or if of a large size, its sides and top must 
be supported by a lining. The chamber is frequently no more 
than so much of the end of a gallery, branch, or drill hole as is 
necessary to contain the charge. 

Explosive. — A satisfactory explosive for the purposes of 
military engineering must be: (1) Stable as to its constitution and 
characteristics for a long period. (2) Unaffected by ordinary 



674 MILITARY TRAINING 

variations of temperature and moisture. (3) Insensitive to shocks 
of handling, transportation, projectiles, and neighboring explo- 
sions. (4) Not too difficult of detonation. (5) Quick enough to 
give good results when not confined and slow enough to give good 
results when confined. (6) Convenient in form and consistency for 
packing and loading and for making up charges of various weights. 

These conditions point to a high explosive of medium 
strength, of granular or plastic consistency, put up in waterproof 
cylindrical cartridges of standard size and length. A number of 
explosives meeting these requirements fairly well are on the mar- 
ket. No One of them is so distinctly superior as to warrant its 
adoption to the exclusion of the rest, and the only one most easily 
procured at the time and place of need will probably be used. 

Care and Handling of High Explosives. — Such powders as 
have been described as suitable for use in military engineering 
operations are, when in sound condition, less liable to accidental 
explosion than gunpowder. It is the more disastrous result of 
a premature explosion, rather than the greater probability of its 
occurrence, that has caused high explosives to be regarded as 
especially dangerous. The following precautions should always be 
taken: 

Gun cotton should be kept saturated with 30 per cent, of its 
weight of water. If not hermetically sealed, the packages should 
be examined once a month or oftener and resaturated. The cotton 
required for primers must be stored dry and kept free from 
moisture. The cakes may be dipped in melted paraffin. The dry 
cotton must be kept well apart from any other explosives and from 
caps. If dry primers are not at hand, wet cakes must be dried at 
a temperature not exceeding 120° F. 

Firing Devices. — The detonating compound in general use 
is fulminate of mercury, and all methods of firing involve the explo- 
sion of a small quantity of fulminate inclosed in a cap or fuse and 
placed in the charge. The fulminate is easily ignited and very 
violent, which qualities have determined its use. It is unstable, cor- 
rosive, spoiled by moisture, and highly sensitive to shock and fric- 
tion. Except strength, it possesses no characteristic which does 
not tend to unfit it for military purposes. It is used as a matter 
of necessity. Caps and fuses must be carefully handled, must not 
be assembled in considerable quantities, and must be kept away 
from the explosive. 

Bickford or safety fuse is used to ignite the fulminate when 
electricity is not available. It consists of a powder thread wrapped 
with a waterproof tape, a double wrapping or double tape preferred. 
This fuse may be used in wet holes, but for under-water use it 
should have a continuous rubber coating. Time fuse burns at an 
average rate of 3 feet per minute, but the rate is not regular, and 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 675 

when time is important the rate of burning should be tested. In- 
stantaneous fuse burns at a rate of 120 feet per second. The 
taping of this fuse is in a different color from the time fuse and it 
is also covered with a netting of coarse thread, making it easily 
distinguishable by sight and touch, so that there can be no excuse 
for mistaking one fuse for the other, day or night. 

When it is necessary to splice different pieces of fuse of 
either kind, the ends to be joined should be cut obliquely. Care 
must be taken that the powder at the end of the cut does not fall 
out. The cut ends are placed carefully in juxtaposition, and before 
closing a few grains of powder should be dropped in and com- 
pressed between them. The splice is completed by wrapping with 
rubber tape if available, otherwise with any material at hand which 
will keep the ends in contact in their proper position. It is obvious 
that this splice must be completely protected from the strain. 

Caps or detonators are of two forms, adopted for firing with 
powder fuse, or by electricity. In both forms the fulminate, usual- 
ly mixed in proportion of 10 parts to 1 by weight with nitrate or 
chlorate of potassium to reduce its corrosive action, is contained 
in a copper capsule. In the first form it is held in place by a wad 
of shellac, collodion, or paper, and the end is left open for the 
insertion of the fuse. The latter is cut off square, care being taken 
that the powder at the end does not sift out, and the cut end is 
inserted in the cap and pressed down snugly on the fulminate. A 
twisting motion which might scrape the fulminate must be avoided. 
The case is then crimped around the fuse with a special tool, and 
the cap is ready for use. 

In the electrical cap, which is commonly called a fuse, the 
fulminate is held in place by a block of sulphur, or sometimes of 
wood, which fills the end. 

Simultaneous Ignitions. — When a total blast is divided into 
a number of charges, it is important that all should go at the 
same instant. This will not be easy with time fuse, and that 
method will not be used unless absolutely necessary. If it is used, 
certain precautions must be observed to avoid total failure. The 
fuse must be so laid that the total length from the firing point 
to each charge will be the same. It will be better to use time 
fuse to a common point near the charge, and instantaneous fuse 
from there on. The fuse need not be in straight lines, but must 
be laid out so that the sparks from the burning end can not reach 
any part in front of it. Though not absolutely necessary with in- 
stantaneous fuse, it is well worth while to make different lines 
as nearly equal in length as possible. 

In simultaneous ignitions by electricity, the fuses are con- 
nected in series; that is to say, they are all placed in the same cir- 
cuit. A lead from the firing apparatus is connected to one wire 



676 MILITARY TRAINING 

of a fuse on one flank. The other wire of this fuse is connected 
to a wire of the next fuse, and so on, until the last fuse is reached, 
the second wire of which is connected back by a lead to the fir- 
ing point. 

Priming. — The cap is inserted in a cartridge, usually caWed a 
primer. If but one primer is used, it should be placed near the 
center of the charge when the size and shape of the charge permit 
it to go in that position. If the cartridges are placed in a drill hole, 
as in rock blasting and some demolitions, the primer is put in last 
with the cap end down. The projection of about % to % inch of 
the cap case above the surface of the powder is to prevent the 
latter from taking fire from the sparks of the fuse and burning 
partially before the fuse goes, which should it occur, will reduce 
the force of the explosion, or may cause complete failure. Primers 
must be prepared at a safe distance from the charge and from the 
store of caps and should be placed as short a time as possible 
before firing. 

Misfires. — In case of a misfire there is risk in approaching 
the holes for several minutes, if electric firing is used, and for sev- 
eral hours in case of firing by fuse. Rules to this effect are laid 
down where safety to human life is a paramount consideration. 
They should be recognized in military operations to the extent 
which circumstances permit. There is also danger in attempting 
to reprime a charge, especially if tamping must be removed. The 
danger is reduced by care and by avoiding hard-metal tools and 
appliances; if possible, the tamping should be removed with wood- 
en tools. In any case, leave a few inches of tamping above the 
charge undisturbed, then place several sticks of powder and a 
primer on top of the first charge and fire again. When conditions 
permit, it is better practice not to attempt repriming, but to place 
a new charge in a position to do all or a part of the work of the 
first charge. 

The causes of misfires are various. With electricity, if none 
of the charges explode, the cause is probably due to overloading 
the machine, or a short circuit in the leads, or a complete break. 
An effectual, but less probable, cause is deterioration of all the 
primers. If part of the charges fire and others do not, the cause 
will probably be found to be either a defective cap, due to mois- 
ture or a broken bridge, or a short circuit in the fuse wires, which 
prevents current going through one fuse but not the others; or 
the sensitiveness of the caps may not be uniform, and there may 
be one or more so sensitive that they explode and break the cir- 
cuit before the bridges of the others have become heated to the 
point of ignition. 

Loading. — The charge should fill the chamber as nearly as 
practicable. If drill holes are used, they should be just large 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 677 

enough to permit a cartridge to slip down without jamming. In 
quarrying, cartridges are frequently slit open before they are 
placed in the hole, so that with a slight pressure of the tamping 
rod, they spread and fill the hole completely. When large charges 
of free running powder are to be used, such as dynamite, jovite, 
and rack-a-rock, the cartridges may be opened and the contents 
put in bulk into another receptacle. As a rule, however, such 
charges are made up by bunching sticks or strings of cartridges 
and tying them together. The making up, and every possible 
detail of preparation, should be done above ground, leaving as 
little to do in the mine as possible. Charges must not be made 
up into sizes or weights which can not be conveniently carried 
through the galleries and placed in the chamber. 

Tamping is less important for high explosives than for gun- 
powder, since the former do a fair proportion of their work with- 
out tamping, while the latter does practically none. Light tamp- 
ing is desirable, however, and may consist of the excavated earth 
replaced in the communication next to the chamber to a distance 
of 6 to 10 feet. The use of high explosives facilitates tamping, 
because so many charges can be placed in drill holes, which are 
easily tamped. 

For drill holes in rock which will hold it, water is the best 
possible tamping, otherwise sand or stone dust may be used. If 
the hole points upward, the top should be covered with a board or 
thick brush to stop the tamping which is blown out like a pro- 
jectile. If neighboring ground can not be cleared for firing, the 
entire surface of the probable crater should be masked by brush 
or timbers piled upon it, and weighted down if necessary. 

Effects of Explosion. — It may be assumed as sufficiently 
exact for present purposes that charges of the same explosive de- 
velop total energies directly proportional to their weights. This 
energy is exterted in all directions in compression of the surround- 
ing medium. The distance at which this disturbance remains suf- 
ficient to destroy galleries is called the radius of rupture. The 
surface joining the ends of these radii is called the surface of 
rupture. If the charge is large enough, further relief of pres- 
sure is afforded by the bodily displacement of a part of the sur- 
rounding medium on the side which presents the shortest dis- 
tance from the charge to the surface. The relief of pressure on 
one side shortens all radii of rupture which have a component in 
that direction, but does not appreciably affect those which have 
no such component. Hence, when material is displaced the sur- 
face of rupture is ellipsoidal; when no material is displaced it is 
spherical. 

Land Mines. — This term is applied to mines or groups of 
mines usually formed by excavation from the surface and designed 



678 MILITARY TRAINING 

to be exploded at the moment the enemy is over them. Such 
mines are usually employed in front of defensive positions and 
in connection with visible obstacles. It is not permissible to 
plant such mines in any ground which is not obviously prepared 
for defense. Any person who ventures on space so prepared does 
so at his peril, but if there is a road or path open to passage 
through such ground mines must not be placed therein, or in a 
place where the explosion would injure persons occupying the 
road. If any defensive works or recognized obstacles are thrown 
across the road, indicating that it is closed to traffic, the road may 
be mined to a reasonable distance in front of them. 

The charges are placed deep enough only to avoid artillery 
projectiles. If no artillery fire is to be expected they may be placed 
just under the surface. If a bore hole is sufficient the charge is 
placed at the bottom and the hole well tamped. If an open pit is 
dug the mine chamber should be in firm ground at one side and 
the hole back-filled and well rammed. 

Mine Tactics. — In siege operations mining is done at close 
quarters, and is, or should be, opposed by countermining by the 
enemy. There is then a double purpose in view; to reach the 
original objective by placing the charge where intended and firing 
it, and while so doing to detect and circumvent any attempt of 
the enemy to interfere, or to prosecute any enterprise of his own. 

The only information of neighboring operations which is 
obtainable results from the sound of working carried through the 
earth. In compact soil an ordinary blow of a pick can be heard 
at a distance of 40 feet and the most careful working is audible 
to a distance of 20 feet. Other sounds, such as rumbling of trucks 
and especially tamping, can be heard farther. These distances vary 
with the character of the soil and the skill of the listener. When 
more than one gallery is driven they should be parallel and not 
farther apart than twice the range of hearing, so that an enemy's 
gallery penetrating between them will be heard from one or both.- 
Returns may be run out from the extreme galleries to detect the 
sound of working on the flanks. Such galleries are called listeners. 
They should not be large. 

Efforts must be made to detect the enemy's working and 
to avoid, so far as possible, giving him like information. At oc- 
casional and irregular intervals all work should cease, all extrane- 
ous sounds be cut off, and men with quick and trained hearing 
should listen for sounds of working and estimate the distance and 
direction. A map of the galleries should be kept, and whenever two 
headings are approaching, listening should be done in them and 
the estimates made by the men compared with the measurements 
on the map as a check on the range of hearing. Accuracy of per- 
ception of the sounds may be tested by tapping messages across. 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 679 

When hostile parties have approached within destructive 
range of each other the one who fires first is the winner, but the 
nearer he is, or the longer he holds his fire, the more complete the 
victory. Each party is on the alert to discover when the other 
party is getting ready to fire, and hence the greatest care must be 
taken to sophisticate the sounds connected with loading. Digging 
should continue at some point near the end, and all movements of 
trucks or other operations which make a noise should be contin- 
ued not less frequently and certainly not more frequently than 
during the digging. Especially should tamping be cautiously done. 
The most probable mistake is premature firing, and it should be 
impressed upon all concerned that it is better to come into actual 
collision with the enemy's miners than to fire prematurely. 

Galleries are much more vulnerable to a side than an end 
attack. If the enemy's heading can be located, an attempt should 
be made to get a position on one side of his gallery. The best 
position is nearly abreast of the end, a little in rear, so that if he 
is still digging a considerable length of his gallery will be de- 
stroyed, or if he is loading or loaded his mine will be exploded. 

DEMOLITIONS 

Military demolitions have for their purpose to destroy or 
make unserviceable any object in the theater of war the preserva- 
tion of which would be unfavorable to the army or favorable to 
the enemy, excepting always objects neutralized by international 
convention or the laws of war. 

The principal objects of demolition may be divided in two 
general classes, viz.: Natural or artificial objects having no in- 
trinsic or permanent value, such as accidents of ground and struc- 
tures of purely military character; and natural or artificial objects 
having intrinsic or permanent value, or adapted to useful purposes 
in time of peace, such as buildings and communications. 

Demolition is permissible only under a military necessity. 
For the first class of objects above the military necessity is ob- 
vious, since the destruction is aimed directly and exclusively at the 
enemy's fighting efficiency. 

For the second class, the destruction affects others besides 
the armed enemy, and for this class the existence of a military 
necessity justifying demolition can not be presumed but must be 
determined at the moment, and the amount and character of de- 
struction or disablement explicitly ordered by competent au- 
thority. 

Demolitions of a local character, which have no effect else- 
where, may be made on the order of the immediate commander, 



680 MILITARY TRAINING 

as may also demolitions of a more serious character, but which 
are necessary to the safety of a local force. For example, a small 
force in retreat may interrupt a bridge to avoid capture, but the 
destruction should go no farther than is necessary to produce the 
result immediately desired by detaining the pursuers long enough 
to enable the pursued to make their escape. Demolitions which 
are intended to, or in their ultimate consequences may, affect a 
larger force or a greater territory, must be ordered by the com- 
manding general of an army or other force operating independent- 
ly. In case of doubt, orders should be sought from the highest 
accessible commander. An officer upon whom work of demoli- 
tion is devolved should, if not provided with proper orders, ask for 
them. 

Methods Employed. — Demolitions may be made by fire, by 
mechanical means, or by explosives. Fire is the only recourse 
when absolute destruction is necessary, as in case of food sup- 
plies, munitions of war, structural materials, etc. Soluble matter, 
as gunpowder, sugar, salt, etc., might be destroyed in water, but 
this method is laborious. Burning is equally effective and much 
easier. For quick results with slow-burning materials a quantity 
of highly combustible stuff must be collected. A small fire gains 
headway very slowly and much time is lost. Care must be taken 
that the fire does does not spread to objects not intended to be 
destroyed. 

Demolition by mechanical means is too simple to require, 
and too varied to permit, detailed description. Reference is made 
to a few cases in which the best method may not be obvious. 

Abatis is difficult to destroy. If the trees are dry, time 
suffices, and concealment is not essential, fire is best; otherwise, 
if working from the front, cut up and carry away enough trees to 
make a passage through. Ii working from the rear, loosen the 
fastenings of the butts and haul away bodily with ropes. 

Wire entanglements must be cut with nippers, the more and 
shorter the pieces the better. Wire may be cut with an axe or 
machete if a block of wood is held behind it as an anvil. Trous 
de loup are leveled by shoveling the walls into the pits, or bridged 
with planks, fascines, or other materials. 

Palisades and stockades may be cut down with axes or saws, 
or the earth may be dug away from one side and the logs pulled 
over. 

Railroads. Operations may be directed against rolling stock, 
bridges, culverts, tunnels or track, or accessories, such as water 
stations, telegraphs. 

Locomotives are temporarily disabled by removing valves 
or other small vital parts; permanently, by building a fire in a dry 
boiler or by detonating a charge of explosive in the boiler. In 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 681 

haste, piston or connecting rods, links, etc., may be destroyed by 
explosives, or a hole may be blown in the bottom of the tender 
tank. Cars may be burned or wrecked by collisions or derailment. 
The best places are in deep cuts or tunnels. A head-on collision in 
a tunnel will put it out of use for some time. 

Wooden bridges may be burned or small ones may be pried 
off their seats by levers or dragged off with tackle. 

Track may be destroyed by taking it up, burning the ties, 
heating the rails on the fires and twisting them with bars through 
the bolt holes, with a chain and lever, or a hook and lever. Twist- 
ing is much better than bending, as twisted rails must be rerolled 
before they can be used. The rail should be hot for the greater 
part of its length, so as to take a long twist. A quick track de- 
molition requiring considerable time to repair, but not injuring 
the track material, may be made by loosening the ties over a 
stretch of track, taking off the end fish plates, putting a line of 
men along one side, two men to each tie, and turning the track 
over bodily. This plan works best on a high embankment. 

Telegraph lines are temporarily disabled by breaks, in which 
the wires are cut, grounds, in which the wires are connected to the 
ground, and crosses, in which a metallic connection is made be- 
tween the wires. A ground may be made by connecting a wire 
to the rail or to a bar or plate of metal in damp earth. Copper is 
best. A connection with water or gas pipe forms a ground. All 
faults should be carefully concealed from view, so as to prolong 
the time necessary to locate them. If a raid is made on a tele- 
graph office, remove the instruments, bare and brighten the ends 
of all wires, and tie them together with a wrapping of brightened 
copper wire. Incoming and outgoing wires should be tied sepa- 
rately. 

To destroy a telegraph line cut down and burn poles, cut 
and tangle wires, and break insulators. 

Guns. — Smash the sights and firing gear; endeavor to dent 
or burr the corners of the breech-closing wedge, and damage the 
elevating gear. Unscrew the striker plug and take it out ; fire one 
or two rifle bullets into the opening. Clos i e the breech, then with- 
draw the hand lever about 1 inch, and beat down the lever until 
the hinge joint is distorted. Ammunition to be destroyed should 
be placed in a deep pit and set on fire. 

Demolitions With Explosives. — The degree of success at- 
tained in demolitions with explosives depends upon the experience 
of the powder men doing the work. The explosive adopted foi 
our service is triton (trinitrotoluene, trinitrotoluol, trotyl, TNT). 
It may often become necessary to use whatever explosive is at 
hand; for this reason data for their use is given. The best results 
can be obtained with any particular explosive only after much 



682 MILITARY TRAINING 

practice, and in using an unfamiliar one the maxim should be: 
" Do not spare the powder." There are many uncertainties attend- 
ing the military use of explosives, and local conditions frequently 
raise a doubt as to the efficiency of the application of formulated 
methods. For this reason the weight of the charge should often 
be increased as much as 50 per cent over what might be used 
under favorable conditions. Similarly, judgment has to be used in 
the employment of strange caps, for in military work the two un- 
pardonable mistakes are to have the charge too small or to have 
it fail to explode. When in doubt as to the effectiveness of the 
caps, use two or more close together. Where a lifting effect is 
desired, gunpowder should be used; but, when a cutting or shatter- 
ing effect is necessary, a high explosive is better, such as triton, 
dynamite, guncotton. 

Triton is a neutral compound, very stable, of great strength, 
yet highly insensitive. It is furnished with the demolition outfit 
in compressed block form. The strongest of detonators should be 
used, especially if the blocks are highly compressed. Lead azide 
detonators are particularly effective; as are also the tetryl caps 
which are the standard detonators for our service. Triton absorbs 
moisture, making detonation very difficult. For this reason and 
to prevent crumbling, the blocks are given a thin electro-plating 
of copper. Tetryl caps will detonate water-soaked triton. There 
are no objectionable gases of explosion, but a heavy black smoke 
is produced, due to free carbon. 

Dynamites consist of a granular base, usually called dope, 
partly saturated with nitroglycerin. They are classed according to 
the percentage by weight of the nitroglycerin contained, as 75 
per cent dynamite, 60 per cent dynamite, and so on. The grades 
No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, often used, refer to 75, 50 and 25 per cent 
dynamites, respectively. At extremes of temperature, high or 
low, an exudation of free nitroglycerin is likely to occur, making 
the dynamite extremely sensitive and dangerous. This danger 
increases with the degree of saturation. Dynamites higher than 60 
per cent will probably not be suitable for military purposes 
on this account. The tendency to exudation is greater when the 
cartridges stand on end, and care should be taken to keep them 
on the side in storage and transportation. Dynamite freezes in 
moderately cold weather (40°), and if no exudation has taken place 
becomes comparatively free from danger of explosion by concus- 
sion and is considered perfectly safe to handle. It is very difficult 
to explode when frozen, has less strength, and is not considered 
fit to use in that condition. In the frozen state, it is easily ex- 
ploded by heat and the operation of thawing, if carelessly con- 
ducted, is one of great danger. It should never be taken near a 
fire or very hot metal, but should be thawed in a mild, diffused 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 683 

heat, acting for a considerable time. The cartridge must never be 
placed on end to thaw out. Packing in fresh manure, or inclosing 
in a chamber with cans of hot water are the safest methods of 
thawing dynamite. Plenty of time must be given. A cartridge 
soft on the outside may be frozen in the middle. None of the 
dynamites are fit for use as a military explosive in a cold climate. 
It is usually packed in paraffined paper cartridges about 1*4 inches 
diameter by 8 inches long, containing about 0.6 of a pound. 

Guncotton has been used extensively in military operations 
and has some advantages. When dry it is apt to deteriorate; when 
wet it is perfectly safe, but can be fired only by a primer of dry 
guncotton or other high explosive. The dry cotton must be kept 
perfectly dry and separate from the wet. It is difficult to fuse 
unless holes are left in the cartridge to receive the cap. The wet 
should be saturated with 30 per cent of its weight of water. If 
dry primers are not at hand, wet cakes must be dried at a tempera- 
ture not exceeding 120° F. 

Gunpowder charges must be tamped, and should be made 
up in as compact a form as possible. The powder should be placed 
in a well-tarred sandbag, or, failing that, in one sandbag inside 
a second one. A sandbag will hold about 40 pounds. 

Firing Devices. — High explosives can be fired by detonation 
only. The detonating cap usually consists of a small quantity of 
fulminate of mercury inclosed in a copper cap or fuse. The fulmi- 
nate is easily ignited and very violent; it is unstable, corrosive, 
spoiled by moisture, and highly sensitive to shock and friction. 
Caps and fuses must be carefully handled, must not be assembled 
in considerable quantities, and must be kept away from the explo- 
sive. 

Bickford or safety fuse is used to ignite the fulminate when 
electricity is not available. It may be used in wet holes, but 
for under-water use it should have a continuous rubber coating. 

Time fuse burns at an average rate of 3 feet per minute. 
When time is important the rate of burning should be tested. 

Instantaneous fuse burns at a rate of 120 feet per minute. 
The taping is of different color from the time fuse and it is covered 
with a netting of coarse thread, making it easily distinguishable 
by sight and touch, so that there can be no excuse for mistaking 
one fuse from the other, day or night. For firing by electricity 
a magneto-electric machine is used with an electrical cap. 

A charge is connected up for detonation as follows: The 
fuse (time alone or time with instantaneous) is cut to the required 
length. The end to be ignited is cut on a slant to expose as much 
powder as possible. The end to be inserted in the cap is cut 
straight across, and is then gently inserted into the open end of 
the cap. This end of the cap is then crimped to make it grip on 



684 MILITARY TRAINING 

the fuse and so prevent its being withdrawn. The cap is placed 
in close contact with the charge or in one of the holes in a block 
so as to fill the entire length of the hole. If the hole is too large, 
a piece of paper or grass must be wrapped around the cap to make 
it fit tightly; if too small, it must be enlarged with a piece of wood, 
but not with the cap. The charge must be in close contact with 
the object to be demolished, and each slab or block must be in 
contact with those next to it. 

The amount of guncotton (untamped) required for various 
charges can be calculated or obtained direct from the following 
table: For triton the charge should be increased by one-sixth; 
for 50 per cent dynamite, two-thirds; for 75 per cent dynamite the 
charge is the same as for guncotton. If the charge is tamped, the 
amount can be halved. In the presence of the enemy charges may 
be placed hurriedly, and so under unfavorable conditions, and 
therefore should be increased by 50 per cent. 

The object of the demolition can only be properly attained 
through accurate grasp of the tactical situation. It is unpardon- 
able to completely wreck a line of communications which friendly 
troops may require in the near future. It is likewise unpardonable 
to fail to use every means to wreck a line of communications that 
is to pass immediately into the hostile control for a long future 
period. Demolition of bridges or other important structures 
should not be executed except by authority of the commander in 
the area involved, or in extreme emergency. 

The two general types of charges are: Concentrated charges 
and charges in a row. Concentrated charges in which the explo- 
sive is bunched are the rule. One cap in one triton block will de- 
tonate completely all blocks placed closely around the primed 
block. For maximum effect, the charge should approximate the 
cubical shape. 

Charges in a row or small distributed charges are the excep- j 
tion. If the blocks are placed closely together, one block de- 
tonated will detonate the entire row. As a precaution, a string of 
blocks placed on detonating cord may be placed along the entire 
row. If the charge is placed in small drilled holes, the triton stick 
is to be used. Otherwise the triton block is admirably adapted for 
bunching into masses of the most effective form. 

In priming the charge, the cap is to be firmly seated in the 
cap hole, with the fuse (if used) securely crimped in the cap or 
the lead wires connected securely (if electrical detonation is used). 
It is notable that triton will usually detonate with a No. 6 com- 
mercial cap if a boosting charge of powdered triton is used. If 
detonating cord is used, the cord must be dry when passed through 
the triton block. 

The problem of securing simultaneous detonation is one 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 685 

calling for much practice. The various methods of obtaining 
simultaneous detonation are, in order of excellence: (1) Electricity 
with detonating cord. (2) Electricity. (3) Time fuse with deto- 
nating cord. (4) Time fuse with induced detonation. (5) Time 
fuse with instantaneous fuse. (6) Time fuse. 

Timber. — Timber can be destroyed by fire or by cutting. 
Trees 16 inches in diameter or under are more quickly destroyed 
by cutting than by explosives. Explosives are used principally 
where the demolition has to be delayed until a given moment and 
then executed instantly. Single charges are computed as follows : 

Charge outside timber, N=.03 D 2 , 

Charge inside timber, N=.008 D\ 
in which N == number of half-pound blocks of tritron and D == least 
diameter of timber in inches. If the timber be green, tough, or 
knotty, the charge is increased 50 per cent. A rough rule for com- 
pressed triton charges is to allow six blocks per square foot of 
cross section for outside charges and two blocks per square foot 
for inside charges. For timbers 24 inches or less in diameter bore 
a hole to within 1 inch of the opposite face and fill to 1 inch from 
the top with triton. 

If triton sticks are used and inserted in bore holes in the 
timber, the formula becomes Ni = .01 X D 2 , in which Ni = the num- 
ber of sticks of triton weighing .4 of a pound each and D = the 
least diameter of the timber in inches. 

Steel. — Bessemer steel crystallizes, breaks, and throws its 
fragments generally away from the explosive. Open-hearth steel 
tears and may throw fragments in any direction. These fragments 
are frequently large and projected with force enough to carry them 
from 400 to 1,000 yards or more. Extra precautions must be taken 
to shield the firing detachment. Tree trunks 12 inches or more in 
diameter make good field shelter. 

Steel Bridges. — In destroying a bridge, try to cut the com- 
plete cross section. Charges should be placed in the upper and 
lower members of the trusses on both sides of the road. The 
best place for rupture is near the abutment where the chords have 
the least cross section, except in a cantilever bridge, which should 
be cut over the towers. By choosing the panel points for the loca- 
tion of the charges, they may easily be confined and tamped, and 
maximum results will be obtained with the smallest number of 
charges. 

In the case of a heavy bridge, the amount of explosive car- 
ried will frequently be adequate to cut only one chord. In this 
case, the chord in tension is cut; that is, the lower chord, except 
in the case of a cantilever. Members in tension are nearly always 
made up of bars of rectangular cross section and should be cut at 



686 MILITARY TRAINING 

a point near the abutment where the least cross section of steel is 
used. A cantilever truss is destroyed by cutting the upper chord 
near the tower. 

Railroads. — One block of triton laid against the web will 
take a 6-inch section out of a 90-pound rail that is spiked to ties. 
One block on top will not break it, but two will take out a 6-inch 
section. 

In order to interrupt traffic, break as many rails as time will 
permit. It is a good plan to break each rail in two places, several 
feet apart. If the charges are placed on opposite sides of the 
rail, the fuses can be lighted at the same time, and the first charge 
that detonates will not displace the other. 

To destroy. the railroad roadbed, the best location of the 
charge is in a culvert, such as are generally found under heavy 
fills. 

Blocking a tunnel effectively interrupts railroad traffic. If 
the tunnel is lined with masonry or passes through sound rock, 
arrange for a head-on collision at the center of the tunnel between 
a car or locomotive, and another moving locomotive. In case of 
a double-track tunnel, such a collision should occur on each track. 

In case of a timbered tunnel, the timber bents may be de- 
molished by cutting the vertical posts. The bents demolished 
should be located at the point where the heaviest load is carried 
by the timbering. This point can often be located by observing 
the effects of the weight in distorting the timber. Generally, the 
heaviest load is carried at the point where the timber bents are 
most closely spaced. 

Field guns and howitzers may be destroyed (a) by placing 
a shell in the breech, closing the breech, and detonating a block 
of triton, tamped against the fuse of the shell; or (b) by filling the 
bore, just forward of the first hoop, with from two to five blocks 
of triton, tamping it firmly at both ends with sod, closing the 
breech, and detonating the triton; or (c) by placing from 12 to 15 
blocks on the outside of the tube just forward of the first hoop. 
Methods (a) and (b) throw fragments with great violence and are 
as dangerous as they are reliable. Method (c) is the safest for the 
firing detachment, but the least reliable. A gun may be disabled 
temporarily by opening the breech, setting a block of triton against 
the hinge, partially closing the breech, and detonating the ex- 
plosive. 

A vehicle of any kind is disabled by detonating three triton 
blocks against one of the axles. 

Ice can be removed by blasting if there is a current to carry 
the loosened blocks away and clear water near to receive them. 
The connection with the shore should first be broken. Small 
charges rather close together are necessary; on the surface covered 



FIELD FORTIFICATION, GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 687 

with earth if the ice is thin, in drill holes if very thick. This work 
will be progressive, and charges, distances, etc., can be determined 
by trial better than from any rule. 

Demolition Equipment. — Each company of engineers carries 
on each of its two tool wagons a demolition outfit and supplies, 
as shown below. In addition it has two pack demolition outfits, 
each with demolition tools and supplies, including 45 pounds of 
explosive. Each squadron of cavalry has a pack demolition outfit 
with demolition equipment and supplies, including 80 pounds of 
explosive. 

Demolition Equipment of Engineer Troops 



Company tool wagons. 



Augers, earth, handled 

Augers, ship, K-inch, handled 

Bars, pinch, large 

Bars, wood, tamping 

Boxes, cap 

Boxes, match 

Chisels, cold 

Circuit detectors 

Crimpers 

Drills, single-bit, long 

Drills, single-bit, short 

Hammers, sledge, 8-pound 

Magneto exploders 

Pick mattocks, E. D. pattern, "intrenching," handled. 

Reels, wire, firing 

Shovels, E. D. pattern, "intrenching" 

Spoons, miner's, long 

Wire, firing, double lead, No. 14, feet 

Cord, drill 

SUPPLIES. 

Caps, tetryl, nonelectric 

Caps, tetryl, electric 

Explosive, pounds 

Fuse, Bickford, feet 

Fuse, instantaneous, feet 

Matches, safety, boxes, dozen 

Tape, insulating, rolls 

Twine, hemp, 2-ounce balls 



On the 2 


On the 1 


tool wagons 


tool 


wagon 


of pioneer 


of mounted 


company. 


company. 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


2 




1 


4 




2 


2 




1 


4 




2 


2 




1 


8 




4 


2 




1 


2,000 




1,000 


2 




1 


100 




50 


200 




100 


200 




100 


200 




100 


200 




100 


1 




y* 


2 




1 


2 




1 



44 



CHAPTER XXIV 

MAP READING, ORIENTATION, CONVENTIONAL 
SIGNS AND MILITARY SKETCHING 

Map reading is essentially the reverse of map making. In 
the latter process ground is measured and studied with a view of 
forming a mental picture of how a map of it will look. In, the 
former — map reading — a map is measured and studied for the pur- 
pose of forming a mental picture of how the ground itself looks. 
All rules and principles stated as to relations between ground 
and map are to be used in studying relations of map to ground. 

SCALES 

There are three methods by which the scale of a map maj 
be represented: (a) By words and figures, as 3 inches^l mile; 1 
inch=600 feet, (b) By representative fraction, which means that 
1 unit on the map (numerator) represents a certain number of the 
same units on the ground (denominator). For example, 1/63,360 
means that 1 inch on the map represents 63,360 inches or 1 mile 
on the ground. 1/21,120 means that 1 inch on the map represents 
21,120 inches or one-third of a mile on the ground; or 3 inches 
represents 1 mile, (c) By graphical scale, that is, a line drawn on 
the map, divided into equal parts, each part being marked with the 
distance that it represents on the ground. 

Scaling Distance from a Map.— There are four methods: 
(1) Apply a piece of straight-edged paper to the distance be- 
tween any two points and mark the distance on the paper. Then 
apply the paper to the graphical scale and read the number of 
units indicated. Or copy the graphical scale on the edge of the 
paper and apply directly to the map. (2) Take the distance off 
with a pair of dividers, and apply the dividers thus set to the 
graphical scale. (3) Use a map measurer. Set the hand to read 
zero; roll the small wheel over the distance; then roll the wheel in 
an opposite direction along the graphical scale, noting the number 
of units passed over. Or, having rolled over the distance, note the 
number of inches on the dial and multiply this by the number of 
miles or other units per inch. (4) Apply a scale of inches to the 
distance to be measured, and multiply this distance by the num- 
ber of miles per inch shown by the map. 

Differences of elevation are represented by contours or by 
hachures; with each method the heights of prominent points are 
usually indicated by numerals on the map. 

Contours are lines drawn on the map which represent points 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 669 

on the ground of equal elevation. They are the projection on the 
map of lines cut on the ground by imaginary horizontal planes 
that are the same distance apart. The horizontal distance on the 
ground between two contours is called the horizontal equivalent 
(H. E.). The distance between two contours on the map is 
called the map distance (M. D.). The contour interval (V. I.) is 
the vertical distance between successive imaginary planes. In 
order that the M. D. may be constant for a given slope, the con- 
tour interval must vary with the scale of the map. 

Hachures are short parallel or slightly divergent lines run- 
ning in the direction of the steepest slope. They are seldom used 
in our maps, but are found on some German maps. The slopes 
are roughly indicated by varying the blackness and nearness of 
the hachures. The darker the section, the steeper the slope; 
where no hachures are found on a hachured map, the ground is 
either a hilltop or flat lowland. 

Slopes are usually given in one of three ways: In degrees, 
in percentage, in gradients. 

(1) A 1-degree slope means that the angle between the 
horizontal and the given line is 1 degree (1°). 

(2) A slope is said to be 1, 2, 3, etc., per cent, when 100 units 
horizontally correspond to rises of 1, 2, 3, etc., of the same units 
vertically. 

(3) A slope is said to be one on one (1/1),. two on three 
(2/3), etc., when one vertical corresponds to one horizontal, two 
vertical to three horizontal units, etc. The numerator refers to the 
vertical units. 

An approximate rule for expressing in gradients a slope 
given in degrees is to divide the number of degrees by 60. Thus 
a slope of 5° is equivalent to 1/12. This rule does not hold for 
steep slopes, but is approximately correct up to 20°. 

Slopes may be uniform, convex, or concave. Generally, if 
the slope between two points is convex they are not visible from 
each other; if the slope is concave they are visible. On a uniform 
slope contours are equal distances apart; on a steep slope they 
are near together; on a flat slope they are far apart; on a convex 
slope they are far apart at the top and close together at the bot- 
tom of the slope; on a concave slope the reverse is true. 

Directions on Maps. — Having given the means for determin- 
ing horizontal distances and relative elevations represented on a 
map, the next step is to determine horizontal directions. The 
direction line from which other directions are measured is usually 
the true north and south line (true meridian), or the plane of the 
magnetic needle (magnetic meridian). These do not usually co- 
incide. The angle between them is called the magnetic declina- 
tion and is usually given as (so many) ° east (west). It is im- 



690 



MILITARY TRAINING 



po.rtant to know this angle, because maps usually show the true 
meridian, and an observer usually has a magnetic compass. 

The position of the true meridian may be found as follows: 
Point the hour hand of a watch toward the sun; the line joining 
the pivot and the point midway between the hour hand and the 
XII on the dial will point toward the south. To point the hour 
hand exactly at the sun, stick a pin as at A and bring the hour 
hand into its shadow. 

At night a line drawn toward the north star from the ob- 
server's position is approximately a true meridian. The line join- 
ing the pointers of the dipper, prolonged about six times its length, 
passes nearly through the north star, which can be recognized by 
its brilliancy.* 

* Held Maps and Sketches. 

The following abbreviations and signs are authorized for use on field maps and 
sketches. For more elaborate map work the authorized conventional signs as 
given in the manual of " Conventional Signs, United States Army Maps/' are used. 

Abbreviations other than those given should not be used. 



A. 

r 

B.S 
»t 



con. 

f: 

O.S. 



Arroyo* 

Abutment 

Arch. 

Brick. 

Blacksmith Shopi 

Bottom. 

Branch. 

Bridge. 

Cape, 

Cemetery. 

Concrete. 

Covered* 

Creek. 

Culvert. 

Drug Store. 

East. 

Estuary. 

Fordabie* 

Fori. 



G.S 
k.p. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

General Store. 

Girder. 

Gristmill. 



Lat 

Ldg. 
L.S. 

L.H. 



Island. 

Junction. 

King-post 

Lake. . 

Latitude. 

Landing. 



$, Life-Saving Station, st 



Pt 
o.p 

h 

s. 

I'.H. 

S.M. 
Sta. 



Point. 



P 



Lighthouse 

Longitude. 

Mountain. 

Mountains. 

North. 

Not fordabie. 

Pier. 

Plank. 

Post Office* 



f-6. 
Tres. 

&T 

w.w 
w. 

w. 

wd- 



(iver. 

Roundhouse* 

Railroad. 

South. 

Steel. 

Schoolhousa* 

Sawmill. 

Station. 

Stone. 

Stream. 

Tollgate.. 

Trestle. 

Truss. 

Water Tank. 

Waterworks. 

West. 

Wood. 

Wide. 



filGNS— HELD VAP3 AND SKETCHES. 



Telegraph line 

Railroads 

Roads 

fences 



,.. Els*.. 



muimniE ** 



Symbol (modified beto»} «»»»»»»«» 

Alonf improved road * « ■ ' 

Along unimproved road ••»»^•"*»'■*•»"» , 

Alongtrail *" r *"*" r " r " f iTj 

Single track - 

Double track *• 

Trolley ** 

Improved sss 

Unimproved ss = sss=== = *=-- « = *««=«* 

Trail 

barbed wire — ■ " ■ ■ ■■ - ■ — ■ ' ' ■ 

smooth wire — ■ ■ » - 

wood 
atone 
lher«ge 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 691 

Orienting a Map. — In order that directions on the map and 
on the ground shall coincide, it is necessary for the map to be 
oriented; that is, the true meridian of the map must lie in the 
true meridian through the observer's position on the ground. 
Every road, stream, or other feature on the map will then be 
parallel to its true position on the ground, and all objects shown 
on the map can be identfied and picked out on the ground. 

TO ORIENT THE MAP 

With Compass. — If the magnetic meridian is shown on the 
map, lay the compass over it (produce if necessary) and, without 
disturbing the compass, turn the map slowly round until the 
north end of the north point on the map is exactly under the north 
end of the needle. If the true meridian only is shown and you 
know the local magnetic declination, plot the magnetic meridian 
on the map with a protractor and proceed as before. If you have 
no protractor lay .the compass on the true meridian and turn the 
map until this line makes, with the needle, an angle equal to the 
magnetic declination and on the correct side of it. 

By Objects. — A map can be oriented by an object on the 
ground without using the magnetic compass. 

(a) Identify the spot where you stand as some point marked 
on the map. Also identify on the map some distant object you 
can see. Join these two on the map by a straight line. Then 
turn the map about the point marking your position till this line 
points to the distant object. 

(b) When you do not know your position place yourself 
between or in prolongation of a line joining any two points which 
can be identified. Revolve the map until the line joining the two 
points on the map points to the two places on the ground. 

A map can be set roughly for reading by identifying on the 
map several prominent objects that can be seen. The map is then 
held so that the directions between these objects as they appear 
on the ground and on the map are parallel to each other. 

To Locate One's Position on a Map. — When the map is 
oriented by compass sight along a ruler at an object on the ground 
while keeping the ruler on the position of this object on the map 
and draw a line toward your body. Do the same with respect to 
a second point visible on the ground and shown on the map. The 
intersection of these two points is your map position. 

(2) When the map is oriented by an object sight at some 
object not in the line used for orientation, keeping the ruler on the 
plotted position of this object and draw a line until it cuts the 
direction line used for orienting the map. This is your position 



692 MILITARY TRAINING 

on the map. • Any straight line on the map such as a road is useful 
for orienting and thus finding your position. Usually your posi- 
tion may be found by characteristic landmarks, as crossroads, a 
railroad crossing, a junction of streams, etc. 

Using Maps in the Field. — (1) Observe the scale, see if it is 
in familiar units and how many inches equal 1 mile, so that you 
can make rapid mental estimates of the distance between prom- 
inent points shown. Get the scale relation firmly fixed in mind for 
the map under consideration. (2) Learn the contour interval 
from the numbering on the contours or by observing the number 
of contour intervals between two known elevations^, usually 
marked on hilltops or crossroads. This will give you a clear 
idea of the relative height of hills and depressions of streams, 
and will tell you which are commanding positions, good view 
points, etc. (3) Observe the position of the true and magnetic 
meridians and the number of degrees of declination. (4) Pick out 
the streams on the ground and map and trace them by eye 
throughout their visibility. This is a most necessary step in ac- 
quiring a good general knowledge of the ground and map, be- 
cause the streams form the framework of the area upon which the 
contours are based. (5) Next pick out the tops of all hills and 
trace the highest lines of all the ridges. (6) Next construct (if 
not given) a scale of M. Ds. for the map and learn the general 
character of the slopes of the ground. See where the flattest and 
steepest parts occur and the approximately greatest angle of slope, 
also where troops can meneuver. (7) Pick out all towns and 
villages, noting their names, sizes, etc. (8) Trace all roads and 
railroads and get a good idea which are the main roads and which 
only field tracks. (9) Next take up the particular points to be in- 
vestigated and study the map with these in view. For instance, 
where are good defensive positions, camp sites, lines of observa- 
tion,, good roads with easy grades for the passage of trains, etc. 

MILITARY SKETCHING 

The Engineer Department issues a standard reconnaissance 
equipment based solely on the plane-table method. The outfit is 
divided into equipment, which is permanent, and supplies, which 
are expendable. 

One outfit is issued to each regimental and battalion head- 
quarters of the infantry, cavalry, and field artillery, and three to 
each engineer tool wagon, giving six per company or three per 
mounted company. Headquarters of higher engineer units, and 
of division and chief engineers not attached to engineer units, 
receive normally three such outfits, but division and chief engineers 
may receive a larger number if they so requisition. 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 693 

The alidade is a triangular scale, 10 3/16 inches long, weighted 
at the ends, is conveniently graduated and has blank spaces for 
pasting on individual scales of paces, walk, trot, and gallop. 

The board has a compass needle 3 inches long and quite 
sensitive. At each corner is a clip to hold the paper firmly in 
place. No plumb bob is provided, but a hole is accurately bored 
so that a plumb bob can be improvised and use made of the slope 
scale on the board in case the clinometer should be lost. The 
plate on the back of the board is let in flush so that the board can 
be turned freely on the tripod for orientation and then firmly 
clamped by a slight turn of the tripod screw. As the tripod is 
not ordinarily used in mounted sketching, holes have been bored 
at the corners of the board for the insertion of a carrying cord 
if desired. 

The tripod is of wood with telescoping legs, which fold to 
15 inches or extend to about 40 inches and detach from the top 
for packing in the container. The top, also of wood, is provided 
with a heavy thumbscrew for attaching the board, and is covered 
with felt to give a firm bearing without sticking or binding. 

The celluloid sheets are for use instead of sketching paper 
during rainy weather. 

Scales. — These are for position and outpost sketches, 6 inches=* 
1 mile, V. I. 10 feet; road sketches, 3 inches=l mile, V. I. 20 feet; 
extended operations, 1 inch=l mile, V. I. 60 feet. Place sketches 
should be made on the 6-inch scale, with 10-foot contours, unless 
they join or extend road sketches, in which case they are made on 
the 3-inch scale with 20-foot contours. The use of this system 
enables one scale of map distances to be used, and a given M. D. 
between contours always represents the same slope, no matter 
which of the scales is used. The sketcher should learn the M. D. 
corresponding to one, three, five, and seven degrees of slope, so 
that he can plot them accurately from memory; he can then draw 
contours rapidly to show slopes from 1° to 14°. For example, 
y 2 ° slope is represented by two lengths of the 1° distance; 2° by 
one-half of the 1° distance; V/2 by twice the 7° distance, etc. 
This ability to convert ground slopes immediately to map distances 
is the key to rapid contouring. 

Measurements Made in Military Sketching. — The measure- 
ments required are for the distance, horizontal direction, slope, and 
elevation. 

(1) The Methods of Distance Measurement. — The units used 
are the sketcher's stride in inches; the distance in inches passed 
over by the sketcher's horse per minute at a trot, and at a walk; 
the distance in inches passed over by one revolution of a wheel; 
100 yards as estimated by a skilled sketcher. 



694 MILITARY TRAINING 

(a) The stride (2 paces) is the unit ordinarily used for 
position and outpost sketching for the controlling measurements. 
The sketcher should determine the length of his stride by pacing 
at least twice an accurately measured course from one-half to 
2 miles long, over ground of varying slopes, keeping a record 
of the number of strides with a pace tally, held in the left hand, 
and pressed each time the right foot comes to the ground. The 
average number of strides for the course is thus determined, and 
from this the length in inches of the stride determined, and a 
scale of strides at 6 inches=l mile constructed. 

(b) Horse's walk and trot is the unit ordinarily used for road 
sketching. The horse's rate should be determined by riding him 
several times over an accurately measured course at a walk and 
at a trot. Care must be taken not to rate the horse faster than he 
can travel for a day's work. If a sketch must be made on an un- 
rated horse when no time is available for rating, the sketcher 
should use the scales of average walk and trot, a mile in 16 min- 
utes at a walk, and in 8 minutes at a trot. Having determined the 
rate of the horse, a scale of minutes, halves, and quarters should be 
constructed. 

(c) Rules for Correcting Scales. — Scales of strides and of the 
walk and trot should be tested in actual sketching and corrected 
if necessary. A sketch smaller than intended (scale too small) is 
caused by having assumed the horse's gait to be slower or the 
stride shorter than it actually is. 

(d) The Distance Passed Over by a Revolution of a Wheel. — 
This method of determining distance is of great value in making 
road sketches, especially in combined work, because of the uni- 
formity secured. The length covered per revolution is best de- 
termined by driving over a measured course and dividing the 
length of the course by the number of revolutions. The number 
of revolutions is recorded by an odometer attached to the axle j 
of a front wheel; or a piece of white cloth may be tied around the 
tire and the rotations of the wheel recorded on a pace tally. 
If no measured course is available over which to determine the 
length of one revolution, the circumference of the wheel is found 
by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. 

(e) Estimation of Distances. — An essential qualification for a 
rapid and accurate sketcher is the ability to estimate distances with 
less than 10 per cent error up to 600 yards, and within 15 per cent, 
error up to a mile. This can be acquired by constant practice 
in making estimates of various distances and then verifying the 
estimates by accurate measurements. Estimates of distance should 
be made in yards, and 100 yards should be definitely fixed in mind 
as a reference unit. In all estimation of distance the sketcher 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 



695 



should bear in mind the effect of conditions of ground and light 
on estimates. 

Objects Appear Nearer Than They Really Are: (a) When 
the sun is behind the observer and the object is in the bright light, 
(b) When seen over a body of water, snow, or level plain, (c) 
When below the observer, (d) When in high altitudes and very 
clear atmosphere. In these cases add to the normal estimate. 

Objects Seem Further Away Than They Really Are: (a) 
when up a steep hill from the observer, (b) In poor light such as 
fog. (c) When seen across undulating ground. In these cases sub- 
tract from the normal estimate. 

Objects Are Distinguishable to Average Eyes at the Follow- 
ing Distances: 9 to 12 miles, church spires; 5 to 7 miles, windmills; 
2 to 2y 2 miles, chimneys; 2,000 yards, trunks of large trees; 600 
yards, individuals of a column; 500 yards, individual panes of glass 
in windows; 400 yards, arms and legs of dismounted men. 

But visual acuity differs and the sketcher should learn for 
himself at what distances objects can be seen by him and their 



Infantry 
In column o-a-o-oo-o 



In line C 



Cavalry 
In column BBBBB& 




Palisades 



Wire 
entanglement 



■HHHfH 



V-tf 



Fort 



Camp 
Trenches 

Gun 
battery 



Mortar 
batte/y 



Redoubt 

A 

AA1A.AA 
AAA.AAA 






^ 



AM* H"^^ 



Chevaux de 
frise 



MILITARY SIGNS. 



696 



MILITARY TRAINING 



Regimental JEEe&dqxvzrfers 

Brigade 

Division* * 

Corps " 

Infantry in line 



Infantry zn column. 
Cavalry in, H™, 



Cavalry in* column 
Mounted Infantry 

Sentry - 



Vidette- 



Picket^Cav. and Infty. 
Support - ■ *» - 
Wagon train, , 



Adjutant General 
Quarter-master — 

Commissary 



fei 



2B 

*0*3C 



50^30 

8AC 






l|l ijl «{« lj» ^ 

■ ■■6 



tfc CS3 



eSi c*3 



.-£« ■£-* •£-£•£-£•3-3 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 697 



Medical Corps 
Ordnance 



Signal Corps- 



Engineer Corps. 
Gun Battery 



Mortar Battery- 



2brt—.,^~.J2TZie plan, to he 
RedoubtX snoivn if known, L 

Camp~ ™~™ „.«, 

Battle 



Trench 



P> 



P 



! ,|, 



-K 



AAA 



...<?« 



OBSTACLES 

NOTE'- When color is used execute thesein red 

Abattis sp V V Hf 



Tfire entanglement 

Palisades 



Contact Mines \ 



o°o°o° 



Controlled Mines. , 
Dernolitions 



.c =: ? T b>> 



698 MILITARY TRAINING 

appearance at different ranges, by noting objects on the ground 
and scaling their distances from a good map. 

Telegraph and telephone poles are usually set at fixed dis- 
tances along any one line, so that the sketcher, by pacing one 
interval or by dividing a known distance by the number of poles 
contained, may secure their distance apart and make accurate 
measurements as far as the poles are visible. 

The Estimation of Ground Distances Directly as Spaces on 
the Sketch. — The sketcher should learn to estimate the map space 
corresponding to a given ground distance. This power is 
rapidly acquired by using a scale of hundreds of yards as the 
unit of plotting. The sketcher should plot, by estimation, 
100 yards, then test it with his scale and repeat until he can 
do it with no appreciable error. 

(2) Method of Measuring the Horizontal Direction of an 
Unknown Point from a Known Point. — Set up, level, and orient the 
sketching board. The board is said to be oriented when the 
compass needle is parallel to the sides of the compass trough. 
Assume a point on the paper as the location of the known occu- 
pied point in such a position that the ground to be sketched will 
fall on the sheet. Pivot the alidade on the assumed point, and 
sight along it, directing it on the unknown point; then draw a 
line along the alidade. 

(3) Method of Measuring Slope. — Slopes may be measured 
with the service clinometer, or by using a plumb bob attached to 
the sketching board in connection with the slope scale on the 
board. The ability to estimate correctly the general slope be- 
tween two points is important for accurate and rapid contouring. 
This is gained by making a systematic series of estimates of 
slopes over various kinds of ground, verifying each estimate with 
a careful clinometer reading. 

(4) Method of Measuring Elevation. — The elevation may be 
found from the slope and the distance by applying to the plotted 
distance the M. D. corresponding to the slope. Elevations de- 
termined in this manner are affected by errors in both slope and 
distance. If the slope is correct but the distance too great, then 
the M. D. for the slope is contained too many times in the 
plotted distance, giving too great an elevation. The ability to 
estimate accurately differences of elevation is of the greatest 
value in rapid contouring, because these direct estimates of ele- 
vation are found to be more nearly correct than the elevations 
determined by estimation of slope and distance. Estimates of 
elevation should be made by determining a horizontal plane 
(using the clinometer if necessary) and estimating the elevation 
of the unknown point above or below this plane by comparison 
with the heights of objects in the vicinity, such as telegraph poles, 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 699 

trees, etc. The sketcher should learn the height of such objects 
in the vicinity. By carrying forward with long sights (using 
the clinometer at zero) points of equal elevation along a tra- 
verse, elevations throughout a day's road sketch can be attained 
with sufficient accuracy. 

Military sketches should show: All lines of communication: 
Roads, trails, railroads (with towns to which they lead and railroad 
stations), rivers, lakes, canals, telegraph and telephone lines. 

All objects giving cover or forming obstacles: Woods, tall 
growths of grain, swamps, unfordable bodies of water, ravines., 
rugged cliffs, stone walls, fences, hedges, cuts, and fills. 

The configuration of the ground: Contours showing all hills 
in their true location and shape, the character of their slopes and 
their relative heights, all ravines and slight undulations afford- 
ing a sheltered line of movement to troops. 

All easily distinguished landmarks: Isolated trees of un- 
usual type, such as Lombardy poplars; houses, especially those of 
stone and those at crossroads; villages and towns to show the 
general plan of streets and houses. 

All military dispositions: Defensive works (trenches, ob- 
stacles, etc.); bodies of troops drawn to scale. 

The vulnerable points of lines of communication: Bridges, 
culverts, locks and dams, ferries and fords, with the character of 
each. 

All stores and supplies for men and animals: Water supply, 
grazing rounds, storehouses of grain, etc. 

Classification of Military Sketches.— Military sketches are 
classified as individual or combined sketches. An individual sketch 
is of limited extent, executed by one person. A combined sketch 
is the result of the simultaneous work of a number of sketchers, 
so combined as to make a map covering a number of parallel 
roads (combined road sketch), or an area extending across the 
front of the command (combined position sketch). 

Military sketches are also classified according to their ob- 
ject or the method of their execution as: 

(a) Area sketches, which are of three kinds: Position, out- 
post, and place sketches, (b) Road sketches. 

A position sketch is one of a military position, camp site, 
etc., made by a sketcher who has access to all parts of the area to 
be sketched. 

An outpost sketch, as its name indicates, shows the military 
features of ground along the friendly outpost line and as far 
toward the hostile position as may be sketched from the rear of 
and along the line of observation. 

A place sketch is one of an area, made by a sketcher from 
one point of observation. Such a sketch may cover ground 



700 MILITARY TRAINING 

in front of an outpost line or it may serve to extend toward 
the enemy a position or road sketch from the farthest point 
which can be reached by the sketcher. 

Principal Requirements. — In making a military sketch the 
principal requirements are clearness, accuracy sufficient for all 
military requirements, simplicity, and the completed sketch in the 
time available. 

Methods of Sketching. — The location of the critical points 
(points of abrupt change of general slope, of abrupt change of 
direction of a road, stream junctions, etc.) must first be deter- 
mined horizontally and vertically. 

Execution of a position sketch: (a) Select and traverse a 
base line, (b) Locate a series of critical points over the area by 
intersection, (c) Fill in detail in the vicinity of these triangulation 
points, (d) Fill in detail around other important points located 
by resection, (e) Fill in all other required details by traverse to 
all necessary points not visible from the intersection or resection 
stations, (f) It is important that the sketch have sufficient depth 
to show lateral communications in rear of line that will probably 
be occupied. Points to which roads to the rear lead should be 
indicated in margin in writing. 

Execution of an Outpost Sketch. — An outpost sketch is exe- 
cuted in the same manner as a position sketch except that the 
sketcher cannot advance beyond the line of observation, but 
must show the ground from one-half to 2 miles in front of this 
line toward the enemy. Critical points in front of the line of 
observation must be located by traverses along the base and inter- 
sections from stations on the base. The base might be located 
some distance in rear of the outpost line if necessary to avoid 
exposure to fire along the line of observation, and from this re- 
tired base critical points could be located on the line of observa- 
tion by intersection or resection. These points can then be occu- 
pied to obtain the necessary critical points in front. It is important 
that the sketch have sufficient depth to show lateral communica- 
tions in rear of line that will probably be occupied. Points to 
which roads to the rear lead should be indicated in margin in 
writing. 

Execution of a Road Sketch. — A road sketch is normally 
made mounted on account of the rapidity of work thereby secured. 
A large part of the work is done by traversing the road and esti- 
mating offsets. Intersection locations are not usually required at 
more than 400 or 500 yards from the road, and no resection work 
is usually possible. Details should usually be limited to' 400 
yards from the road, except for prominent positions, etc. All 
plotting should be done dismounted, but notes should be made on 
the timing pad of important details passed while mounted and mov- 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 701 

ing between stations. Halts are usually required every three or 
four minutes. A stop watch is very convenient for this work. 

Execution of a Place Sketch. — A place sketch is made 
under the supposition that the sketcher is limited to a single 
point of observation overlooking the area to be sketched. The 
work is executed in a manner similar to a position sketch except 
that all control points are located by determining distance with 
range finder (or by estimation), elevations with clinometer (or 
by estimation). First locate stream lines, next roads, then hilltops,, 
and finally contours and minor details. 

The place sketch is made under the same conditions as a 
perspective sketch, but has the advantage that it represents truly 
to scale the features of the ground in their relation to each other 
as estimated by the sketcher, and to be interpreted need not be 
examined from the point occupied by the sketcher. 

Points to be observed in sketching: (a) Be sure the intersec- 
tion and resection points are well marked to avoid sighting back 
on the wrong point, (b) Study the area carefully and do not sight 
any point that will not help the work. . (c) Keep constantly in 
view the scale of the sketch, the contour interval, and the smallest 
distance that can be shown, (d) Be sure that the orientations are 
correct and that the board is clamped after orientation. The 
forward sight to the next station should be made as soon after 
orientation as the position of the occupied station is plotted, 
(e) After the first set-up always orient by back sight if pos- 
sible, (f) Do not leave a station until all the details up to that 
point are put in. (g) Try to put equal care and time on all parts 
of the sketch. 

Combined position sketches are executed by dividing up the 
sketchers into groups of two, and assigning to each group an area 
one-half mile wide by two or more miles deep. A control road 
or other line is usually selected along one side of the area to be 
sketched. The groups are deployed along this road at intervals 
of one-half mile. No. 1 of each group accompanied by No. 2 
of the adjacent group sketches a strip of terrain about one-half 
mile wide along the boundary line between their areas, the re- 
quired depth of the area. This sketch is then cut apart along the 
boundary line, and each sketcher takes the part pertaining to his 
area, and meets the other number of his group at the center of the 
group area. The two parts of the sketch of the group area are 
then placed 3 inches apart on a sketching board, and the two 
sketchers of the group return to the control road along the cen- 
ter of their area, sketching the parts of their area not already 
sketched. The sketches can then be combined at a designated as- 
sembly point. 

The vertical control is given by the chief of the sketchers, 



702 



MILITARY TRAINING 



who determines elevations along the control road with an aneroid 
barometer. 

Combined road sketches of two or more parallel roads 
are executed by assigning a party of sketchers to each road. 
One, the director, marks out the road to be sketched by posting 
numbered cards of a given color at all road junctions. Another, 



Hlllllinill Single Track R.R. 
llillllilllll Double Track R.R. 



© W Open Woods, Sire 



U|JC(i iTuuua. guv 

of circle Indicates 
size of Trees. 



\l 1/ Wooden XI ng Post 

" ™^Si£s. Bridge 24 ft. Span, 

" 24T12 12 ft. Deck 

' ' \ io ~ IO ft. above Water, 



4#*S 



6 OOo 

*» o 
O o O 

o o 



ftough Symbol for 
Woods. 



and Suspension 
Bridges. 

" 3 ft. Deep. 




Wire Entanglement. 



bemolition (Diagonal 
lines' indicate Trees 

mti . and Buildings have been 
T //y//?77 destroyed and leveled.) 



Cultivated Land. 



OQ969 

fi> © jQ © 9 Orchard* 



*<5B7 



JSl ^ -*- Woods with U nd er. 
•^ ^ A a growth. 

1 — 1 I — I School House. 
£3 £3 Court House. 

g| Masonry -Buiidlng. 

|^| Frame Building. 

S IB Church. 
•— x-^-x-^-x— • Barbed Wjre Fence. 

" o e o— Common Wire Fence, 

A/VWWyvwv Wood Fence. 
mnruium Stone Wall. 
COOOOOOO Hedge. 

» Main, or Improved Road. 



Woods, Outline of 
Woods Indicated. 



ZZZ.ZZ Unimproved Road. 
Trail, or Bridle Path. 



. Hj. Stream, 13 ft wide, 
~ 18 ft. deep and not 
Fordabie. 



T~T T TT Telegraph Line. 
CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 



the principal sketcher, sketches the main road. The remaining 
members, assistant sketchers, sketch in turn all connecting roads 
leading to the right to the next parallel road marked by cards 
of a different color; or, in case of the right party, a fixed dis- 
tance to the right. They note on the cards when they leave 



MAP READING AND MILITARY SKETCHING 703 

their main road to sketch the cross road, and mark on their 
sketches the numbers and colors of the cards indicating the road. 
They then return to their main road and sketch the next con- 
necting road indicated by a card not marked as having been 
sketched. The sketches of the parallel and connecting roads are 
combined at a designated assembly point. 



eridg» 




Indicate character and span by abbreviations 
Example: 

Meaning wooden kingpost bridge.40 feet long, 20 feet vtdft, 
and 10 feet above the water 



Indicate character by abbreviation* 
Exawptef^s^tf^av^. 

Meaning a stream 15 feet wide. 8 feet deep. and not fbrdable. 
House • Church* School house -SH 

Hfoods ^vJ^&J 0rchardsO3 Cultivated Land(gjt] 

If boundary fines are fences they are Indicated as such 
Brush, crops crgrassjmpxtart as covered ISftgM 

Cemetery | ♦»♦♦•»♦! Trees.taolated 

Cwlandfill- ; Cut ; cut lOfeet deep 

; r * ; fiHIOfeethilh 

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 



The vertical control is given by the director of each party, 
who marks the elevation obtained with an aneroid barometer upon 
each card, 

Compilation. — Sketches when turned in are consolidated, 
usually by pasting them in their proper relative positions on a 



704 MILITARY TRAINING 

large sheet of paper, or else by pasting them together at their 
edges so that corresponding features will join. If one of them 
does not exactly fit, as will often happen, the adjustment is best 
made by cutting the sketch into two or more pieces and moving 
them with respect to each other so as to absorb the discrepancy. 
Thus, if a piece of road is half an inch too short, cut it at three or 
four places on lines perpendicular to the road and separate the 
pieces by a sixth or eighth of an inch. If too long, overlap the 
pieces instead of separating them. If a road or other feature is out 
of azimuth, make a cut through one of its ends and swing it into 
place. These operations may be combined. The adjustment is 
rapid and sufficiently exact. If a sketch is too much out to be 
adjusted by this process, it will usually be of little value and time 
will be saved by leaving it out of the compilation and filling in the 
gap free-hand, using the sketch as a guide. 

Map Reproduction. — If the sketches are made on tracing 
paper or celluloid they may be reproduced by blue printing or 
by lithography. Equipment and supplies for these methods are 
carried in a wagon assigned to the headquarters of an engineer 
regiment. If the sketches are made on ordinary paper they 
must be traced on tracing linen or paper for reproduction. 
Simple sketches may be done with special ink and reproduced 
with the hectograph equipment carried on the tool wagon of each 
engineer company. 

Map Enlargement. — Maps may be enlarged with a panto- 
graph,, carried in the headquarters wagon of an engineer regi- 
ment; or by drawing squares of convenient size on the original 
map, and then drawing on the paper on which the new map is to 
be made squares whose sides bear the required ratio to the sides 
of the squares on the original. 

Conventional Signs. — In making a road sketch it is wise to 
use only the conventional signs and abbreviations authorized for 
use on field maps and sketches. Signs and abbreviations other than 
those above given and illustrated should not be used. They are 
sufficient to give all necessary information, are well known by all 
military men and the sketches can be read as easily as they can 
be made. All sketches should be self-contained and self-explana- 
tory. 



CHAPTER XXV 

MILITARY JURISDICTION, COURTS MARTIAL 
AND THE LAWS OF WAR 

The source of military jurisdiction is the Constitution, the 
specific provisions relating to its being found in powers granted to 
Congress, in the authority vested in the President, and in a pro- 
vision of the fifth amendment. Military jurisdiction is of four 
kinds, viz.: 

(a) Military government (the law of hostile occupation); 
that is, military power exercised by a belligerent by virtue of his 
occupation of an enemy's territory, over such territory and its in- 
habitants. This belongs to the law of war and therefore to the 
law of nations. When a conquered territory is ceded to the con- 
queror, military government continues until civil government is 
established by the new sovereign. 

(b) Martial law at home (or, as a domestic fact); by which 
is meant military power exercised in time of war, insurrection, or 
rebellion in parts of the country retaining their allegiance, and 
over persons and things not ordinarily subjected to it. 

(c) Martial law applied to the Army; that is, military power 
extending in time of war, insurrection, or rebellion, over persons 
in the military service, as to obligations arising out of such emer- 
gency and not falling within the domain of military law, nor other- 
wise regulated by law. The last two divisions (b) and (c) are 
applications of the doctrine of necessity to a condition of war. 
They spring from the right of national self-preservation. 

(d) Military law; which is the legal system that regulates 
the government of the military establishment. It is a branch of 
the municipal law, and in the United States derives its existence 
from special constitutional grants of power. It is both written and 
unwritten. The sources of written military law are the Articles 
of War enacted by Congress August 29, 1916; other statutory en- 
actments relating to the military service; the Army Regulations; 
and general and special orders and decisions promulgated by the 
War Department and by department, post, and other commanders. 
The unwritten military law is the " custom of war," consisting of 
customs of service, both in peace and war. 



706 MILITARY TRAINING 

Military jurisdiction is exercised through the following mili- 
tary tribunals: 

(a) Military commissions and provost courts, for the trial of 
offenders against the laws of war and under martial law. 

(b) Courts martial — general, special, and summary — for the 
trial of offenders against military law. 

The general court martial has concurrent jurisdiction with 
military commissions and provost courts to try offenders against 
the laws of war. 

(c) Courts of inquiry, for the examination of transactions of 
or accusations or imputations against officers or soldiers. 

PERSONS SUBJECT TO MILITARY LAW 

The following persons are subject to the Articles of War: 
(a) All officers and soldiers belonging to the Regular Army of the 
United States; all volunteers, from the dates of their muster or 
acceptance into the military service of the United States; and all 
other persons lawfully called, drafted, or ordered into, or to duty, 
or for training in the said service, from the dates they are required 
by the terms of the call, draft, or order to obey the same, (b) 
Cadets, (c) Officers and soldiers of the Marine Corps when de- 
tached for service with the armies of the United States by order 
of the President, (d) Officers and enlisted men of the Medical 
Department of the Navy, serving with a body of marines detached 
for service with the Army in accordance with the provisions of 
section sixteen hundred and twenty-one of the Revised Statutes, 
shall, while so serving, be subject to the Rules and Articles of War 
prescribed for the government of the Army in the same manner 
as the officers and men of the Marine Corps while so serving, 
(e) All retainers to the camp and all persons accompanying or 
serving with the armies of the United States without the territorial 
jurisdiction of the United States, and in time of war all such re- 
tainers and persons accompanying or serving with the armies of 
the United States in the field, both within and without the terri- 
torial jurisdiction of the United States though not otherwise sub- 
ject to the Articles of War. (f) All persons under sentence ad- 
judged by courts martial, (g) Army field clerks, (h) Field clerks, 
Quartermaster Corps. 

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF COURTS 
MARTIAL 

Courts martial are classified as general courts martial, special 
courts martial and summary courts martial. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 707 

Who Competent to Serve. — All officers in the military service 
of the United States, and officers of the Marine Corps when de- 
tached for service with the Army by order of the President, shall 
be competent to serve on courts martial for the trial of any 
persons who may lawfully be brought before such courts for trial. 

Exceptions. — (a) No officer shall be eligible to sit as a mem- 
ber of a general or special court martial when he is the accuser 
or a witness for the prosecution; but when there is only one officer 
present with a command he shall be the summary court martial of 
that command and shall hear and determine cases brought before 
him. (b) Chaplains, veterinarians, dental surgeons, and second 
lieutenants in the Quartermaster Corps are not in practice detailed 
as members of courts martial. 

Number of Members. — Courts martial shall be composed of 
the following number of officers, viz.: 

(a) General Courts Martial. — Any number from 5 to 13, in- 
clusive. 

A general court martial shall not consist of less than 13 
officers when that number can be convened without manifest in- 
jury to the service. The Articles of War governing the number 
of members which may sit upon a general or a special court martial 
are merely directory to the officer appointing the court, and his 
decision as to the number which can be convened without manifest 
injury to the service (within the maximum and minimum limits 
prescribed by law), being a matter submitted to his sound dis- 
cretion, must be conclusive. While a number less than five can 
not be organized as a general court martial or proceed with a trial, 
they may perform such acts as are preliminary to the organization 
and action of the court. Less than five members may adjourn 
from day to day, and where five are present and one of them is 
challenged, the remaining four may determine upon the sufficiency 
of the objection. A court reduced to four members and thereupon 
adjourning for an indefinite period does not dissolve itself. The 
appointing authority may at any time complete it by the addition of 
a new member or members and order it to reassemble for business. 
But if any evidence has been taken before the court is reduced 
below five, it should be dissolved and a new one ordered. 

If for any reason a general court martial is reduced below 
five members it will direct the judge advocate to report the facts to 
the convening authority and wait his orders. The report by the 
judge advocate will, in all cases, be made through the commanding 
officer of the post, command, or station where the court is sitting, 
who will indorse thereon the names of a sufficient number of avail- 
able officers whom he recommends be detailed on the court to 
enable it to proceed. More than enough to make a quorum should 
be recommended where practicable in order to provide for future 



708 MILITARY TRAINING 

contingencies, and so far as can be foreseen the officers recom- 
mended should not be liable to challenge in any case to be tried. 
If there be no such officer or officers available, the commanding 
officer will so state. This report will be made by wire whenever 
deemed advisable in order to prevent unnecessary delay in trying 
cases. Similar action will be taken before trial by the judge advo- 
cate and commanding officer whenever the former knows or has 
good reason to believe that the court will be reduced below a 
quorum at the time of trial. It is the duty of commanding officers 
to keep in touch with the business before general courts martial 
being held within the limits of their commands and from time to 
time to take the initiative in making recommendations to the ap- 
pointing authority as to relieving or adding members, changing 
the judge advocate, or appointing a new court, and as to other 
matters relating to such courts, so that they may proceed expedi- 
tiously and in cooperation with other official business. 

(b) Special Courts Martial. — Any number of officers from 
three to five, inclusive. The remarks under (a) ante apply equally 
to a special court martial where its membership is reduced below 
the minimum required by law, except that in the case of special 
court martial the report of the judge advocate will be made to the 
convening authority, who will, without unnecessary delay, detail 
a sufficient number of qualified officers to enable it to proceed or 
appoint a new court. 

(c) Summary Courts Martial. — A summary court martial con- 
sists of one officer. 

" In the Military Service of the United States."— (a) An offi- 
cer suspended from rank should not be detailed to sit as a member 
of a court martial during the period of suspension, (b) A retired 
officer may be assigned with his consent to active duty upon 
courts martial in time of peace, and if employed on active duty in 
time of war in the discretion of the President, he is eligible for 
court martial duty. At other times he is not available for such 
duty except that when placed in command of a post under the act 
of August 29, 1916, or when assigned to recruiting duty he may act 
as summary court martial when he is the only officer present, 
(c) Volunteers become eligible for duty as members of courts mar- 
tial from the dates of their muster or acceptance into the military 
service of the United States, members of the Officers' Reserve 
Corps ordered to active service by the Secretary of War, and all 
other officers lawfully called, drafted, or ordered into, or to duty 
or for training in, the said service, from the date they are required 
by the terms of the call, draft, or order to obey the same. 

Marine Officers. — Marine officers can be detached for duty 
with the Army only by order of the President, and their eligibility 
to sit as members of courts martial to try persons subject to 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 709 

military law continues only during the time they are serving under 
such order. When any part of the Marine Corps is present with 
the Army and engaged in a common enterprise with it, without 
an order of the President detaching it for service with the Army, 
the case is one of cooperation and not of incorporation, and in 
such a case no officer of the Marine Corps can exercise command 
over the Army any more than a naval officer can when some part 
of the Navy is cooperating with the Army, and the converse is true 
of Army officers cooperating with the Marine Corps. 

No Distinction Between Regulars and Other Forces. — No 
distinction now exists in the matter of eligibility for court martial 
duty among the various classes of officers in the military service 
of the United States for the trial of any person subject to military 
law. 

Rank of Members. — (a) The order appointing a general or a 
special court martial should name the members in order of rank, 
and they will sit according to rank. 

In no case shall an officer, when it can be avoided, be tried 
by officers inferior to him in rank. This provision like that in 
reference to the number of members of a general or special court 
martial is not prohibitory but directory only upon the convening 
authority. Its effect is to leave to the discretion of that officer, as 
the conclusive authority and judge, the determination of the ques- 
tion of the rank of the members, with only the general instruction 
that superiors in rank to the accused shall be selected, so far as 
the exigencies and interests of the service will permit. 

(b) Rank among officers of the Regular Army, forces drafted 
or called into the service of the United States, and Volunteers is 
determined according to the rules laid down in the Articles of 
War. 

APPOINTMENT OF COURTS MARTIAL 

General courts martial may be appointed by the following 
authorities, viz: (a) The President of the United States, (h) The 
commanding officer of a territorial division, (c) The commanding 
officer of a territorial department, (d) The Superintendent of the 
Military Academy, (e) The commanding officer of an army, 
(f) The commanding officer of an army corps, (g) The command- 
ing officer of a (tactical) division, (h) The commanding officer 
of a separate brigade, (i) The commanding officer of any district 
or of any force or body of troops, when empowered by the Presi- 
dent to do so. 

Exceptions. — (1) When any of the foregoing commanders is 
the accuser or the prosecutor of the person or persons to be tri 



Lried 

(i A 



710 MILITARY TRAINING 

the court shall be appointed by superior competent authority; (2) 
the Superintendent of the Military Academy is not empowered to 
convene a general court martial for the trial of an officer. 

Power of the President to Appoint. — In addition to the gen- 
eral statutory authority conferred upon the President to appoint 
general courts martial he is also empowered to do so by virtue 
of being Commander in Chief of the Army and in the particular 
case provided for by the Revised Statute 1230. 

When any officer, dismissed by order of the President, 
makes, in writing, an application for trial, setting forth, under 
oath, that he has been wrongfully dismissed, the President shall, 
as soon as the necessities of the service may permit, convene a 
court martial to try such officer on the charges on which he shall 
have been dismissed. And if a court martial is not so convened 
within six months from the presentation of such application for 
trial, or if such court, being convened, does not award dismissal 
or death as the punishment of such officer, the order of dismissal 
by the President shall be void. 

Superintendent of the Military Academy. — The Superintend- 
ent of the Military Academy is authorized to convene general 
courts martial for the trial of cadets only; the act of March 2, 
1913, extended this authority to include all persons (except offi- 
cers) subject to military law under his command. This authority 
was continued in the Code of 1916. 

Whether the commander who convened the court is to be 
regarded as the " accuser or prosecutor " where he has had to do 
with the preparing and preferring of the charges, is mainly to be 
determined by his animus in the matter. He may, like any other 
officer, initiate an investigation of an officer's conduct and for- 
mally prefer, as his individual act, charges against such officer; 
or by reason of a personal interest adverse to the accused he 
may adopt practically as his own charges initiated by another; 
in which case he is clearly the accuser or prosecutor within the 
article. On the other hand, it is his duty to determine, when the 
facts are brought to his knowledge, whether an officer within his 
command charged with a military offense shall in the interest of 
discipline and for the good of the service be brought to trial. To 
this end he may formally refer or revise or cause to be revised 
and then formally referred, charges preferred against such officer 
by another; or when the facts of an alleged offense are com- 
municated to him, he may direct a suitable officer, as a member 
of his staff, or the proper commander of the accused, to investigate 
the matter, formulate and prefer such charges as the facts may 
warrant, and having been submitted to him, he may revise and 
refer them for trial as in other cases; all this he may do in the 
proper performance of his official duty without becoming the ac- 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 711 

cuser or prosecutor in the case. Of course he can not be deemed 
such accuser or prosecutor where he causes charges to be pre- 
ferred and proceeds to convene the court by direction of the Sec- 
retary of War or a competent military superior. It is not essential 
that the commander who convenes the court martial for the trial 
of an officer should sign the charges to make the " accuser or 
prosecutor," within the meaning of this article. Nor is the fact 
that they have been signed by another conclusive on the question 
whether the convening commander is the actual accuser or prose- 
cutor. The objection that such commander is such, calls in ques- 
tion the legal constitution of the court, and while such objection, 
if known or believed to exist, should regularly be interposed at 
or before the arraignment it may be taken during the trial at any 
stage of the proceedings. If not admitted by the prosecution to 
exist, the accused is entitled to prove it like any other issue. 

Power to Appoint an Attribute of Command. — As the au- 
thority to appoint general courts martial is an attribute of com- 
mand, a commanding officer can not delegate to another officer 
such as his adjutant or any other staff officer or subordinate the 
authority to appoint a court, detail an additional member, or re- 
lieve a member. If the authority to appoint a general court- 
martial is vested by law in a commanding officer he retains that 
authority, wherever he may be, so long as he continues to be such 
commanding officer. In the absence of orders or legislation, per- 
sonal presence within the territorial limits of his department is not 
essential to the validity of commands given by a department com- 
mander to be executed within the department. Therefore he may 
appoint a court martial while absent from his department if he 
continues to exercise command. But a department commander de- 
tached and absent from his command for any considerable period 
by reason of having received a leave of absence (whether of a 
formal or informal character), or having been placed upon a dis- 
tinct and separate duty, is held to be in a status incompatible with 
a full and legal exercise of such authority and therefore incom- 
petent during such absence to order a general court martial as 
department commander, even though no other officer has been 
assigned or has succeeded to the command of the department. 

Rank of Appointing Authority. — The power of the various 
commanders to appoint general courts martial is independent of 
their rank, but no officer other than those enumerated can appoint 
a general court martial no matter what his rank may be. An 
officer who succeeds to any command or duty stands in regard to 
his duties in the same situation as his predecessor. In the event 
of the death or disability of the permanent commander of a terri- 
torial department, or his temporary absence from the limits of 



A 



712 MILITARY TRAINING 

his command, the senior line officer present and on duty therein 
will exercise the command of the department, unless otherwise 
ordered, until relieved by proper authority. 

An officer who has power to appoint a court martial may 
control its existence, dissolve it, and determine the cases to be re- 
ferred to it for trial, but he can not control the exercise by the 
court of powers vested in it by law. 

SPECIAL COURTS MARTIAL 

Special courts martial may be appointed by the following 
authorities, viz: (a) The commanding officer of a district, (b) 
The commanding officer of a garrison, (c) The commanding offi- 
cer of a fort, (d) The commanding officer of a camp, (e) The 
commanding officer of any place other than (a), (b), (c), and (d) 
where troops are on duty, (f) The commanding officer of a 
brigade, (g) The commanding officer of a regiment, (h) The 
commanding officer of a detached battalion, (i) The commanding 
officer of any other detached command. 

Exception. — When any one of the foregoing commanding 
officers is the accuser or the prosecutor of the person or persons 
to be tried, the court shall be appointed by superior authority. 

When any superior authority deems it desirable, he may 
appoint a special court martial for any part of his command. 

Commanding Officer as "Accuser or Prosecutor."-r-The 
rules laid down for determining when a commander is the 
accuser or prosecutor apply equally to trials by special courts 
martial. When a superior appoints a court because of such dis- 
qualification on the part of a subordinate commanding officer, he 
will specify in the order the names of the person or persons to be 
tried, and the court will adjourn sine die upon the completion of 
the last case which it is ordered to try. 

Rank of Appointing Authority. — As in the case of general 
courts martial, the test of the power to appoint a special court 
martial is whether the officer is one of the commanders designated 
in the 9th Article of War. Such authority is an incidenjt of his 
power to command, and is independent of his rank. 

Commanding Officer as Member. — When but two officers in 
addition to the commanding officer are available for detail on a 
special court martial, the commanding officer will not detail him- 
self as a member of such court. In such a case, if superior au- 
thority desires to appoint a special court martial for such com- 
mand, the commanding officer, if otherwise eligible, may be ap- 
pointed as a member thereof. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 713 

SUMMARY COURTS MARTIAL 

Summary courts martial may be appointed by the following 
authorities, viz: (a) The commanding officer of a garrison, (b) 
The commanding officer of a fort, (c) The commanding officer 
of a camp, (d) The commanding officer of any other place not 
enumerated in (a), (b), and (c) where troops are on duty, (e) 
The commanding officer of a regiment, (f) The commanding offi- 
cer of a detached battalion, (g) The commanding officer of a 
detached company, (h) The commanding officer of any other de- 
tachment not enumerated in (f) and (g). 

A summary court martial may in any case be appointed by 
superior authority when by the latter deemed desirable. 

When More Than One Officer Present. — When more than 
one officer is present the summary court martial will be appointed 
from staff officers or available line officers junior to the com- 
manding officer. The commanding officer will not in such cases 
designate himself as the summary court martial. The senior offi- 
cer on duty at a recruiting station is a " commanding officer " in 
the sense of the last preceding sentence when there is another offi- 
cer present at the same station, even though the latter may be 
serving in an auxiliary or branch station. 

When But One Officer Present. — When but one officer is 
present with a command he shall be the summary court martial of 
that command and shall hear and determine cases brought before 
him. In such a case, no order appointing the court will be issued 
but the officer will enter on the record that he is the " only officer 
present with the command." 

" Detachment " Defined. — A battalion or other unit is " de- 
tached " when isolated or removed from the immediate disciplin- 
ary control of a superior of the same branch of the service in 
such a manner as to make its commander primarily the one to be 
looked to by superior authority as the officer responsible for the 
administration of the discipline of the enlisted men composing the 
same. The term is used in a disciplinary sense, and is not neces- 
sarily limited to what constitutes detachment in a physical or 
tactical sense. The commanding officers of such units as field 
signal battalions, aero squadrons, field bakeries, and ammunition, 
engineer, or sanitary trains, if their respective commands are in- 
dependent, except in so far as they constitute parts of a division, 
and if their commanders are responsible directly to the division 
commander for the maintenance of discipline in those commands, 
are competent to appoint summary courts for the same, subject to 
the power of the division commander to appoint summary courts 
for all subordinate organizations and detachments under his com- 
mand if by him deemed advisable. 



A 



714 MILITARY TRAINING 

So likewise the various service schools, such as the Mounted 
Service School at Fort Riley, though they may be located within 
the immediate limits of higher commands, constitute " detach- 
ments " within the meaning of the 10th Article of War, and the 
commandants thereof have power to appoint summary courts 
martial for the trial of enlisted men connected with such schools, 
subject to the right of the commanding officer of the garrison or 
fort to appoint such courts when by him deemed desirable. 

Power of Brigade Commanders. — A brigade commander is 
responsible for the instruction, tactical efficiency and prepared- 
ness for war service of his brigade. If the brigade is serving at 
one garrison or post he has, by virtue of his power as such garri- 
son or post commander, authority to retain within himself the 
appointing. power of all summary courts within his command, but 
if he does not exercise the authority which is vested in him by 
statute he allows the appointing power, including the power of re- 
view, to pass to regimental (and detachment) commanders. If 
the brigade is acting as a tactical unit in the field, he may as 
superior authority, appoint summary courts martial for his com- 
mand whenever he deems it desirable, but such authority will 
ordinarily be exercised by the regimental commanders. 

For each general or special court martial the authority ap- 
pointing the court shall appoint a judge advocate, and for each 
general court martial one or more assistant judge advocates when 
necessary. 

JURISDICTION IN GENERAL 

The jurisdiction of a court martial is its power to try and 
determine cases legally referred to it and, in case of a finding of 
guilty, to award a punishment for the offense within its prescribed 
limits. Being courts of special and limited jurisidiction their or- 
ganization, powers, and mode of procedure must conform to all the 
statutory provisions relating to their jurisdiction. 

Courts Martial Not Part of Federal Judicial System. — While 
courts martial have no part of the jurisdiction set apart under the 
article of the Constitution which relates to the judicial power of 
the United States they have an equally certain constitutional 
source. They are established under the constitutional power of 
Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the 
land forces of the United States, and are recognized in the provi- 
sions of the fifth amendment expressly exempting " cases arising 
in the land and naval forces" from the requirement as to present- 
ment and indictment by grand jury. They are tribunals appointed 
by military orders issued under authority of law. The power to 
appoint them, as well as the power to act upon their proceedings, is 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 715 

vested by law in certain commanding officers. Their jurisdiction 
is entirely criminal. They have no power to adjudge damage for 
personal injuries or private wrongs, nor to collect private debts. 
Their judgments upon subjects within their limited jurisdiction, 
when duly approved or confirmed, are as legal and valid as those of 
any other tribunals. No appeal can be taken from them, nor can 
they be set aside, or reviewed by the courts of the United States, 
nor of any State, but United States courts may, on writ of habeas 
corpus, inquire into the legality of detention of a person held by 
military authority, at any time, either before or during trial or 
while serving sentence, and will order him discharged if it appears 
to the satisfaction of the court that any of the statutory require- 
ments conferring jurisdiction have not been fulfilled. Their sen- 
tences have in themselves no legal effect until they have received 
the approval or confirmation of the proper commanding officer 
With such approval or confirmation, however, their sentences be- 
come operative and are as effective as the sentences of civil courts 
having criminal jurisdiction, and are entitled to the same legal 
consideration. 

ARREST AND CONFINEMENT 

An officer charged with crime or with a serious offense under 
the Articles of War shall be placed in arrest by the commanding 
officer, and in exceptional cases an officer so charged may be 
placed in confinement by the same authority. 

A soldier charged with crime or with a serious offense under 
the Articles of War shall be placed in confinement, and when 
charged with a minor offense he may be placed in arrest. 

Any other person subject to military law charged with crime 
or with a serious offense under the Articles of War shall be placed 
in confinement or in arrest, as circumstances may require; and 
when charged with a minor offense such person may be placed in 
arrest. Any person placed in arrest shall thereby be restricted to 
his barracks, quarters, or tent, unless such limits shall be enlarged 
by proper authority. Any officer who breaks his arrest or who 
escapes from confinement before he is set at liberty by proper 
authority shall be dismissed from the service or suffer such other 
punishment as a court martial may direct; and any other person 
subject to military law who escapes from confinement or who 
breaks his arrest before he is set at liberty by proper authority 
shall be punished as a court martial may direct. 

A failure to place a person subject to military law in arrest 
or confinement or the disregard of any custom or formality con- 
nected therewith does not affect the jurisdiction of a court. 



716 MILITARY TRAINING 

Who May Order Arrests. — (a) Only commanding officers 
have power to place officers in arrest, except as provided in the 
68th Article of War. 

(b) A judge advocate of a court martial has no authority to 
place in arrest an officer or soldier about to be tried by the court,- 
or to compel the attendance of the accused before the court by 
requiring a non-commissioned officer to bring him, or otherwise. 
These are duties which devolve upon the convening authority, or 
upon the post commander or other proper officer in whose custody 
or command the accused is at the time. 

(c) A court martial has no control over the nature of the 
arrest or other status of restraint of a prisoner except as regards 
his personal freedom in its presence. It cannot place an accused 
person in arrest or confinement nor can the court, even with a view 
to facilitate his defense, interfere to cause a close arrest to be en- 
larged. The officer in command is alone responsible for the 
prisoners in his charge. 

PREPARATION OF CHARGES 

A charge corresponds to a civil indictment. It consists of 
two parts — the technical " charge," which should designate the al- 
leged crime or offense as a violation of a particular Article of War 
or other statute, and the " specification," which sets forth the facts 
constituting the same. The requisite of a charge is that it sha 
he laid under the proper Article of War or other statute; of a spe 
iication, that it shall set forth in simple and concise language facts 
sufficient to constitute the particular offense and in such manner as 
to enable a person of common understanding to know what is in- 
tended. The general term " charges," in the sense that the word 
" charge " is used in the first sentence of this paragraph, includes 
any number of technical charges and their specifications. 

Who May Initiate Charges. — Military charges, though com- 
monly originating with military persons, may also be initiated by 
civilians. Indeed, it is but performing a public duty for a civilian 
who becomes cognizant of a serious offense committed by an of- 
ficer or a soldier to bring it to the attention of the proper com- 
mander. A charge may likewise originate with an enlisted man. 
But by the usage of the service all military charges should be 
formally preferred by — that is, authenticated by the signature of — 
a commissioned officer. Charges proceeding from a person out- 
side the Army and based upon testimony not in the possession or 
kpowledge of the military authorities, should, in general, be re- 
quired to be sustained by affidavits or other reliable evidence, as a 
condition to their being adopted. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 717 

Who May Prefer Charges. — Any officer may prefer charges. 
An officer is not disqualified from preferring charges by the fact 
that he is himself under charges or in arrest. 

Signing Charges. — The officer preferring charges will sign 
his name following the last specification, adding his rank and or- 
ganization in the Army. 

The signing of charges, like orders, with the name of an 
officer, adding "by order of" his commander, is unusual and not 
'to be recommended. The signature of the officer preferring charges 
forms no part of the charges themselves, but such signature will 
nevertheless be copied into the record of trial by a general or 
special court martial, in order that it may affirmatively appear 
whether the officer preferring the charges (who is prima facie the 
accuser) sat as a member of the court. 

ACTION UPON CHARGES 

All charges for trial by court martial will be prepared in 
triplicate, using the prescribed charge sheet as a first sheet and 
using such additional sheets of ordinary paper as are required. 
They will be accompanied — 

(a) Except when trial is to be had by summary court, by a 
brief statement of the substance of all material testimony ex- 
pected from each material witness, both those for the prosecution 
1 nd those for the defense, together with all available and necessary 
c formation as to any other actual or probable testimony or evi- 
dence in the case; and 

(b) In the case of a soldier, by properly authenticated evi- 
dence of convictions, if any, of an offense or offenses committed 
by him during his current enlistment and within one year next 
preceding the date of the alleged commission by him of any of- 
fenses set forth in the charges. 

They will be forwarded by the officer preferring them to the 
officer immediately exercising summary court martial jurisdiction 
over the command to which the accused belongs, and will by him 
and by each superior commander into whose hands they may come 
either be referred to a court martial within his jurisdiction for 
trial, forwarded to the next superior authority exercising court 
martial jurisdiction over the command to which the accused be- 
longs or pertains, or otherwise disposed of as circumstances may 
appear to require. . 

Investigation of Charges.— If the officer immediately ex- 
ercising summary court martial jurisdiction over the command to 
which the accused belongs or pertains decides to forward the 
charges to superior authority he will, before so Joirg, either care- 



718 MILITARY TRAINING 

fully investigate them himself or will cause an officer other than 
the officer preferring the charges to investigate them carefully 
and to report to him, orally or otherwise, the result of such in- 
vestigation. The officer investigating the charges will afford to 
the accused an opportunity to make any statement, offer any evi- 
dence, or present any matter in extenuation that he may desire to 
have considered in connection with the accusation against him. 
If the accused desires to submit nothing, the indorsement will so 
state. In his indorsement forwarding the charges to superior 
authority the commanding officer will include: 

(a) The name of the officer who investigated the charges; 
(b) the opinion of both such officer and himself as to whether 
the several charges can be sustained; (c) the substance of such 
material statement, if any, as the accused may have voluntarily 
made in connection with the case during the investigation thereof; 
(d) a summary of the extenuating circumstances, if any, connected 
with the case; (e) his recommendation of action to be taken. 

Prompt Action Required. — No person put in arrest shall be 
continued in confinement more than eight days, or until such time 
as a court martial can be assembled. When any person is put in 
arrest for the purpose of trial, except at remote military posts or 
stations, the officer by whose order he is arrested shall see that 
a copy of the charges on which he is to be tried is served upon 
him within eight days after his arrest, and that he is brought to 
trial within ten days thereafter; unless the necessities of the service 
prevent such trial; and then he shall be brought to trial within 
thirty days after the expiration of said, ten days. If a copy of the 
charges be not served, or the arrested person be not brought to 
trial, as herein required, the arrest shall cease. But persons re- 
leased from arrest, Under the provisions of the 70th Article of War, 
may be tried whenever the exigencies of the service shall permit, 
within twelve months after such release from arrest. 

COURT MARTIAL ORGANIZATION 

The authority appointing a general or special court martial 
designates the place for holding the court, hour of meeting, the 
members of the court, and the judge advocate. A general or 
special court martial assembles at its first session in accordance 
with the order convening it; thereafter, according to adjournment. 
Courts will be assembled at posts or stations where trial will be 
attended with the least expense. A member stationed at the place 
where the court sits is liable to duty with his command during ad- 
journment from day to day. Subject to any instructions that may 
be given by the authority that appoints the court, the court will 
determine the hours of holding its sessions. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 



719 



Uniform. — For regulations regarding uniform to be worn by- 
members of courts martial, the judge advocate, the accused, and 
witnesses see Regulations for the Uniform of the United States 
Army. In any case of doubt (as where the court consists of mem- 
bers but recently mustered into service), the president of the court 
will designate the uniform in the notice sent to members notifying 
them of the place and hour of meeting of the first session. 



Q raniDCNt 







I, 


t 






MtMQCRNO.1 O 


D 


D 


O MEMBER NO.r 


MEMBER N0.3 O 


D 


D 


O MEMBER No.4 


MEMBER NO* O 


□ 


D 


O MEMBER NO.B 


MEMBER N6.7 O 


D 


D 


O MEMBER NOB 


MEMBER MO.ft O 


D 


D 


O MEMBER NO.* 


AMUSED O 






o. 


*Y*BEi O 









o 

JUOOC ADVOCATV 



O 



INTERPOL I IR 



Seating of Court. — When the court is ready to proceed it is 
called to order by the president. Members will be seated accord- 
ing to rank, alternately to the right and left of the president. The 
judge advocate, the accused, and his counsel are seated so as to be 
most easily seen and heard by all the members of the court. The 
reporter should be seated near the judge advocate. 

Roll Call. — At the beginning of each session the judge advo- 
cate verifies the presence or absence of the members of the court 
46 



720 MILITARY TRAINING' 

by calling each officer's name or by informally noting his presence 
or absence. This verification is noted in the record. When the 
accused and his counsel appear before the court for the first time 
the judge advocate will announce their names to the court. 

Absence of Member. — A member of a court martial who 
knows, or has reason to believe, that he will, for a proper reason, 
be absent from a session of the court, will inform the judge advo- 
cate accordingly. When a member of a court martial is absent 
from a session thereof, the judge advocate will cause that fact, 
together with the reason for such absence if known to him, to be 
shown in the record of proceedings. If the reason for such 
absence is not known to the judge advocate, he will cause the 
record to show the member as absent, cause unknown. 

Duties of the President. — A president of the court will not 
be announced. The officer senior in rank present will act as such. 
The president does not by virtue of being such exercise command 
of any kind. He is in no sense the commanding officer of the 
court, and can not by virtue of being president give an order to a 
member. As the organ of the court he gives the directions neces- 
sary to the regular and proper conduct of the proceedings; but a 
failure to comply with a direction given by him, while it may con- 
stitute a neglect to the prejudice of good order and military dis- 
cipline, can not properly be charged as a violation of the 64th 
Article of War. Neither the court nor the president is authorized 
to place the judge advocate in arrest. Only the proper command- 
ing officer can impose an arrest. It is the duty of the command- 
ing officer to secure the attendance of the accused before the court. 
The president is the presiding officer of the court, and as such is 
the organ of the court to maintain order and conduct its business. 
In addition, he has the duties and privileges of other members. He 
has an equal vote with other members in deciding all questions, 
including challenges, findings, sentence, acquittal, and adjourn- 
ments. He speaks and acts for the court in every instance where a 
rule of action has been prescribed by law, regulations, or its own 
resolution, and has no authority to open or close the court or make 
a ruling upon the admissibility of evidence, the competency of wit- 
nesses, or method of procedure without the acquiescence of the 
court or by custom of the service. He administers the oath to the 
judge advocate and authenticates by his signature all acts, orders, 
and proceedings of the court requiring it. It is his duty to take the 
proper steps to insure prompt trial and disposition of all charges 
referred for trial and to keep the court advised thereof. 

Voting. — Members of a general or special court martial, in 
giving their votes, shall begin with the junior in rank. In all de- 
liberations, including those on challenges, findings, sentence, ac- 
quittal, and adjournments, the law secures the absolute equality 



. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 721 

of the members, the president having no greater rights in such 
matters than any other member. A tie vote on the findings is a 
vote of "not guilty"; a tie vote on a proposed sentence or on a 
challenge or any objection or motion is a vote in the negative. 
The sentence is not adopted and the challenge, objection, or mo- 
tion is not sustained. When the offense charged includes a minor 
offense, voting shall first be had upon the major offense. 

All convictions and sentences (other than those involving 
death), whether by general or special court martial, may be de- 
termined by a majority of the members present. Refusal to vote 
on any question arising during the proceedings constitutes a neglect 
to the prejudice of good order and military discipline. 

Closed Sessions. — Members take an oath not to disclose or 
discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court 
martial. In order to avoid disclosing or discovering such vote or 
opinion the court is closed while voting upon any question. When 
the court is closed all persons (including the judge advocate) with- 
draw. In important cases, where delay would ensue due to the 
number of spectators present, the court itself may withdraw to an- 
other room prepared for the purpose for deliberating in closed 
session. It is not necessary, however, for the court to go into 
closed session in every case requiring action, where such action 
would be unanimous and business can properly be transacted with- 
out disclosing the vote or opinion of any member. Thus, on a 
request by the judge advocate or the accused for a short recess, 
it is proper for the president to announce "without objection, the 
request will be granted," or words to that effect. Similarly, if 
the accused objects to a member because he preferred the charges 
and is the accuser and the member admits the fact, he may be 
excused without going into closed session. If any member believes 
the matter should be passed upon in closed session, it is proper for 
him to move that the court be closed, whereupon the president will 
announce that the court be cleared. 

Sitting with Closed Doors. — A court martial is authorized, 
in its discretion, to sit with doors closed to the public. Except, 
however, when temporarily closed for deliberation, courts martial 
in this country are almost invariably open to the public during a 
trial. But in a particular case where the offenses charged were of 
a scandalous nature, it was recommended that the court be directed 
to sit with doors closed to the public. 

Change in Membership.— Although it is undesirable to 
change the membership of a court during a trial it is within the 
discretion of the appointing officer in a proper case to relieve 
members or appoint new members. The promotion of a member 
during the trial of a case does not affect his competency as a 
member. He should sit according to his changed rank. The rule 



722 MILITARY TRAINING 

is that no member who has been absent during the taking of evi- 
dence shall thereafter take part in the trial; but the non-observance 
of this rule shall not be construed as invalidating the proceedings 
of courts martial if no objection is made, and the court permits the 
member to sit. The rule, however, should be complied with when 
practicable. Especially should a member who has been absent dur- 
ing an important part of the proceedings not be permitted to re- 
sume his seat. Where a member who has been absent is per- 
mitted to resume his seat, or a new member is added after the 
trial of the case has begun, all proceedings and evidence during his 
absence should be read over to him in open court before the case 
proceeds further and the record should show this fact; but in pro- 
ceedings in revision the presence of any member who did not vote 
on the findings and sentence will invalidate the proceedings in 
revision. 

THE JUDGE ADVOCATE 

The prompt, speedy, and thorough trial of a court martial 
case is principally dependent upon the judge advocate. He will, 
accordingly, be carefully selected. Where it can be avoided, no 
officer will be detailed as judge advocate of a general court martial 
until he has had experience as a member or as an assistant judge 
advocate of a court. 

General Duties. — The judge advocate of a general or special 
court martial shall prosecute in the name of the United States, and 
shall, under the direction of the court, prepare the record of its 
proceedings. Before the court assembles the judge advocate will 
obtain a suitable room for the court, see that it is in order, procure 
the requisite stationery, summon necessary witnesses, make a pre- 
liminary examination of the latter, and, as far as possible, systema- 
tize his plans for conducting the case. During the trial he exe- 
cutes all orders of the court; reads the appointing order and any 
modifying orders to the accused; swears the members of the court, 
the reporter, interpreter, and all witnesses; arraigns the accused; 
examines witnesses; keeps or superintends, under the direction of 
the court, the keeping of a complete and accurate record of the 
proceedings; and affixes his signature to each day's proceedings. 
Whenever the court adjourns to meet at the call of the presi- 
dent, the judge advocate will notify the members of the time 
designated by the president for reassembling. In conjunction 
with the president of the court, he authenticates the record by 
his signature and, at the end of the trial, transmits the same to the 
reviewing authority. In case the record can not be authenticated 
by the judge advocate by reason of his death, disability, or absence, 
it shall be signed by the president and an assistant judge advocate, 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 723 

if any; and if there be no assistant judge advocate, or in case of his 
death, disability, or absence, then by the president and one other 
member of the court. 



ASSISTANT JUDGE ADVOCATE 

The authority appointing a general court martial shall ap- 
point one or more assistant judge advocates when necessary. An 
assistant judge advocate of a general court martial shall be com- 
petent to perform any duty devolved by law, regulation, or the 
custom of the service upon the judge advocate of the court. 

Duties. — An assistant judge advocate will perform such du- 
ties in connection with the trial as the judge advocate may desig- 
nate. Ordinarily he will be expected to relieve the judge advo- 
cate of minor details, such as arranging for a place of meeting of 
the court, stationery, and messenger service, stenographers and 
interpreters, subpoenaing witnesses, and notifying the court of 
the place and hour of meeting. During trial he will be expected to 
see that witnesses are on hand when needed, that all details of 
procedure are observed and the record accurately kept. He may 
also be intrusted by the judge advocate with the investigation 
before trial and proof during trial of any special phase of the 
charges, or he may, where the judge advocate is otherwise en- 
gaged, take charge of the complete trial of a case. While the 
judge advocate and assistant judge advocate will ordinarily be 
present during trial, if their duties require the presence of either 
of them elsewhere, he may be excused by the court; but the fact 
of his withdrawal or absence, the reason therefor, and his return 
to the court will be noted in the record. 

COUNSEL 

The accused shall have the right to be represented before 
a general or special court martial by counsel of his own selection, 
for his defense, if such counsel be reasonably available. Civilian 
counsel will not be provided at the expense of the Government. 
Should the accused request the appointment as his counsel of an 
officer stationed at the station where the court sits, and such 
officer be not a member of the court, the commanding officer will 
appoint such officer as counsel if he is reasonably available. Should 
the commanding officer decide that the officer desired by the ac- 
cused is not reasonably available, the accused may appeal to the 
officer appointing the court, whose decision shall be final. If the 
counsel desired by the accused is not under the control of the 



724 MILITARY TRAINING 

commanding officer where the trial is held, application for counsel 
will be submitted by the accused in writing to the appointing au- 
thority, whose decision as to whether the officer desired is 
" reasonably available " is final. Officers of the Judge Advocate 
General's Department are not available for appointment as coun- 
sel for the defense in trials by courts martial. 

Duty of Officer as Counsel. — An officer acting as counsel be- 
fore a general or special court martial should perform such duties 
as usually devolve upon the counsel for a defendant before civil 
courts in criminal cases. He should guard the interests of the ac- 
cused by all honorable and legitimate means known to the law, 
but should not obstruct the proceedings with frivolous and mani- 
festly useless objections or discussions. 

INTERPRETER 

Under such regulations as the Secretary of War may from 
time to time prescribe, the president of a court martial or military 
commission, or court of inquiry, or a summary court, may ap- 
point an interpreter, who shall interpret for the court or commis- 
sion. Interpreters may be employed whenever necessary with- 
out application to the appointing authority. They will be allowed 
the pay and allowances of civilian witnesses, which will be paid 
by the Quartermaster Corps on vouchers certified by the judge 
advocate or recorder. 

CHALLENGES 

The composition of the court martial having been made 
known to the accused by the reading of the appointing order, to- 
gether with any orders which have operated to modify the 
composition of the court as originally constituted, he is asked by 
the judge advocate whether he objects to being tried by any mem- 
ber present named in the order and modifying orders. If his 
reply be in the negative, the court and judge advocate are sworn; 
if, on the other hand, the accused has objection to a member, he 
exercises his right in this respect by challenging, in turn, each 
member to whom he objects. Members of a general or special 
court martial may be challenged by the accused, but only for 
cause stated to the court. The court shall determine the rele- 
vancy and validity thereof, and shall not receive a challenge to 
more than one member at a time. Neither a summary court offi- 
cer nor the judge advocate of a general or special court martial is 
subject to challenge. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 725 

The various classes of challenges recognized at common law 
have been practically reduced in courts martial practice to two, 
viz., (1) principal challenges, or those where the member must be 
excused upon proof of the ground for challenges as alleged; (2) 
for favor, where the court must decide whether the facts proved 
constitute cause to excuse the member. 

OATHS 

The challenges having been disposed of, the judge advo- 
cate of a general or special court martial shall administer to the 
members of the court, before they proceed upon any trial, the fol- 
lowing oath or affirmation: 

You, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that you will well and truly 
try and determine, according to the evidence, the matter now be- 
fore you, between the United States of America and the person to 
be tried, and that you will duly administer justice, without par- 
tiality, favor, or affection, according to the provisions of the rules 
and articles for the government of the Armies of the United 
States, and if any doubt should arise, not explained by said articles, 
then according to your conscience, the best of your understanding, 
and the custom of war in like cases; and you do further swear (or 
affirm) that you will not divulge the findings or sentence of the 
court until they shall be published by the proper authority, except 
to the judge advocate and assistant judge advocate; neither will 
you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular mem- 
ber of the court martial, unless required to give evidence thereof 
as a witness by a court of justice in due course of law. So help you 
God. 

In case of affirmation the closing sentence of adjuration will 
be omitted. 

When more than one case is tried by the same court, the 
oath must be administered anew for each case. 

The oaths or affirmations prescribed in the 19th Article of 
War for the members, the judge advocate, a witness, and others 
will always be administered, but in addition there may be such 
additional ceremony or acts as will make the oath or affirmation 
binding on the conscience of the person taking it. 

Oath of Judge Advocate. — When the oath or affirmation has 
been administered to the members of a general or special court 
martial, the president of the court shall administer to the judge 
advocate and to each assistant judge advocate, if any, the oath or 
affirmation in the following form: 

You, A. B., do swear (or affirm) that you will not divulge the 
findings or sentence of the court to any but the proper authority 
until they shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God. 



726 MILITARY TRAINING 

Oath of Witness. — All persons who give evidence before a 
court martial shall be examined on oath or affirmation in the fol- 
lowing form, administered by the judge advocate: 

You swear (or affirm) that the evidence you shall give in 
the case now in hearing shall be the truth, the whole truth, and 
nothing but the truth. So help you God. 

If either the judge advocate or assistant judge advocate is 
to testify, the oath or affirmation will be administered by the other 
or by the president. 

Oath of Reporter. — Every reporter of the proceedings of a 
court martial shall, before entering upon his duties, make oath or 
affirmation in the following form, administered by the judge ad- 
vocate: 

You swear (or affirm) that you will faithfully perform the 
duties of reporter to this court. So help you God. 

Oath of Interpreter. — Every interpreter in the trial of any 
case before a court martial shall, before entering upon his duties, 
make oath or affirmation in the following form, administered by 
the judge advocate: 

You swear (or affirm) that you will truly interpret in the 
case now in hearing. So help you God. 

Oath to Test Competency. — When a member of a general or 
special court martial is challenged and it is desired to question him 
regarding his eligibility to sit as a member in the trial of a case, 
the judge advocate will administer to him the following oath: 

You swear that you will true answers make to questions 
touching your competency as a member of the court in this case. 
So help you God. 

ARRAIGNMENT 

On the swearing in of the members and the judge advocate, 
the organization of the court is complete for the trial of the 
charges in the case then before the court. In each case tried by 
the court the appointing order must be read anew, a new oppor- 
tunity to challenge must be given, and the members, judge advo- 
cate, reporter, and interpreter must be sworn anew. In each case 
the proceedings must be complete without reference to any other 
case. 

Procedure. — The court being organized, and both parties 
ready to proceed, the judge advocate will read the charges and 
specifications, separately and in order, to the accused and ask him 
how he pleads to each. The order pursued, in case of several 
charges or specifications, will be to arraign on the first, second, 
etc., specifications to the first charge, then on the first charge, 
and so on with the rest. The reading of the charges and specifi- 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 727 

cations and the pleas of the accused in answer thereto constitute 
the arraignment of the accused. In reading the charges the judge 
advocate will also read the name and rank of the officer pre- 
ferring them. 

PLEAS 

In court martial procedure the usual pleas are the follow- 
ing: (a) Pleas to the jurisdiction; (b) pleas in abatement; (c) 
pleas in bar of trial; and (d) please to the general issue. The 
first three mentioned are also known as special pleas. These 
pleas should be made in the order named. 

ATTENDANCE OF WITNESSES 

Every judge advocate of a general or special court martial, 
and every summary court martial shall have power to issue the 
like process to compel witnesses to appear and testify which courts 
of the United States, having criminal jurisidiction, may lawfully 
issue; but such process shall run to any part of the United States, 
its Territories, and possessions. The authority to issue such process 
is in terms vested solely in the judge advocate of a general or special 
court martial and in a summary court martial, and it is by them 
alone that the process can be initiated. The judge advocate, how- 
ever, will sometimes property consult the court as to the desira- 
bility of resorting to an attachment; especially where any consider- 
able time may be required for the service and return of the same, 
and an unusual adjournment may thus be necessitated. He will 
also properly resort to it whenever the court in its desire to secure 
the best or material evidence not otherwise procurable calls upon 
him for the purpose. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE 

Circumstantial evidence is not resorted to because there is 
an absence of direct or testimonial evidence. It is introduced even 
when there is direct evidence; nor is it an inferior substitute for 
direct evidence. Circumstantial evidence may furnish a safe and 
satisfactory ground for belief, while on the other hand direct or 
testimonial evidence may leave the court in doubt. The proper 
effect of circumstantial as compared with direct evidence has been 
stated as follows: 

When circumstances connect themselves closely with each 
other, when they form a large and strong body so as to carry con- 



728 MILITARY TRAINING 

viction to the minds of a jury, it may be proof of a more satis- 
factory sort than that which is direct. In some lamentable in- 
stances it has been known that a short story has been got by heart 
by two or three witnesses; they have been consistent with them- 
selves, they have been consistent with each other, swearing posi- 
tively to a fact, which fact has turned out afterwards not to be 
true. It is almost impossible for a variety of witnesses, speaking 
to a variety of circumstances, so to concoct a story as to impose 
upon a jury by a fabrication of that sort, so that where it is cogent, 
strong, and powerful, where the witnesses do not contradict each 
other or do not contradict themselves, it may be evidence more 
satisfactory than even direct evidence, and there are more instances 
than one where that has been the case. In a case depending upon 
circumstantial evidence the court, in order to convict, must find 
the circumstances to be satisfactorily proved as facts, and must 
also find that those facts clearly and unequivocally imply the guilt 
of the accused and can not reasonably be reconciled with any 
hypothesis of his innocence. 

TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE 

Testimonial evidence is the statement of some person offered 
as evidencing the fact asserted by it. For example, a statement 
that a rifle was discharged at a certain hour and place is testi- 
monial evidence that it was so discharged. 

Such statements may be made either in court or out of court. 
If made in court as a witness, then the witness must be " com- 
petent." If made out of court, then even if he is competent, the 
statement is not admissible, because the hearsay rule forbids. 

The competency of the witness is therefore the important 
thing to determine before admitting testimonial evidence. 

Competency Rule in General. — The modern tendency, as evi- 
denced to a great extent by statutes of different States, and to a 
limited extent by Federal statutes, is to recognize practically no 
grounds for incompetency, but to admit the material and relevant 
testimony of a witness offered by either side and leave his credit to 
be estimated according to all the circumstances. 

PRESUMPTIONS 

Presumptions constitute a large part of the law of evidence. 
They are of two kinds — presumptions of law and presumptions of 
fact. 

Broadly speaking, a presumption of law is a rule of law that 
when certain circumstances exist the court must presume certain 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 729 

other circumstances. Presumptions of law are divided into conclu- 
sive and disputable presumptions. In case of a conclusive presump- 
tion of law the presumption can not be contradicted. For example, 
all residents of a country are conclusively presumed to know its 
laws. This presumption is in force in the practice of courts martial 
so far as concerns offenses that constitute civil crimes. In case of a 
disputable presumption of law, the presumption can be contra- 
dicted. For example, it is presumed that a sane person intends the 
natural and probable consequences of his acts; a person is pre- 
sumed to be innocent until proven guilty; all persons are presumed 
to be sane; persons acting as public officers are presumed to be 
legally in office and to properly perform their duties; and malice is 
presumed from the use of a deadly weapon. Evidence may be in- 
troduced to rebut such presumptions. 

Presumptions of fact are nothing more than logical in- 
ferences, from facts already proved, as to the existence of other 
facts. This kind of a presumption is not made as a rule of law 
but as a matter of human reason. All evidence in a case, except 
that which directly proves the allegations in the specifications, 
leads at once to presumptions of fact. Such presumptions are the 
basis of all circumstantial evidence. It is in making such pre- 
sumptions that the members of the court should especially exercise 
their common sense and their knowledge of human nature and the 
ways of the world. Facts in evidence showing a motive or absence 
of motive on the part of the accused, preparations or the absence 
of preparations for the commission of crime, a failure to account 
for suspicious circumstances, acts showing a criminal conscious- 
ness (as concealment, disguise, or flight), the suppression of evi- 
dence, the possession of weapons or instruments that might have 
been used in the commission of the offense, the possession soon 
after larceny or embezzlement of the articles stolen or embezzled, 
are a proper basis for presumptions of fact. 

JUDICIAL NOTICE 

Courts will recognize the existence and truth of certain mat- 
ters bearing upon the issue before them of their own motion and 
without requiring the production of evidence. Such acceptance is 
known as " taking judicial notice " of them. This is done as to 
all matters of law and all facts which are so notorious as to need 
no evidence. To the former class belong the laws which the court 
applies in the decision of the cases before it, including the Con- 
stitution, laws, and treaties of the United States, those of the State 
in which it sits, the common law, and the law of nations. They 
also take notice of the great seal of the United States, those of the 



730 MILITARY TRAINING 

several States, the seal of courts of record, notaries public, etc. 
Under the latter head they will take judicial notice of the ordinary- 
divisions of time, of calendar and lunar months, of weeks and days, 
and of the hours of the day; of astronomical and physical facts; of 
the laws of nature, including their ordinary operations and conse- 
quences; of the Government of the United States and those of the 
several States and their heads; of war and peace; and of the great 
facts of ^history as recorded in the works of writers of standard 
authority. So in addition all courts martial will take judicial 
notice of the organization of the Army, the statutes relating to the 
Army, the Army 'Regulations, the contents of the several manuals 
issued, the existence and situation of military departments, reserva- 
tions, and posts, and the stations of troops as published to the 
Army, the fact that an officer belongs to a certain organization, 
etc. General and special orders, general court martial orders, and 
bulletins of the War Department and headquarters of the several 
military departments may ordinarily be proved by printed official 
copies in the usual form. A court martial will in general properly 
take judicial notice of the printed order as genuine and correct. A 
court martial, however, should not in general accept in evidence, 
if objected to, a printed or written order which has not been made 
public to the Army without some proof of its genuineness and 
official character. Special and summary courts will take judicial 
notice of the published orders of the regimental and post com- 
mander. Where the price of an article furnished by the Govern- 
ment is published to the Army in orders, bulletins, or price lists, 
it will not be necessary to prove the price, as the court will take 
judicial notice of it. It is proper, although not necessary, for the 
judge advocate to state to the court that the price as set out in 
the charges is the same as that fixed by the order, bulletin, of price 
list. If the court is uncertain as to the fact which it is called upon 
to notice judicially, it may refer to any person or to any document 
or book of reference to satisfy itself with regard thereto, or it may 
refuse to take judicial notice of the fact unless and until the party 
calling upon jt to do so shall produce such document or book of 
reference. 

FINDINGS 



After the statements and arguments, if any are made, have 
been concluded the court will proceed to its judgment which con- 
sists of the findings and sentence. Members of a general or spe- 
cial court martial, in giving their votes, shall begin with the 
junior in rank. The votes of the members must be based upon 
and governed by the testimony in the case considered in connec- 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 731 

tion with the plea. The charges and specifications are voted upon 
in the same order that is followed in arraigning the accused, the 
fir.st specification to the first charge being voted upon, then the 
second, third, and thereafter in order, followed by a vote upon the 
charge itself; and so on with the other charges. A tie vote on a 
finding is a finding of not guilty. 

All convictions whether by general or special court martial 
may be determined by a majority of the members present, except 
that no person shall by general court martial be convicted of an 
offense for which the death penalty is made mandatory by law, 
unless by the concurrence of two-thirds of the members of said 
court martial and for an offense in the Articles of War expressly 
made punishable by death. 

Where issues arise during the progress of a trial, as for 
instance as to the competency of members or witnesses, and evi- 
dence is taken, the question at issue is determined by preponder- 
ance of evidence; but in order to convict of the charges and 
specifications or any part of them the court must be satisfied of the 
guilt of the accused beyond a reasonable doubt. 

ACTION ON THE PROCEEDINGS 

The term appointing authority is employed to designate the 
officer whose province and duty it is to take action upon the pro- 
ceedings of a court martial after the same are terminated, and, 
when the record is transmitted to him for such action, to approve 
or disapprove the sentence or acquittal. This officer is ordinarily 
the commander who has convened the court. In his absence, how- 
ever, or where the command has been otherwise changed, his 
successor in command, or the officer commanding for the time being 
is invested with the same authority to pass upon the proceedings 
and order the execution of the sentence in a case of conviction. 

Record of Action by Appointing Authority. — Upon the re- 
ceipt of the proceedings by the appointing authority, he will state 
at the end thereof in each case his decisions and orders. 

Sentence Not Effective Until Approved. — No sentence of a 
court martial shall be carried into execution until the same shall 
have been approved by the officer appointing the court or by the 
officer commanding for the time being. The acquittal of the ac- 
cused does not entitle him to be released at once from confine- 
ment as in cases before civil courts. The acquittal is not ef- 
fective until it has been acted on by the proper reviewing au- 
thority. But the announcement of the result of trial in orders 
is not essential to the validity of the sentence or acquittal. It is 
not necessary for the reviewing authority to approve the findings 
and proceedings. 



732 MILITARY TRAINING 

Effect of Approval and Dissapproval.— While approval gives 
life and operation to a sentence, disapproval, on the other hand, 
nullifies it. A disapproval of the sentence of a court martial by 
the reviewing authority is not a mere expression of disappro- 
bation but is a final determinate act putting an end to the pro- 
ceedings in the particular case and rendering them entirely nuga- 
tory and inoperative; and the legal effect of a disapproval is the 
same whether or not the officer disapproving is authorized finally 
to confirm the sentence. But to be thus operative a disapproval 
should be expressed. The effect of the entire disapproval of a 
sentence is not merely to annul the same as such but also to 
prevent the accruing of any disability or forfeiture, which would 
have been incidental upon an approval. 

SYSTEM OF COURT MARTIAL FOR NATIONAL GUARD 
NOT IN THE REGULAR SERVICE 

Except in organizations in the service of the United States, 
courts martial in the National Guard shall be of three kinds, namely, 
general courts martial, special courts martial, and summary courts 
martial. They shall be constituted like, and have cognizance of 
the same subjects, and possess like powers, except as to punish- 
ments, as similar courts provided for by the laws and regulations 
governing the Army of the United States, and the proceedings of 
courts martial of the National Guard shall follow the forms and 
modes of procedure prescribed for said similar courts. 

General courts martial of the National Guard not in the 
service of the United States may be convened by orders of the 
President, or of the Governors of the respective States and Terri- 
tories, or by the commanding general of the National Guard 
of the District of Columbia, and such courts shall have the power 
to impose fines not exceeding $200; to sentence to forfeiture of 
pay and allowances; to a reprimand; to dismissal or dishonor- 
able discharge from the service; to reduction of non-commissioned 
officers to the ranks; or any two or more of such punishments 
may be combined in the sentences imposed by such courts. 

In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
States, the commanding officer of each garrison, fort, post, camp, 
or other place, brigade, regiment, detached battalion, or other 
detached command, may appoint special courts martial for his 
command; but such special courts martial may in any case be 
appointed by superior authority when by the latter deemed de- 
sirable. Special courts martial shall have power to try any per- 
son subject to military law, except a commissioned officer, for any 
crime or offense made punishable by the military laws of the 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 733 

United States, and such special courts martial shall have the 
same powers of punishment as do general courts martial, except 
that fines imposed by such courts shall not exceed $100. 

In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
States, the commanding officer of each garrison, fort, post, or other 
place, regiment or corps, detached battalion, company, or other 
detachment of the National Guard may appoint for such place or 
command a summary court to consist of one officer, who shall 
have power to administer oaths and to try the enlisted men of 
such place or command for breaches of discipline and violations 
of laws governing such organizations; and said court, when satis- 
fied of the guilt of such soldier, may impose fines not exceeding 
$25 for any single offense; may sentence non-commissioned officers 
to reduction to the ranks; may sentence to forfeiture of pay and 
allowances. The proceedings of such court shall be informal, and 
the minutes thereof shall be the same as prescribed for summary 
courts of the Army of the United States. 

All courts martial of the National Guard, not in the service 
of the United States, including summary courts, shall have power 
to sentence to confinement in lieu of fines authorized to be im- 
posed: Provided, That such sentences of confinement shall not ex- 
ceed one day for each dollar of fine authorized. 

No sentence of dismissal from the service or dishonorable 
discharge, imposed by a National Guard court martial, not in the 
service of the United States, shall be executed until approved by 
the Governor of the State or Territory concerned, or by the com- 
manding general of the National Guard of the District of Col- 
umbia. 

In the National Guard, not in the service of the United 
States, presidents of courts martial and summary court officers 
shall have power to issue warrants to arrest accused persons and 
to bring them before the court for trial ^whenever 'such persons 
shall have disobeyed an order in writing from the convening au- 
thority to appear before such court, a copy of the charge or charges 
having been delivered to the accused with such order, and to issue 
subpoenas and subpoenas duces tecum and to enforce by attach- 
ment attendance of witnesses and the production of books and 
papers, and to sentence for a refusal to be sworn or to answer as 
provided in actions before civil courts. 

All processes and 'sentences of said courts shall be executed 
by such civil officers as may be prescribed by the laws of the sev- 
eral States and Territories, and in any State where no provision 
shall have been made for such action, and in the Territories and the 
District of Columbia, such processes and sentences shall be exe- 
cuted by a United States marshal or his duly appointed deputy, and 
it shall be the duty of any United States marshal to execute all such 



734 



MILITARY TRAINING 



processes and sentences and make return thereof to the officer 
issuing or imposing the same. 

FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY GENERAL COURT 

MARTIAL 

Record of Trial by General Court Martial of 



Index 

Page 

Arraignment . 

Pleas 

Statement by accused 

Address by counsel 

Reply by judge advocate 

Findings 

Previous convictions submitted 

Sentence (or acquittal) 

Proceedings in revision 



Testimony 



Deposition of Capt. 
Deposition of Pvt. - 
Letter of . . . 



Name of witness. 


Direct. 


Cross. 


Redirect. 


Examina- 
tion by 


Recalled. 




Page. 


Page. 


Page. 


Page. 


Page. 









































Number. 



Page where 
introduced. 



,- i £ ,, , not desired by accused. 

Carbon copy of the record \ t . , , .. J , 

I furnished the accused. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 735 

Proceedings of a general court martial which convened at 
'• — , , pursuant to the following order: 

(Here insert a literal copy of the order appointing the 
court and, following it, copies of any orders modifying the detail.) 

Fort , , 



19- 



The court met pursuant to the foregoing order at 

o'clock — . m. 

Present. 

Maj. , 5th Cavalry. 

Capt. , Medical Corps. 

First Lieut. , 10th Infantry. 

First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry. 

Second Lieut. , Coast Artillery Corps. 

First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry, judge advocate. 

Second Lieut. , 29th Infantry, assistant judge advocate. 

Absent. 

Capt. , Coast Artillery Corps (detached service). 

Second Lieut. , 10th Infantry (leave of absence). 

The court proceeded to the trial of Private , Company 

, Infantry, who, on appearing before the court, stated 

that he did not desire counsel or introduced as counsel. 

was sworn as reporter. 

Capt. announced that he was the accuser and was 

excused and withdrew. 

(If an interpreter is to be used he should be sworn when his 
services are required.) 

The order appointing the court (and the order or orders 
modifying the detail, if any) was (or were) read to the accused, and 
he was asked if he objected to being tried by any member present 
named therein; to which he replied in the negative; or 

Defense: (Insert statement.) 

Captain : 

(Insert the statement of the challenged member, who ordi- 
narily should respond to the challenge by briefly admitting or 
denying the grounds of the challenge. Should the accused, after 
the statement, desire to call upon the member to testify as to his 
competency, the record should continue:) 

The accused having requested that the challenged member 
be sworn as to his competency to act as a member of the court, 
was sworn by the judge advocate and testified as follows: 

The court was closed, and on being opened the president an- 



736 MILITARY TRAINING 

nounced in the presence of the accused and his counsel, that the 
challenge was not sustained or that the challenge was sustained. 

If the challenge is sustained: then withdrew. 

The accused was asked if he objected to any other member 
present, to which he replied in the negative or 

Defense: 

(Insert objection in full, record, and continue as before until 
accused replies in the negative.) 

The members of the court, the judge advocate, and the as- 
sistant judge advocate were then sworn. 

(If delay is desired, request should now be made and the 
proceedings recorded. If no continuance is requested, the record 
should continue:) 

The accused was then arraigned upon the following charges 
and specifications: 

Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 

Specification: In that, etc. 

Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 

Specification 1: In that, etc. 

Specification 2: In that, etc. 

, Capt. Infantry. 

To which the accused pleaded: 

To the specification, Charge I: Guilty or Not guilty. 

To Charge I: Guilty or Not Guilty. 

To Specification 1, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 

To Specification 2, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 

To Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 

The paragraphs of the Manual for Courts Martial that set 
out the gist of each of the several offenses were read to the court 
by the judge advocate. 

Sergt. John Jones, Company , — Infantry, a wit- 
ness for the prosecution, was sworn and testified as follows: 

Questions by prosecution: 
Q. Do you know the accused? If so, state who he is. 

A. I do; Pvt. , Company , - — Infantry. 

(The succeeding questions of the prosecution and their an- 
swers should follow in order.) 

Questions by defense: 

Q. ? 

A. . 

(If the defense declines to cross-examine the witness, the 
record should state:) 

The defense declined to cross-examine the witness. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 737 

Questions by prosecution: 

Q. ? 

A. . 

Questions by defense: 

Q. ? 

A. . 

Questions by court: 

Q. ? 

A. . 

Prosecution: (Insert objection.) 
Member: (Insert reply, etc.) 

(If the accused or another member object, the record would 
proceed in a corresponding way.) 

The court was closed, and on being opened the president 
announced in the presence of the accused and his counsel that the 
objection was sustained or was not sustained. 

(In the latter case the record should continue:) 

The question was then repeated: 

A. . 

(If the court considers it necessary to hear the testimony of 
the witness read or the witness desires to have any part of his 
testimony read for correction, the record will show the fact and 
the corrections, if any.) 

(After the proper foundation for the introduction of a writing 
has been laid the record will continue.) 

Prosecution: "I offer in evidence the" (Describe the writ- 
ing or other proposed exhibit). 

Defense: (Insert his reply. If there is no objection the 
record will continue.) 

The paper (or other proposed exhibit) was then received in 

evidence and is appended marked (insert the number of the 

exhibit). 

(If there is objection the record will continue by stating any 
further remarks of the prosecution.) 

The court was closed, and on being opened the president an- 
nounced in the presence of the accused and his counsel that the 
objection was sustained (or was not sustained). 

(If the objection is not sustained the record will continue 
as in the case where there is no objection. If the objection is sus- 
tained there will be no further entry.) 

(If it is the defense that seeks to introduce the writing, the 
record would proceed in a corresponding manner.) 



738 MILITARY TRAINING 

(At the close of the prosecution the record should continue.) 

Prosecution: The prosecution rests. 

(If the court adjourns to meet another day the record should 
continue.) 

The court then, at o'clock - — . m., adjourned to meet 

at o'clock — . m. on . 



First Lieutenant 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 

Fort , , 19—. 

The court met, pursuant to adjournment, at o'clock 

p— : . m. 

Present: 

All the members of the court, the judge advocate, and the as- 
sistant judge advocate. 

The accused, his counsel, and the reporter were also present. 

(If the proceedings of the previous day are required to bei 
read, the fact will be recorded in the following form: 

The proceedings of — were read and approved, or cor- 
rected, as follows: 

(In the latter case enumerate corrections, giving page and 
line on which they occur.) 

Gorpl. John Smith, Company , Infantry, a wit- 
ness for the defense, was sworn and testified as follows: 

Questions by prosecution: 

(When considered desirable, the first question may be as to 
the identity of the witness.) 

Q. Do you know the accused? If so, state who he is. 
A. . 

Questions by defense: 

Q. ? 

A. -. 



(Should the accused testify in his own behalf, the record will 
continue.) 

The accused, at his own request, was sworn and testified as 
follows: 

Questions by defense: 

Q. ? 

A. . 

(If the defense offers no other witness, the record should 
continue.) 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 739 

The defense had no further testimony to offer and no state- 
ment to make, or, having no further testimony to offer, made the 
following verbal statement. 

Or, having no further testimony to offer, submitted a written 
statement, which was read to the court, and is hereto appended and 
marked — . 

Or, requested until o'clock — . m. to prepare his de- 
fense. 

(If the court takes a recess during the time asked for, the 
record will continue.) 

The court then took a recess until o'clock — . m., at 

which hour the members of the court, the judge advocate, the as- 
sistant judge advocate, the accused, his counsel, and the reporter, 
resumed their seats. 

(Or, if the court has other business before it, the record may 
continue.) 

The court then proceeded to other business, and at 

o'clock — . m. resumed the trial of this case, at which hour, etc. 

Defense: (Insert statement). 

Or, The defense read to the court a statement, which is 
hereto appended and marked — . 

The prosecution: (Insert statement). 

Or, The prosecution read to the court a statement, which is 
hereto appended and marked — . 

The court was closed, and finds the accused: 

Of the specification, Charge I: Guilty or, Not guilty. 

Of Charge I: Guilty or Not guilty. 

Of Specification 1, Charge II: Guilty, except the words 
" ," substituting therefor the words " "; of the ex- 
cepted words, " Not guilty " and of the substituted words " Guilty." 

Of Specification 2, Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty. 

Of Charge II: Guilty or Not guilty, or Not guilty, but 
guilty of . 

(If a soldier is found guilty, the record should continue.) 

The court was opened and the judge advocate stated, in the 
presence of the accused and his counsel, that he had no evidence 
of previous convictions to submit. 

Or, read the evidence of previous convictions, copies 

of which are hereto appended and marked " 4," " 5," etc. 

(If the defense has any statement to make in regard to the 
previous convictions or statement of service, it will be recorded.) 

The court was closed, and sentences the accused to . 

(No previous convictions, or accused acquitted.) 

The court sentences the accused, Private , 

Infantry, to , etc., or acquits the accused. 



740 MILITARY TRAINING 

The court, at — m., was opened and proceeded to other 
business. 

Or, adjourned until — m., the instant. 

Or, adjourned to meet at the call of the president. 



Major, 5th Cavalry, President. 



First Lieutenant, 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 
(At least two blank sheets will be inserted after the adjourn- 
ment and before the exhibits for the decision and orders of the 
reviewing authority.) 

Binding and Brief 

(The papers forming the complete record will be securely 
bound together at the top (easily removed clips or paper fasteners 
will not be used) and the record folded in four folds and briefed on 
the first fold, as follows: 



Private, Company , Infantry. 

Trial by general court martial. 

Form for Revision of Record 

Fort 






-, 19—. 



The court reconvened at o'clock — . m., pursuant to 

-the following indorsement: 

(Insert copy of indorsement.) 

Present 

Maj. , 5th Cavalary. 

Capt. , Medical Corps. 

First Lieut. , 10th Infantry. 

First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry. 

First Lieut. , 5th Cavalry, judge advocate. 

Second Lieut. , Coast Artillery Corps. 

Second Lieut. , 29th Infantry, assistant judge advocate. 

Absent 
(Insert names of absentees and state cause of absence, if 

known.) 

The judge advocate read to the court the foregoing indorse- 
ment of the convening authority. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 741 

The court was closed and revokes its former findings and 
sentence, and finds the accused, etc. 

Or, revokes its former sentence and sentences the accused, 



etc. 



Or, respectfully adheres to its former findings and sentence. 
Or, amends the record by, etc. 

The judge advocate was then recalled and the court at 
- — . m., etc. 



Major, 5th Cavalry, President. 



First Lieutenant, 5th Cavalry, Judge Advocate. 
(The record of revision will be appended to the original 
proceedings, following them immediately, before the exhibits, and 
will be forwarded by indorsement on the charges to the appoint- 
ing authority.) 

FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY A SPECIAL COURT 

MARTIAL 

Fort , 



-, 19- 



The special court martial appointed by paragraph , 

Special Orders, No. , Headquarters , , 19 — as 

modified by paragraph , Special Orders, No. , Head- 
quarters , met at , — m. 

PRESENT 
ABSENT 

The court proceeded to the trial of Private . Company 

, Infantry, who, on appearing before the court (stated 

that he did not desire counsel) (introduced as counsel). 

( was sworn as reporter.) 

(Capt. , because ineligible, was excused and withdrew.) 

(First Lieuts. and were, upon challenge, ex- 
cused and withdrew.) 

The accused stated that he had no objection to trial by any 
member (remaining) present. 

The members of the court and the judge advocate were 
sworn. 

The accused was arraigned upon the following charges and 
specifications: 

Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 

Specification: In that, etc. 

Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 



742 MILITARY TRAINING 



Specification 1 : In that, etc. 
Specification 2: In that, etc. 



Pleas 

To all specifications and charges: 
To the Specification, Charge I: — 
To Charge I: . 



Captain, Infantry. 



To Specification 1, Charge II: . 

To Specification 2, Charge II: . 

To Charge II: . 

The following-named persons were sworn and testified: 

Sergt. , Infantry. 

Corpl. , Infantry. 

Pvt. , Infantry. 

The defense was given full opportunity to examine each wit- 
ness. 

(The depositions of the following-named persons were re- 
ceived in evidence and are hereto appended marked — , — , — .) 

The accused (at his own request was sworn and testified) 
(made a statement to the court). 

The accused stated that he had nothing further to offer. 

The court was closed and finds the accused: 

Of all specifications and charges: . 

Of the Specification, Charge I: . 

Of Charge I : ■ . 



Of Specication 1, Charge II: . 

Of Specification 2, Charge II: . 

Of Charge II: . 

(The court therefore acquits him.) 

The court was opened and the judge advocate, in the pres- 
ence of the accused (and his counsel) (stated that he had no evi- 
dence of previous convictions to submit) (read the evidence of 
: previous convictions.) 

(The court was closed and sentences the accused to .) 

The court was opened and (proceeded to other business) 
(adjourned.) 



Major, Infantry, President. 



First Lieutenant, Infantry, Judge Advocate. 

Approved, , 191 — . 



Colonel, Infantry, Commanding. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 743 

FORM FOR RECORD OF TRIAL BY SUMMARY COURT 

Charge Sheet. No. in Summary Court Record . 



(Place) Date) 



(Surname) (Christian name) (Rank and organization) 

Date current enlistment: . Rate of pay: . 

Previous service: 

(Give dates, with character given on each discharge) 
Date of 

Arrest: . 

Conviction : . 

No. of previous convictions: 



Witnesses* 

First Sergt. , Company , Infantry. 

Private , Company , Infantry. 

Charge I: Violation of the Article of War. 

Specification: In that, etc. 

Charge II: Violation of the Article of War. 

Specification 1: In that, etc. 
Specification 2: In that, etc. 

[1st Ind.] 

Headquarters , , 19 — . To Capt. , < 

Infantry, Summary Court, for trial. 

By order of Col. . 



Captain, Infantry, Adjutant. 

Findings: (If the findings as to all the specifications and 
charges are the same, a single proper entry, such as " Guilty," or 
" Not guilty," will be made. If necessary, however, in order to 
show the facts, detailed entries will be made.) 

Sentence: . 



Captain, Infantry, Summary Court. 

Approved: , 19 — . 



Colonel, Infantry, Commanding. 

FORMS FOR SENTENCES 

A sentence adjudged by a court martial will, in a proper 
case, be expressed substantially in one or another of the forms fol- 



744 MILITARY TRAINING 

lowing. When desirable, in a proper case, two or more of the 
forms may be combined. 

1. To have his pay for days detained. 

2. To have two-thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per 
month for months detained. 

3. To forfeit days' pay. 

4. To forfeit two-thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per 
month for months. 

5. To perform hard labor for days (or months). 

6. To be confined at hard labor for days (or months). 

7. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the review- 
ing authority may direct, for days (or months or years). 

8. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the re- 
viewing authority may direct, for months and to forfeit two- 
thirds (or other fraction) of his pay per month for a like period. 

9. To be dishonorably discharged the service and to forfeit 
all pay and allowances due or to become due. 

10. To be dishonorably discharged the service, to forfeit all 
pay and allowances due or to become due, and to be confined at 
hard labor, at such place as the reviewing authority may direct, 
for days (or months or years). 

11. To be reduced to the ranks. 

12. To vacate all rights and privileges arising from his cer- 
tificate of eligibility. 

13. To be admonished. 

14. To be reprimanded. 

15. To be restricted to the limits of his post (or other place) 
for months. 

16. To be suspended from duty for months. 

17. To be suspended from command for months 

18. To be suspended from rank for months. 

19. To be reduced in rank files. 

20. To be reduced in rank so that his name shall appear 
in the lineal list of officers of his arm next below that of . 

21. To be dismissed the service. 

22. To pay to the United States a fine of dollars and 

to be confined at hard labor, at such place as the reviewing author- 
ity may direct, until said fine is so paid, but for not more than 
months (or years). 

23. To pay to the United States a fine of dollars, to 

be confined at hard labor, at such place as the reviewing authority 
may direct, for months (or years), and to be further con- 
fined at hard labor until said fine is so paid, but for not more than 

■ months (or years), in addition to the months or 

years) hereinbefore adjudged. 



MILITARY JURISDICTION 745 

24. To be confined at hard labor, at such place as the re- 
viewing authority may direct, for the term of his natural life. 

25. To be shot to death with musketry. 

26. To be hanged by the neck until dead. 

FORMS FOR ORDERS VACATING SUSPENSIONS 

Headquarters , , 191 — . 

1. So much of the order published in Court-Martial 

Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, , 191 — 

{or found in a record of trial by summary court approved , 

191 — ), as suspends execution of sentence in the case of is 

vacated and said sentence will be carried into execution. 

By order of Col. . 



Adjutant. 



Headquarters , , 191 — . 

2. So much of the order published in Court-Martial 

Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, , 191 — 

{or found in a record of trial by summary court approved , 

191 — ), as suspends execution of sentence to confinement {or for- 
feiture of pay) in the case of is vacated and that part of said 

sentence will be carried into execution. 

By order of Col. . 



Adjutant. 



Headquarters , , 191 — . 

3. So much of the order published in General Court-Martial 
Order No. — , , 191 — , these headquarters, as suspends execu- 
tion of sentence to dishonorable discharge in the case of is 

vacated and that part of said sentence will be carried into 
execution. 

By order of Col. . 

, Adjutant. 



The discipline and reputation of the Army are deeply in- 
volved in the manner in which military courts are conducted and 
justice administered. The duties, therefore, that devolve on officers 
appointed to sit as members of courts martial are of the most grave 
and important character. That these duties may be discharged 
with justice and propriety it is incumbent on all officers to apply 
themselves diligently to the acquirement of a competent knowledge 
of military law, to make themselves perfectly acquainted with all 
orders and regulations, and with the practice of military courts. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

LAND WARFARE, CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES 
AND TREATMENT OF ENEMY PROPERTY 

The object of war is to bring about the complete submission 
of the enemy as soon as possible by means of regulated violence. 
The conduct of war is regulated by certain well-established rules 
designated as the laws of war, which comprise the rules, both 
written and unwritten, for the carrying on of war, both on land 
and at sea. 

Military Necessity. — Military necessity justifies a resort to all 
the measures which are not forbidden by the modern laws and 
customs of war, and admits of all direct destruction of life or limb 
of armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is 
incidentally unavoidable in the armed contests of war; it allows 
of the capturing of every armed enemy, and of every enemy of 
importance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the 
captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of 
ways and channels of traffic, travel, or communication, and of all 
withholding of sustenance or means of life from the enemy; of the 
appropriation of whatever the enemy's country affords that is 
necessary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such 
deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith, either 
positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the 
war, or .supposed by the modern law of war to exist. 

Military necessity does not admit of cruelty — that is, the 
infliction of suffering for the sake of suffering or for revenge, nor 
of maiming or wounding except in fight, nor of torture to extort 
confessions. It does not admit of the use of poison in any way, 
nor of the wanton devastation of a district. It admits of decep- 
tion, but disclaims acts of perfidy; and, in general, military neces- 
sity does not include any act of hostility which makes the return to 
peace unnecessarily difficult. 

Martial Law. — Martial law is simply military authority ex- 
ercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. There are 
under the Constitution three kinds of military jurisdiction — one to 
be exercised in both peace and war; another to be exercised in 
time of foreign war without the boundaries of the United 



LAND WARFARE 747 

States, or in time of rebellion or ciivl war within States or 
districts occupied by rebels treated as belligerents; and, third, to 
be exercised in time of invasion of insurrection within the limits 
of the United States, or during rebellion within the limits of States 
maintaining adhesion to the National Government, when the public 
danger requires its exercise. The first of these may be called 
jurisdiction under military law, and is found in Acts of Congress 
prescribing Rules and Articles of War, or otherwise providing for 
the government of the national forces; the second may be dis- 
tinguished as military government, superseding, as far as may be 
deemed expedient, the local law, and exercised by the military 
commander under the direction of the President, with the express 
or implied sanction of Congress; while the third may be denomi- 
nated martial law proper, and is called into action by Congress, 
or temporarily, when the action of Congress can not be invited, 
and in the case of justifying or excusing peril, by the President, in 
times of insurrection or invasion, or of civil or foreign war, within 
districts or localities where ordinary law no longer adequately 
secures public safety and private rights. This distinction has 
never since been sustained by the Supreme Court, although mili- 
tary writers have made use of the term " military government " to 
designate the jurisdiction exercised over enemy territory by the 
military, regarding enemy territory to include that of a foreign 
state and also that part of the belligerent state that has been ac- 
corded recognition of belligerency, and " martial law " to designate 
the jurisdiction exercised by the military power over parts of the 
dominant state that is in rebellion or insurrection without being 
recognized as belligerents, or, in a word, treating "martial law" as 
a domestic fact. 

Martial law extends to property and to all persons in the 
occupied territory, whether they are subjects of the enemy or aliens 
to that government. 

Military Jurisdiction. — Military jurisdiction is of two kinds: 
First, that which is conferred and defined by statute; second, that 
which is derived from the common law of war. Military offenses 
under the statute law must be tried in the manner therein directed, 
but military offenses which do not come within the statute must be 
tried and punished under the common law of war. The character 
of the courts which exercise these jurisdictions depends upon the 
local laws of each particular country. In the armies of the United 
States the first is exercised by courts-martial, while cases which 
do not come within the Rules and Articles of War, or the juris- 
diction conferred by statute on courts-martial, are tried by military 
commissions. 

Whenever feasible, martial law is carried out in cases of 
individual offenders by military courts; but sentences of death are 



748 MILITARY TRAINING 

executed only with the approval of the Chief Executive, provided 
the urgency of the case does not require a speedier execution, and 
then only with the approval of the commander of the occupying 
forces. 

The law of war not only disclaims all cruelty and bad faith 
concerning engagements concluded with the enemy during the war, 
but also the breaking of treaty obligations entered into by bel- 
ligerents in time of peace and avowedly intended to remain in force 
in case of war between the contracting powers. It disclaims all 
extortion and other transactions for individual gain; all acts of 
private revenge, or connivance at such acts. Offenses to the con- 
trary are severely punished, and especially so if committed by 
officers. 

THE COMMENCEMENT OF HOSTILITIES 

The contracting parties recognize that hostilities between 
themselves must not commence without previous and explicit warn- 
ing in the form either of a reasoned declaration of war or of an 
ultimatum accompanied by a conditional declaration of war. 

Nothing in the foregoing rule requires that any time shall 
elapse between the actual declaration of war and the commence- 
ment of hostilities. It is still possible, therefore, to make a sudden 
and unexpected declaration of war and thus surprise an unprepared 
enemy. 

The existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral 
powers without delay, but shall not take effect in regard to them 
until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be 
given by telegraph. Neutral powers, nevertheless, can not rely 
on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they 
were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war. 

TREATMENT OF RESIDENT ENEMY SUBJECTS 

The first effect of war between two states is to cause every 
subject of the one to become an enemy of every subject of the 
other, since it is impossible to sever the subjects from their states. 

Every belligerent state possesses the inherent right to take 
such steps as it may deem necessary for the control of all persons 
whose conduct or presence appears dangerous to its safety. In 
strict law enemy subjects located or resident in hostile territory 
may be detained, interned in designated localities, or expelled 
from the country. 

It is now universally recognized that hostilities are restricted 
to the armed forces of belligerents, and that the unarmed citizens 



LAND WARFARE 749 

who refrain from acts of hostility and pursue their ordinary avoca- 
tions must be distinguished from the armed forces of the bel- 
ligerent, must be treated leniently, must not be injured in their lives 
or liberty, except for cause or after due trial, and must not, as a 
rule, be deprived of their private property. 

Enemy subjects are not made prisoners en masse on the 
breaking out of hostilities. Persons known to be active or reserve 
officers, or reservists, of the hostile army, as well as persons sus- 
pected of communicating with the enemy, are detained and, if 
deemed advisable, interned on the ground of self-preservation, in 
the exercise of the right of control. 

In modern practice the expulsion of the citizens or subjects 
of the enemy is generally decreed from seaports, fortresses, de- 
fended areas, and the actual or contemplated theatres of operation. 
From other territory the practice is not uniform, expulsion being 
resorted to usually for grave reasons of state only. When decreed, 
the persons expelled should be given such reasonable notice, con- 
sistent with public safety, as will enable them to arrange for the 
collection, disposal, and removal of their goods and property. 

THE ARMED FORCES OF BELLIGERENTS 

The enemy population is divided in war into two general 
classes, known as the armed forces and the peaceful population. 
Both classes have distinct rights, duties, and disabilities, and no 
person can belong to both classes at one and the same time. 

The laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, 
but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following con- 
ditions: 

1. To be commanded by a person responsible for his subordi- 
nates; 2. To have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a dis- 
tance; 3. To carry arms openly; and 4. To conduct their operations 
in accordance with the laws and usages of war. In countries where 
militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of it, 
they are included under the denomination " army." 

The members of the army as above defined are entitled to 
recognition as belligerent forces whether they have joined volun- 
tarily, or have been compelled to do so by state law, and whether 
they joined before or after war is declared, and whether they are 
nationals of the enemy or of a neutral state. 

The first condition above is satisfied if commanded by a 
regularly or temporarily commissioned officer, or by a person of 
position and authority, or if the officers, non-commissioned officers, 
and men are furnished with certificates or badges, granted by the 
government of the state, that will distinguish them from persons 
acting on their own responsibility. 



750 MILITARY TRAINING 

The second requirement is satisfied by the wearing of a 
uniform, or even less than a complete uniform. The distance 
that the sign must be visible is left vague and undetermined and the 
practice is not uniform. This requirement is satisfied certainly if 
this sign is " easily distinguishable by the naked eye of ordinary 
people " at a distance at which the form of an individual can be 
determined. Every nation making use of these troops should adopt, 
before hostilities commence, either a uniform or a distinctive sign 
which will fulfill the required conditions and give notice of the same 
to the enemy, although this notification is not required. 

The third condition is imposed to prevent making use of arms 
for active opposition and afterwards discarding or concealing them 
on the approach of the enemy, and is not satisfied by carrying con- 
cealed weapons, such as pistols, daggers, sword sticks, etc. 

When such troops are utilized they must be instructed in and 
be required to conform to the laws of war, and especially as to cer- 
tain essentials, such as the use of treachery, maltreatment of 
prisoners, the wounded and dead, violations of or improper conduct 
toward flags of truce, pillage, unnecessary violence, and destruction 
of property, etc. 

The inhabitants of a territory which has not been occupied, 
who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to 
resist the invading troops without having had time to organize 
themselves, are regarded as belligerents if they carry arms openly 
and if they respect the laws and customs of war. No belligerent 
has the right to declare that he will treat every captured man in 
arms of a levee en masse as a brigand or bandit. Certain classes 
of those forming part of a lavee en masse can not claim the privi- 
leges accorded in the preceding paragraph. Among these are de- 
serters, subjects of the invading belligerent, and those who are 
known to have violated the laws and customs of war. 

If the people of a country, or any portion of the same, 
already occupied by an army, rise against it, they are violators of 
the laws of war, and are not entitled to their protection. 

The determination of the status of captured troops is to be 
left to courts organized for the purpose. Summary executions are 
no longer contemplated under the laws of war. The officers' duty 
is to hold the persons of those captured, and leave the question of 
their being regulars, irregulars, deserters, etc., to the determination 
of competent authority. 

The law of nations knows no distinction of color, so that the 
enrolling of individuals belonging to civilized colored races and 
the employment of whole regiments of colored troops is duly 
authorized. The employment of savage tribes or barbarous races 
should not be resorted to in wars between civilized nations. 

The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of 



LAND WARFARE 751 

combatants and non-combatants. In case of capture by the enemy, 
both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war. 

PRISONERS OF WAR 

A prisoner of war is an individual whom the enemy, upon 
capture, temporarily deprives of his personal liberty on account of 
his participation directly or indirectly in the hostilities, and whom 
the laws of war 'prescribe shall be treated with certain considera- 
tions. 

The law of nations allows every sovereign Government to 
make war upon another sovereign State, and, therefore, admits of 
no rules or laws different from those of regular warfare, regarding 
the treatment of prisoners of war, although they may belong to the 
army of a Government which the captor may consider as a wanton 
and unjust assailant. 

The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of 
combatants and non-combatants. In the case of capture by the 
enemy, both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war. 

Individuals who follow an army without directly belonging 
to it, such as newspaper correspondents, and reporters, sutlers, and 
contractors, who fall into the enemy's hands and whom the latter 
thinks expedient to detain, are entitled to be treated as prisoners 
of war, provided they are in possession of a certificate from the 
military authorities of the army which they accompanied. 

In addition to the armed forces, both combatant and non- 
combatant, and civilians authorized to accompany armies, the fol- 
lowing may be made prisoners of war: 

(a) The sovereign and members of the royal family, the 
President or head of a republican State, and the ministers who 
direct the policy of a State, (b) Civil officials and diplomatic 
agents attached to the army, (c) Persons whose services are of 
particular use and benefit to the hostile army or its government, 
such as the higher civil officials, diplomatic agents, couriers, guides, 
etc.; also all persons who may be harmful to the opposing State 
while at liberty, such as prominent and influential political leaders, 
journalists, local authorities, clergymen, and teachers, in case they 
incite the people to resistance, (d) The citizens who rise en masse 
to defend their territory or district from invasion by the enemy. 

Military attaches and diplomatic agents of neutral powers 
accompanying an army in the field, or found within a captured 
fortress, are not ordinarily held as prisoners, provided they have 
proper papers of identification in their possession and take no part 
in the hostilities. They may, however, be ordered out of the 
theater of war, and if necessary, handed over by the captor to 
the ministers of their respective countries. 
48 



752 MILITARY TRAINING 

Subject to the care that must be taken of them, the sick and 
wounded of an army who fall into the power of the other bel- 
ligerent become prisoners of war, and the general rules of inter- 
national law in respect to prisoners become applicable to them. 

Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile government, 
but not of the individuals or corps who capture them. They must 
be humanely treated. 

All physical suffering, all brutality which is not necessitated 
as an indispensable measure for guarding prisoners, are formally 
prohibited. If prisoners commit crimes or acts punishable accord- 
ing to the ordinary penal or military laws, they are subjected to 
the military jurisdiction of the state of the captor. 

All their personal belongings, except arms, horses, and mili- 
tary papers, remain their property. This rule does not authorize 
prisoners to retain large sums of money, or other articles which 
might facilitate their escape. Such money and articles are usually 
taken from them, receipts are given, and they are returned at the 
end of the war. This rule does not compel the captor to be re- 
sponsible for such personal belongings of prisoners as they are 
unable to transport with them. In practice personal belongings 
are understood to include military uniform, clothing, and kit re- 
quired for personal use, although technically they may belong to 
their Government. All captures and booty, except personal belong- 
ings of prisoners, become the property of the belligerent Govern- 
ment and not of individuals or units capturing them. 

Every prisoner of war, if he is questioned on the subject, 
is bound to give his true name and rank, and if he infringes this 
rule he is liable to have the advantages accorded to prisoners of 
his class curtailed. Although a prisoner of war is bound, under 
the penalties named, to state truthfully his name and rank, yet he | 
is not bound to reply to other questions. The captor is entitled 
to take advantage of every means, humane and not coercive, in 
order to obtain all information possible from a prisoner with 
regard to the numbers, movements, and location of the enemy, but 
the prisoner can not be punished for giving false information about 
his own army. 

Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress, camp, 
or other place, and bound not to go beyond certain fixed limits; but 
they can not be confined except as an indispensable measure of 
safety and only while the circumstances which necessitate the 
measure continue to exist. The distinction herein intended is 
between restriction to a specified locality and close confinement, ire 
Prisoners of war must not be regarded as criminals or convicts, fce 
They are guarded as a measure of security and not of punishment. flri 
The object of internment is solely to prevent prisoners from fur-Jft 
ther participation in the war. Anything, therefore, may be donefe 

in 



LAND WARFARE 753 

that is necessary to secure this end, but nothing more. Restrictions 
and inconveniences are unavoidable, freedom of movement within 
the area of internment should be permitted unless there are special 
reasons to the contrary. The place selected for internment should 
not possess an injurious climate. 

Prisoners of war when confined for security should not be 
placed in prisons, penitentiaries, or other places for the imprison- 
ment of convicts, but should be confined in rooms that are clean, 
sanitary, and as decent as possible. 

The Government into whose hands prisoners of war have 
fallen is charged with their maintenance. In the absence of a 
special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners of" War are 
treated, as regards board, lodging, and clothing, on the same foot- 
ing as the troops of the Government who captured them. Prisoners 
are only entitled to what is customarily used in the captor's coun- 
try, but due allowance should, if possible, be made for differences 
of habits, and captured supplies should be used if they are available. 

The State may utilize the labor of prisoners of war according 
. to their rank and aptitude, officers excepted. The tasks shall not 
. be excessive and shall have no connection with the Operations 
of the war. Prisoners may be authorized to work for the public 
service, for private persons, or on their own account. Work done 
for the State is paid at the rates in force for the work of a similar 
kind done by soldiers of the national army, or, if there are none 
in force, at a rate according to the work executed. When the work 
is for other branches of the public service or for private persons 
j the conditions are settled in agreement with the military authori- 
ties. The wages of the prisoners go toward improving their posi- 
tion, and the balance is paid them on their release, after deducting 
j the cost of their maintenance. 

Work, even upon fortifications, at a distance from the scene 
of operations, would not seem to be prohibited by this article. 
That the excess of money earned by prisoners, over that paid for 
purchasing comforts and small luxuries, can be retained by the 
captor in compensation for cost of maintenance, in case their 
Government fails to provide for their maintenance in the treaty 
of peace, is well settled. The practice, however, is against such 
retention. 

Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regulations 
and orders in force in the army of the State in whose power they 
are. Any act of insubordination justifies the adoption towards 
them of such measures of severity as may be considered necessary. 
Prisoners of war may be fired upon and may be shot down while 
attempting to escape, or if they resist their guard, or attempt to 
assist their own army in any way. They may be executed by sen- 
tence of a proper court for any offense punishable with death under 



754 MILITARY TRAINING 

the laws of the captor, after due trial and conviction. It may well 
be doubted whether such extreme necessity can ever arise that will 
compel or warrant a commander to kill his prisoners on the 
ground of self-preservation. 

For all crimes and misdemeanors, including conspiracy, 
mutiny, revolt, or insubordination, prisoners of war are subject to 
trial and punishment in the same way as soldiers of the army 
which captured them. If a conspiracy is discovered, the purpose 
of which is a united or general escape, the conspirators may be 
rigorously punished, even with death; and capital punishment may 
also be inflicted upon prisoners of war who are found to have 
plotted rebellion against the authority of the captors, whether in 
union with fellow prisoners or other persons. A prisoner of war 
remains answerable for his crimes committed against the captor's 
army or people, committed before he was captured, and for which 
he has not been punished by his own army. 

Prisoners of war may be set at liberty on parole if the laws 
of their country allow, and, in such cases, they are bound, on their 
personal honor, scrupulously to fulfill, both towards their own 
Government and the Government by whom they were made pris- 
oners, the engagements they have contracted. In such cases their 
own Government is bound neither to require of nor accept from 
them any service incompatible with the parole given. The parole 
should be in writing and be signed, by the prisoners. The condi- 
tions thereof should be distinctly stated, so as to fix as definitely 
as possible exactly what acts the prisoner must refrain from doing; 
that is, whether he is bound to refrain from all acts against the 
captor or whether he must refrain only from taking part directly 
in military operations against the captor, and may accept office and 
render indirect aid or assistance to his own Government. 

No non-commissioned officer or private can give his parole 
except through an officer. Individual paroles not given through 
an officer are not only void, but subjects the individuals giving 
them to the punishment of death as deserters. The only admissible 
exception is where individuals properly separated from their com- 
mands have suffered long confinement without the possibility of 
being paroled through an officer. Commissioned officers can give 
their parole only with the permission of a military superior, as long 
as such superior in rank is within reach. No paroling on the battle 
field, no paroling of entire bodies of troops after a battle, and no 
dismissal of large numbers of prisoners, with a general declaration 
that they are paroled, is permitted or of any value. A belligerent 
Government may declare, by a general order, whether it will allow 
paroling, and on what conditions it will allow it. Such order is 
communicated to the enemy. 

Escaped prisoners who are retaken before being able to re- 



LAND WARFARE 755 

join their own army or before leaving the territory occupied by the 
army which captured them are liable to disciplinary punishment. 

The words " disciplinary punishment " are intended to ex- 
clude a sentence of death. The usual punishment for attempts to 
escape consist in curtailment of privileges or closer confinement or 
detention. Prisoners who, after succeeding in escaping, are again 
taken prisoners, are not liable to punishment on account of the 
previous flight. 

A prisoner of war can not be compelled to accept his libertv 
on parole; similarly the hostile Government is not obliged to 
accede to the request of the prisoner to be set at liberty on parole. 

Prisoners of war liberated on parole and recaptured bearing 
arms against the Government to whom they had pledged their 
honor, or against the allies of that Government, forfeit their right 
to be treated as prisoners of war, and can be brought before the 
courts. 

BUREAU OF INFORMATION 

A bureau of information for prisoners of war is instituted 
on the commencement of hostilities in each of the belligerent 
States, and, when necessary, in neutral countries which have re- 
ceived belligerents in their territory. It is the function of this 
office to reply to all inquiries about the prisoners. It receives 
from the various services concerned full information respecting 
internments and transfers, releases on parole, exchanges, escapes, 
admissions into hospitals, deaths, as well as other information 
necessary to enable it to make out and keep up to date an indi- 
vidual return for each prisoner of war. The office must state in 
this return the regimental number, name and surname, age, place 
of origin, rank, unit, wounds, date and place of capture, internment, 
wounding, and death, as well as any observations of a special 
character. The individual return is sent to the Government of the 
other belligerent after the conclusion of peace. 

It is likewise the function of the bureau to receive and collect 
all objects of personal use, valuables, letters, etc., found on the field 
of battle or left by prisoners who have been released on parole, or 
exchanged, or who have escaped, or died in hospitals or am- 
bulances, and to forward them to those concerned. 

Bureaus of information enjoy the privilege of free postage. 
Letters, money orders, and valuables, as well as parcels by post, 
intended for prisoners of war, or dispatched by them, are exempt 
from all postal duties in the countries of origin and destination, 
as well as in the countries they pass through. 

Presents and relief in kind for prisoners of war are admitted 
free of all import or other duties, as well as of payments for car- 
riage by the state railways. 



756 MILITARY TRAINING 

The foregoing rule does not preclude censorship and regula- 
tions which the belligerent holding the prisoners may decide to 
establish with regard to receipt and dispatch of letters and other 
articles referred to. 

PRISONERS' RELIEF SOCIETIES 

Relief societies for prisoners of war which are properly con- 
stituted in accordance with the laws of their country and with 
the object of serving as the channel for charitable effort shall 
receive from the belligerents, for themselves and their duly ac- 
credited agents, every facility for the efficient performance of their 
humane task within the bounds imposed by military necessities and 
administrative regulations. For the purpose of distributing relief, 
agents of these societies may be admitted to the places of intern- 
ment, as also to. the halting place of repatriated prisoners, if fur- 
nished with a personal permit by the military authorities and on 
giving an undertaking in writing to comply with all measures of 
order and police which the latter may issue. 

PAY OF OFFICERS, RELIGIOUS PRIVILEGES AND WILLS 

Officers taken prisoners receive the same rate of pay as 
officers of corresponding rank in the country where they are de- 
tained, the amount to be ultimately refunded by their own Govern- 
ment. 

Prisoners of war enjoy complete liberty in the exercise of 
their religion, including attendance at the services of the church 
to which they may belong, on the sole condition that they comply 
with the measures of order and police issued by the military 
authorities. 

The wills of prisoners of war are received or drawn up in 
the same way as for soldiers of the national army. 

The same rules are observed regarding death certificates as 
well as for the burial of prisoners of war, due regard being paid to 
their grade and rank. 

EXCHANGES 

The exchange of prisoners is an act of convenience to both 
belligerents. If no general cartel has been concluded, it can not 
be demanded by either of them. No belligerent is obliged to ex- 
change prisoners of war. 



LAND WARFARE 757 

No exchange of prisoners is made except after complete 
capture, and after an accurate account of them and a list of the 
captured officers have been taken. 

Exchanges of prisoners take place, number for number, rank 
for rank, disability for disability, with added condition for added 
condition — such, for instance, as not to serve for a certain period. 

In exchanging prisoners of war such numbers of persons 
of inferior rank may be substituted as an equivalent for one of 
superior rank as may be agreed upon by cartel, which requires the 
sanction of the Government or of the commander of the army in 
the field. 

The surplus number of prisoners of war remaining after an 
exchange has taken place is sometimes released either for the pay- 
ment of a stipulated sum of money or, in urgent cases, of pro- 
visions, clothing, or other necessaries. Such arrangement, how- 
ever, requires the sanction of the highest authority. 

Spies, war traitors, and war rebels are not exchanged accord- 
ing to the common law of war. The exchange of such persons 
would require a special cartel, authorized by the Government, or, 
at a great distance from it, by the chief commander of the army 
in the field. 

After the conclusion of peace, the repatriaticn of prisoners 
of war is carried out as quickly as possible. The immediate repat- 
riation of prisoners of war is not always possible, due to the fol- 
lowing causes: 1. Insufficiency of transport; 2. Obvious risk to 
captor State in restoring to the vanquished power troops of 
which it has been deprived; and 3. Some prisoners of war may be 
undergoing punishment for offenses committed during their im- 
prisonment. 

THE SICK, WOUNDED AND DEAD 

The duties of belligerents with regard to the wounded and 
sick are governed by the Geneva Convention (of 1906). 

The duties of neutral powers as regards wounded and sick 
who are permitted to enter their territories are dealt with in the 
"Convention concerning the rights and duties of neutral powers 
and persons" at The Hague in 1907. 

Officers, soldiers and other persons officially attached to 
armies, who are sick or wounded, are respected and cared for, with- 
out distinction of nationality, by the belligerent in whose power 
they are. This provision extends to all belligerents who may 
be described as all those persons who may demand the treatment 
and privileges accorded to prisoners of war. It does not impose 
obligations to aid inhabitants or other persons not officially 
attached to armies who may be wounded by chance or accident as 



758 MILITARY TRAINING 

a result of the hostilities in progress. But the dictates of humanity 
demand that inhabitants so wounded be aided if the other inhab- 
itants are without facilities to give them proper care, and they can 
be so aided without neglecting the sick and wounded of either 
belligerent. 

A belligerent, however, when compelled to leave his sick or 
wounded in the hands of his adversary, leaves with them, so far 
as military conditions permit, a portion of the personnel and 
materiel of his sanitary service to assist in caring for them. 

Necessarily the commander of the army, who is compelled 
by the military situation to abandon his wounded, must determine 
what the precise exigencies of the situation permit him to do with 
regard to leaving his medical personnel and materiel behind for 
the care of his wounded and sick; but it is clearly intended that he 
relieve the victor left in possession of the battle field, as far as 
practicable, of the additional burdens involved in the care of the 
enemy sick and wounded as well as his own. 

Subject to the care that must be taken of them under the 
preceding paragraph, the sick and wounded of an army who fall 
into the power of the other belligerents become prisoners of war, 
and the general rules of international law in respect to prisoners 
become applicable to them. 

The belligerents remain free, however, to mutually agree 
upon such clauses, by way of exception or favor, in relation to 
the wounded or sick as they may deem proper. They especially 
have authority to agree — (a) To mutually return the sick and 
wounded left on the field of battle after an engagement, (b) To 
send back to their own country the sick and wounded who have 
recovered, or who are in a condition to be transported and whom 
they do not desire to retain as prisoners, (c) To send the sick 
and wounded of the enemy to a neutral State, with the consent 
of the latter and on condition that it shall charge itself with their 
internment until the close of hostilities. 

These must be regarded purely as suggestions to command- 
ers as proper relaxations of the rigor of the rules applicable to 
the wounded or sick, since commanders are "free to agree" as to 
the foregoing, as well as to many other questions not suggested by 
these rules, regardless of this article of the convention. 

After every engagement the belligerent who remains in 
possession of the field of battle takes measures to search for the 
wounded and to protect the wounded and dead from robbery and 
ill-treatment. 

The foregoing duty of policing the field of battle imposed 
Upon the victor after the fight contemplates that he take every 
means in his power to comply therewith. 

The obligations imposed upon commanders as to protection 



LAND WARFARE 759 

of the wounded and sick from pillage and maltreatment contem- 
plate that all guilty persons, whether subject to military law or 
civilians, be severely punished for acts of pillage and maltreatment 
of the wounded and dead. No statute has been passed by Congress 
specifically applicable to the punishment of violators of this article 
since the convention was agreed to. In the absence of such legis- 
lation, however, offenders, both military and civilian, are proceeded 
against as marauders by commanding officers in the field. 

As soon as possible each belligerent forwards to the author- 
ities of their country or army a list of names of the sick and 
wounded taken in charge by him. 

Belligerents keep each other mutually advised of internments 
and transfers, together with admissions to hospitals and deaths 
which occur among the sick and wounded in their hands. 

The foregoing provisions relate obviously to the wounded 
and sick of the enemy, since the duties referred to with regard 
to wounded, sick, and dead of his own army are regulated by the 
internal laws of the belligerent. The proper channel of communi- 
cation of such information to the enemy is through the Prisoners' 
Bureau of Information. 

Military authority may make an appeal to the charitable zeal 
of the inhabitants to receive and, under its supervision, to care for 
the sick and wounded of the armies, granting to persons respond- 
ing to such appeals special protection and certain immunities. 

The corresponding article of the Geneva Convention of 1864 
is so modified in this that commanders in the field are relieved of 
the suggested obligation of informing the inhabitants of the appeal 
addressed to their humanity. It also withdraws the privileges con- 
tained in the convention of 1864, and very properly places the 
entire subject under military supervision. The collection and re- 
moval of the wounded are best performed under military super- 
vision, even when the labor must be requisitioned, because it is 
only under such supervision that it can be properly regulated and 
controlled. 

SANITARY FORMATIONS AND ESTABLISHMENTS 

Mobile sanitary formations (i.e., those which are intended to 
accompany armies in the field) and the fixed establishments belong- 
ing to the sanitary service are protected and respected by bellig- 
erents. 

By mobile sanitary formations must be understood all organ- 
izations which follow the troops on the field of battle. In our 
service is included the following: (1) Regimental equipment; (2) 
Ambulance companies; (3) Field hospitals; (4) The reserve medical 
supply; (5) The sanitary column, including (a) Ambulance column, 



760 MILITARY TRAINING 

(b) Evacuation hospital; (6) Hospital trains; (7) Hospital boats; 
(8) Red Cross transport column. , 

The term "fixed establishments" is clearly intended to cover 
stationary or general hospitals, whether actually movable or located, 
on the line of communications, or at a base, and in our service 
would include: (1) The base medical supply depot; (2) Base hos- 
pitals; (3) Casual camps; (4) Convalescent camps; and (5) Red 
Cross hospital columns. 

By "respect and protection" it is intended that they shall 
not be fired upon, and shall be protected in the discharge of their 
duties, and this is applicable to both classes, irrespective of the fact 
of the actual presence therein of the sick or wounded. They are 
protected from deliberate attack. The protection due to sanitary 
formations and establishments ceases if they are used to commit 
acts injurious to the enemy. 

By cessation of protection is understood that these units 
may be fired on and the personnel taken prisoners and in a proper 
case reprisals may be resorted to. As examples of harmful acts 
may be cited — taking part in the campaign, sheltering spies of com- 
batants, placing these units directly in the line of fire of the enemy, 
or in a strategic position, where they restrict military, operations 
or conceal guns, or making use of sanitary trains to transport 
effectives, etc. Since sanitary formations should be placed in con- 
cealed points where protected from the enemy's fire, the placing of 
such units as indicated may excuse their being fired upon and the 
detention of their personnel, but before firing upon them it is best, 
if possible, to direct them to withdraw. 

Although the sanitary personnel may carry arms of self- 
defense, they should not resist with such arms their being captured 
by the enemy. These arms are for their personal defense and for 
protection of the sick and wounded under their charge against 
marauders and the like. 

Due to the fact that in some armies trained soldiers are used 
as medical orderlies, it is expressly provided that a picket or sen- 
tinel taken from a combatant arm may be used as a guard to a 
sanitary formation. Such guard, when furnished with authority in 
due form, is entitled to the same privileges as those of the medical 
personnel while so employed. 

It is indispensable, however, that such picket or sentinel be 
provided with a written order that he can show to the adversary. 
Such pickets or guards are not made prisoners of war. 

PERSONNEL 

The personnel charged exclusively with the removal, trans- 
portation, and treatment of the sick and wounded, as well as with 
the administration of sanitary formations and establishments, and 



LAND WARFARE 761 

the chaplains attached to armies, are respected and protected under 
all circumstances. If they fall into the hands of the enemy they 
are not considered as prisoners of war. 

The personnel here intended by the words "charged exclu- 
sively" is clearly the officers and men of the army service corps, 
including drivers of transports attached to the medical service for 
the entire campaign, so that musicians and other soldiers, tempor- 
arily employed as litter bearers, are not placed under the protection 
of the convention. These latter should be supplied with a special 
brassard or certificate. 

The medical personnel above referred to, chaplains, and 
guards, are protected from deliberate attack. There is no just cause 
for complaint, as a violation of the convention, if they are acci- 
dentally killed or wounded in the execution of their duties. 

Voluntary Aid Societies. — The personnel of voluntary aid 
societies, duly recognized and authorized by their own Govern- 
ments, who are employed in the sanitary formations and estab- 
lishments of armies, are assimilated to the personnel contemplated, 
upon condition that the said personnel shall be subject to military 
laws and regulations. 

Each State makes known to the other, either in time of 
peace or at the opening or during the progress of hostilities, and 
in any case before actual employment, the names of the societies 
which it has authorized to render assistance, under its responsi- 
bility, in the official sanitary service of its armies. 

The National Red Cross. — The National Red Cross of 
America is the only volunteer aid society that can be employed 
by the land and naval forces of the United States in future wars 
to aid the medical personnel, and their employment must be under 
the responsibility of the Government as part of the medical per- 
sonnel and establishments of its Army, and they must be assigned 
to duties in localities designated by competent military authority. 

The personnel and establishments of voluntary aid societies, 
while so employed, are entitled to the same privileges and protec- 
tion as that to which the Army Medical Service is entitled under 
certain conditions, which are: "a," That the societies are duly 
recognized and authorized by their Government, "b" That the 
names of the societies to be employed must be notified to the 
enemy before any of the personnel is actually employed, "c" That 
the personnel is subject to military law. 

In past wars so many irregularities and even acts of hostility 
have been committed by members of volunteer aid societies that 
the conditions above mentioned have been found necessary. Com- 
manders, before permitting their employment, should therefore 
assure themselves that these conditions have been strictly com- 
plied with. 



762 MILITARY TRAINING 

Volunteer Societies of Neutrals. — A recognized society of a 
neutral State can only lend the services of its sanitary personnel 
and formations to a belligerent with the prior consent of its own 
Government and the authority of such belligerent. The belligerent 
who has accepted such assistance is required to notify the enemy 
before making any use thereof. 

It is necessary to secure the consent of the neutral Govern- 
ment as well as that of the belligerent into whose service it pro- 
poses to enter, but it is not necessary to obtain the consent of the 
other belligerent who is notified of the fact of employment. Such 
employment in this country must be accomplished through the 
National Red Cross of America. 



CAPTURED MEDICAL PERSONNEL 

In interpreting the foregoing obligations two things, among 
others, must be carefully considered: (1) That the sanitary forma- 
tions must not be placed in position to take back useful informa- 
tion to their army, and (2) that these rules are not meant to justify 
depriving the enemy of the services of his medical personnel for 
an indefinite period of time. The former clearly precludes the 
absolute freedom of movement of this medical personnel in the 
theater of war, even though claiming to be engaged in collecting, 
aiding, or removing the wounded and sick. Medical personnel of 
the enemy persisting in approaching places after being ordered to 
halt may be fired on as an extreme measure. -There is nothing in 
the Geneva Convention conferring immunity from search of its 
medical personnel and units, and they may be stopped by the same 
means as a ship. 

The medical personnel of a force which capitulates may be 
detained to attend the sick and wounded included in the surrender 
and sent back gradually. It is not left to this captured personnel 
to choose its own route, or the time of its return, both of which 
are determined by the captor in conformity to military exigencies. 

While they remain in his power, the enemy secures to the 
personnel mentioned the same pay and allowances to which per- 
sons of the same grade in his own army are entitled. 



MEDICAL MATERIEL 

If mobile sanitary formations fall into the power of the 
enemy, they retain their materiel, including the teams, whatever 
may be the means of transportation, and the conducting personnel. 
Competent military authority, however, has the right to employ it 



LAND WARFARE 763 

in caring for the sick and wounded. The restitution of the materiel 
takes place in accordance with the conditions prescribed for the 
sanitary personnel, and, as far as possible, at the same time. 

The obligation to return the teams of mobile sanitary for- 
mations is applicable to teams secured by requisition, but there is 
no obligation to provide teams to facilitate the return of the 
materiel of captured mobile sanitary formations should they have 
lost all or part of their own animals by casualties. 

Buildings and materiel pertaining to fixed establishments 
remain subject to the laws of war, but can not be diverted from 
their use so long as they are necessary for the sick and wounded. 
Commanders of troops engaged in operations, however, may use 
them, in case of important military necessity, if, before such use, 
the sick and wounded who are in them have been provided for. 

The buildings of fixed medical establishments, hospitals, and 
depots can not, from their nature, be sent back to the enemy. It is 
contemplated that they shall be used for medical purposes so long 
as necessary for the wounded and sick, except in cases of urgent 
military necessity; but if other arrangements are made for the wel- 
fare of the wounded and sick found in them, there is nothing to 
prohibit the fortification and use of such buildings by the captor. 
The materiel is such hospital or other fixed sanitary establishment 
follows the fate of the buildings and becomes the property of the 
captor. 

The materiel of aid societies is regarded as private property 
and, as such, is respected under all circumstances, save that it is 
subject to the recognized right of requisition by belligerents in 
conformity to the laws and usages of war. 

Uncertainty as to the Rule. — There is a marked distinction 
as to treatment accorded to materiel of mobile sanitary formations, 
of fixed establishments, and of convoys for the evacuation of the 
sick and wounded; and since volunteer aid societies employ 
materiel in the same units, it is uncertain what treatment should 
be accorded it when found in fixed establishments and with con- 
voys. It is believed that this materiel should be treated under all 
circumstances as private property; but, wherever found, it is sub- 
ject to requisition. 

Convoys of Evacuation. — Convoys of evacuation shall be 
treated as mobile sanitary formations subject to the following 
special provisions: 

1. A belligerent intercepting a convoy may, if required by 
military necessity, break up such convoy, charging himself with 
the care of the sick and wounded whom it contains. 

2. In this case the obligation to return the sanitary personnel 
is extended to include the entire military personnel employed, 



764 MILITARY TRAINING 

under competent orders, in the transportation and protection of 
the convoy. 

The obligation to return the sanitary materiel applies to 
railway trains and vessels intended for interior navigation which 
have been especially equipped for evacuation purposes, as well as 
to the ordinary vehicles, trains, and vessels which belong to the 
sanitary service. 

Military vehicles, with their teams, other than those belong- 
ing to the sanitary service, may be captured. 

The civil personnel and the various means of transportation 
obtained by requisition, including railway materiel and vessels 
utilized for convoys, are subject to the general rules of interna- 
tional law. 

The belligerents can not only break up the convoy but can 
also detain it for a definite period of time, confine it to a certain 
route, or designate the place where it is to report. 

The personnel of the convoy may be — 1. Medical; 2. Rail- 
way, loaned for transport purposes; 3. Military guards; 4; Civil 
requisitioned, which should be released, if not again requisitioned 
by the captor. 

The Materiel. — The materiel may belong to — 1. The regular 
medical service of the enemy, or to aid societies recognized by 
him; Tor, 2. May consist of things requisitioned; that is, carriages, 
boats, etc; or, 3. May consist of carriages, with their teams, bor- 
rowed from military units, which are then subject to capture. 

THE DISTINCTIVE EMBLEM 

Out of respect to Switzerland the heraldic emblem of the 
red cross on a white ground, formed by the reversal of the Federal 
colors, is continued as the emblem and distinctive sign of the san- 
itary service of armies. This emblem appears on flags and bras- 
sards as well as upon all materiel appertaining to the sanitary 
service, with the permission of the competent military authority. 
...... .The Brassard.^-Certain personnel wear attached to the left 

arm a brassard bearing a red cross on a white ground, which is 
issued and stamped by competent military authority, and accom- 
panied by a certificate of identity in the case of persons attached 
to the sanitary service of armies who do not have military uni- 
forms. The convention of 1864 with regard to the use of the 
brassard differs from that of 1906 in that the latter requires that 
it be fixed to the arm and be permanently worn. 

For the protection of persons to whom brassards are issued 
and to prevent their improper use by spies and others, as well as 
to conform to requirements, a register should be kept showing 
the names and description of the persons to whom brassards have 



LAND WARFARE 765 

been issued. The brassard should be stamped with a special mark 
or number by the War Department. In case of persons not 
wearing a military uniform a certificate must be issued containing 
the name, description, and number of the person to whom issued. 

The Medical Department is charged with the duty of provid- 
ing, stamping, and delivering brassards to all persons entitled to 
neutrality (protection), and of providing and delivering necessary 
certificates of identity to persons attached to the sanitary service 
who do not have a military uniform. 

The distinctive flag of the convention can only be displayed 
over the sanitary formations and establishments which the conven- 
tion provides shall be respected, and with the consent of the mil- 
itary authorities. It is accompanied by the national flag of the 
belligerent to whose service the formation or establishment is 
attached. 

Sanitary formations which have fallen into the power of the 
enemy, however, shall fly no other flag than that of the Red Cross 
so long as they continue in that situation. 

Flags Designated. — The flag of the Geneva Convention, to 
be used in connection with the national flag in time of war with 
a signatory of the convention, is as follows: 

For general hospitals, white bunting, 9 by 5 feet, with a red 
cross of bunting 4 feet high and 4 feet wide in the center; arms, 
of cross to be 16 inches wide. 

For field hospitals, white bunting, 6 by 4 feet, with a red 
cross of bunting 3 feet high and 3 feet wide in the center 1 ; arms 
of cross to be 12 inches wide. 

For ambulances and for guidons to mark the way to field 
hospitals, white bunting, 28 by 16 inches, with a red cross of bunt- 
ing 12 inches high and 12 inches wide in the center; arms of cross 
to be 4 inches wide. 

Military Hospital Ships. — Military hospital ships are dis- 
tinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal band 
of green about a meter and a half in breadth. 

The hospital ships equipped wholly or in part at the expense 
of private individuals or officially recognized relief societies are 
distinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal 
band of red about a meter and a half in breadth. 

The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft 
which may be used for hospital work, are distinguished by similar 
painting. 

All hospital ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, 
with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided 
by the Geneva Convention, and, further, if they belong to a neutral 
State, by flying at the mainmast the national flag of the belligerent 
under whose control they are placed. 






766 MILITARY TRAINING 

Hospital ships which are detained by the enemy must haul 
down the national flag of the belligerent to whom they belong. 

The ships and boats above mentioned which wish to insure 
by night the freedom from interference to which they are entitled 
must, subject to the assent of the belligerent they are accompany- 
ing, take the necessary measures to render their special painting 
sufficiently plain. 

Sanitary Formations of Neutral Countries. — The sanitary 
formations of neutral countries which, under the conditions set 
forth, have been authorized to render their services fly, with the 
flag of the convention, the national flag of the belligerent to which 
they are attached. 

Protection and Use of the Flag. — The emblem of the red 
cross on a white ground and the words "Red Cross" or "Geneva 
Cross" may only be used, whether in time of peace or war, to 
protect or designate sanitary formations and establishments. 

After each engagement the commander in possession of the 
field takes measures to insure protection against pillage and mal- 
treatment. He sees that a careful examination is made of the 
bodies of the dead prior to their interment or incineration. 

As soon as possible each belligerent forwards to the author- 
ities of their country or army the marks or military papers of 
identification found upon the bodies of the dead. They (the bellig- 
erents) collect all objects of personal use, valuables, letters,, etc., 
which are found upon the field of battle, or have been left by the 
sick and wounded who have died in sanitary formations or other 
establishments, for transmission to persons in interest through the 
authorities of their own country. 

THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES 

The right of belligerents to adopt means of injuring the 
enemy is not unlimited. 

On general principles it is permissible to destroy your enemy 
and it is immaterial how this is accomplished. But in practice the 
means employed are definitely restricted by international declar- 
ations and conventions, and by the laws and usages of war. Gen- 
erally speaking, the means to be employed include both force and 
stratagem, and there is included therein the killing and disabling 
the enemy, forcing him by defeat and exhaustion to surrender, 
the investment, bombardment or siege of his fortresses and 
defended places, the damage, destruction, and appropriation of 
property, and injury to the general resources of the country. 

The Use of Poison. — In addition to the prohibitions pro- 
vided by special conventions, it" is especially forbidden to employ 



LAND WARFARE 767 

poison or poisoned weapons. This prohibition extends to the 
use of means calculated to spread contagious diseases, and in- 
cludes the deliberate contamination of sources of water by throw- 
ing into same dead animals and all poisonous substances of any 
kind, but does not prohibit measures being taken to dry up springs 
or divert rivers and aqueducts from their courses. 

The Use of Treachery. — It is especially forbidden to kill or 
wound treacherously individuals belonging to the hostile nation 
or army. Civilized nations look with horror upon offers of rewards 
for the assassination of enemies, and the perpetrator of such an 
act has no claim to be treated as a combatant, but should be treated 
as a criminal. So, too, the proclaiming of an individual belonging 
to the hostile army, or a citizen or subject of the hostile govern- 
ment, an outlaw, who may be slain without trial by a captor. 

Injuring an Enemy Who Has Surrendered. — It is especially 
forbidden to kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down his 
arms, or having no longer means of defense, has surrendered at 
discretion. War is for the purpose of overcoming armed resist- 
ance, and no vengeance can be taken because an individual has 
done his duty to the last. And whoever intentionally inflicts 
additional wounds on an enemy already wholly disabled, or kills 
such an enemy, or who orders or encourages soldiers to do so, 
suffers death, if duly convicted, whether he belongs to the Army 
of the United States or is an enemy captured after having com- 
mitted the misdeed. 

Refusal of Quarter. — It is especially forbidden to declare 
that no quarter will be given. It is no longer contemplated that 
quarter will be refused to the garrison of a fortress carried by 
assault, to the defenders of an undefended place who did not sur- 
render when threatened with bombardment, or to a weak garrison 
which obstinately and uselessly persevered in defending a fortified 
place against overwhelming odds. 

Employment of Arms, Etc., Causing Unnecessary Injury. — 
It is especially forbidden to employ arms, projectiles, or material 
of a nature to cause unnecessary injury. This prohibition is not 
intended to apply to the use of explosives contained in artillery pro- 
jectiles, mines, aerial torpedoes, or hand grenades, but it does 
include the use of lances with barbed heads, irregular-shaped 
bullets, projectiles filled with glass, etc., and the use of any sub- 
stance on these bullets that would tend to unnecessarily inflame a 
wound inflicted by them, and the scoring of the surface or filing 
off the ends of the hard case of such bullets. 

Train Wrecking, Etc. — Train wrecking and setting on fire 
camps or military depots are legitimate means of injuring the 
enemy when carried out by the members of the armed forces. 



768 MILITARY TRAINING 

Wrecking of trains should be limited strictly to cases which tend 
directly to weaken the enemy's military forces. 

Subjects Not to be Compelled to Take Part in Operations 
Against Their Own Country.— A belligerent is likewise forbidden 
to compel the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the 
operations of war directed against their own country, even if they 
were in the belligerent's service before the commencement of the 
war. 

STRATAGEMS 

Ruses of war and the employment of measures necessary for 
obtaining information about the enemy and the country are con- 
sidered permissible. 

Good Faith. — Absolute good faith with the enemy must be 
observed as a rule of conduct. Without it war will degenerate 
into excesses and violences, ending only in the total destruction 
of one or both of the belligerents. In general, belligerents may 
resort to such measures for mystifying or misleading the enemy, 
which the enemy ought to take measures to secure himself against, 
such as the employment of spies, inducing soldiers to desert, to 
surrender, to rebel, or to give false information to the enemy. 

Must Not Involve Treachery or Perfidy. — The ruses of war 
are, however, legitimate so long as they do not involve treachery 
or perfidy on the part of the belligerent resorting to them. They 
are forbidden if they contravene any generally accepted rule. The 
line of demarcation, however, between legitimate ruses and for- 
bidden acts of treachery and perfidy is sometimes rather indistinct, 
and with regard to same the writers of authority have dis- 
agreed. For example: It would be an improper practice to secure j 
an advantage of the enemy by deliberate lying which involves a 
breach of faith, or when there is a moral obligation to speak the 
truth, such as declaring that an armistice had been agreed upon 
when such was not the case. On the other hand, it is a perfectly 
proper ruse to summon a force to surrender on the ground that it 
is surrounded, and thereby induce such surrender with a small 
force. 

Legitimate Ruses. — Among legitimate ruses may be counted 
surprises; ambushes; feigning attacks, retreats, or flights; simulat- 
ing quiet and inactivity; giving large outposts or a strong advanced 
guard to a small force; constructing works, bridges, etc., which it 
is not intended to use; transmitting false or misleading signals and 
telegraph messages, and sending false dispatches and newspapers, 
with a view to their being intercepted by the enemy; lighting camp 
fires where there are no troops; making use of the enemy's signals, 
bugle and trumpet calls, watchwords, and words of command; pre- 



LAND WARFARE 769 

tending to communicate with troops or re-enforcements which have 
no existence; moving landmarks; putting up dummy guns or laying 
dummy mines; removing badges from uniforms; clothing the men 
of a single unit in the uniform of several different units so that 
prisoners and dead may give the idea of a large force. 

Use of Flags, Insignia, Military Uniforms of the Enemy. — 
It is especially forbidden to make improper use of a flag of truce, of 
the national flag, or of the military insignia and uniform of the 
enemy, as well as of the distinctive badges of the Geneva Conven- 
tion. 

Flags of Truce. — Flags of truce must not be used surrepti- 
tiously to obtain military information or merely to obtain time to 
effect a retreat or secure re-enforcements or to feign a surrender in 
order to surprise an enemy. An officer receiving them is not on 
this account absolved from the duty of exercising proper precau- 
tions with regard to them. 

National Flags, Insignia, and Uniforms as a Ruse. — In prac- 
tice it has been authorized to make use of these as a ruse. The 
foregoing rule does not prohibit such use, but does prohibit their 
improper use. It is certainly forbidden to make use of them dur- 
ing a combat. Before opening fire upon the enemy they must be 
discarded. Whether the enemy flag can be displayed and h ; s uni- 
form worn to effect an advance or to withdraw is not settled. In 
this country it has always been authorized to utilize uniforms cap- 
tured from the enemy, provided some striking mark or sign is 
attached to distinguish the American soldier from the enemy. All 
distinctive badges or marks of the enemy should be removed before 
making use of them. It is believed that such uniforms should not 
be used except in case of absolute necessity. 

Improper Use of Distinctive Badges of Geneva Convention. 
— The Red Cross flag must be limited to the protection of units and 
material provided for in the Geneva Convention. As examples of 
the improper use may be cited covering wagons containing ammu- 
nition or nonmedical stores, a hospital train used to facilitate the 
escape of combatants, firing from a tent or building flying the Red- 
Cross flag, using a hospital or other building accorded such pro- 
tection as an observatory or military office or store, or generally 
for committing acts of hostility. 

ESPIONAGE AND TREASON 

A person can only be considered a spy when, acting clan- 
destinely or on false pretenses, he obtains or endeavors to obtain 
information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the 
intention of communicating it to the hostile party. Thus, soldiers 
not wearing a disguise who have penetrated into the zone of oper- 






770 MILITARY TRAINING 

ations of the hostile army, for the purpose of obtaining information, 
are not considered spies; similarly, the following are not considered 
spies: Soldiers and civilians, carrying out their mission openly, 
intrusted with the delivery of dispatches intended either for their 
own army or for the enemy's army. To this class belong likewise 
persons sent in balloons for the purpose of carrying dispatches and, 
generally, of maintaining communications between different parts 
of an army or a territory. 

Recognition of Necessity for Obtaining Information. — In the 
foregoing rule is distinct recognition of the necessity for employing 
spies and other secret agents for obtaining information about the 
enemy, so that the acquirement of such information by secret 
methods is regulated by the laws and usages of war. The definition 
above comprehends all classes, whether officers, soldiers, or civil- 
ians, and, like the criminal law, makes no distinction as to sex. As 
to the offense, it limits the same to securing information clandes- 
tinely or on false pretences in the zone of operations. It does not 
include all cases in which a person makes or endeavors to make 
unauthorized or secret communication to the enemy. These latter 
cases must therefore be dealt with under the laws relating to 
treason and espionage. 

Treason. — All unauthorized or secret communication with 
the enemy is considered treasonable by the law of war. Foreign 
residents in an invaded or occupied territory, or foreign visitors in 
the same, can claim no immunity from this law. They may com- 
municate with foreign parts or with the inhabitants of the hostile 
country so far as military authority permits, but no further. 

War Traitor. — A traitor under the law, or a war traitor, is 
a person in a place or district under martial law (military govern- 
ment) who, unauthorized by the military commander, gives infor- 
mation of any kind to the enemy or holds intercourse with him. 

If the citizen or subject of a country or place invaded or 
conquered gives information to his own Government, from which 
he is separated by the hostile army, or to the army of his Govern- 
ment, he is a war traitor. 

If a citizen of a hostile and invaded district voluntarily 
serves as a guide to the enemy, or offers to do so, he is deemed 
a war traitor. 

Punishment of Spies. — The spy is punishable with death, 
whether or not he succeed in obtaining the information or in con- 
veying it to the enemy. 

Punishment of Treason. — The war traitor is always severely 
punished. If his offense consists in betraying to the enemy any- 
thing concerning the condition, safety, operations, or plans of the 
troops holding or occupying the place or district, his punishment 
is death. 



LAND WARFARE 771 

Spy Immune from Punishment After Joining His Own Army. 

— A spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is 
subsequently captured by the enemy, is treated as a prisoner of 
war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts of espionage. 
This immunity does not extend to persons guilty of treason, who 
may be arrested at any place or any time within the jurisdiction. 
And it is not necessary for traitors to be caught in the act in order 
that they may be punished. 

Assisting Espionage Punishable. — Assisting or favoring es- 
pionage or treason and knowingly concealing a spy may be made 
the subject of charges; and such acts are by the customary laws 
of war equally punishable. 

BOMBARDMENTS, ASSAULTS AND SIEGES 

The attack, or bombardment, by whatever means, of towns, 
villages, dwellings, or buildings which are undefended is prohibited. 

The Use of Balloons. — The addition of the words "by what- 
ever means" was for the purpose of making it clear that the bom- 
bardment of these undefended localities from balloons or aero- 
planes is prohibited. 

Defended Place Denned. — Investment, bombardment, assault 
and siege have always been recognized as legitimate means of war- 
fare, but under the foregoing rule their use is limited to defended 
places, which certainly will include the following: 

(a) A fort or fortified place, (b) A town surrounded by de- 
tached forts is considered jointly with such forts as an indivisible 
whole, as a defended place, (c) A place that is occupied by a 
military force or through which such force is passing is a defended 
place. The occupation of such place by sanitary troops alone is 
not sufficient to consider it a defended place. 

Throwing Projectiles from Balloons on Forts and Fortified 
Places. — There is no prohibition in The Hague Rules or in other 
conventions against throwing authorized projectiles from balloons 
or aeroplanes into forts and fortified places. 

Notice of Bombardment. — The officer in command of an 
attacking force must, before commencing a bombardment, except 
in case of assault, do all in his power to warn the authorities. 

The American Rule. — Commanders, whenever admissible, in- 
form the enemy of their intention to bombard a place, so that the 
non-combatants, and especially the women and children, may be 
removed before the bombardment commences. But it is no infrac- 
tion of the common law of war to omit thus to inform the enemy. 
Surprise may be a necessity. 

There is no rule of law which compels the commander of an 
investing force to authorize the population, including women, 



772 MILITARY TRAINING 

children, aged, sick, wounded, subjects of neutral powers, or tem- 
porary residents, to leave the besieged locality, even when a bom- 
bardment is about to commence. It is entirely within the discre- 
tion of the besieging commander whether he will permit them to 
leave or not and under what conditions. 

Diplomatic Agents of Neutrals. — Diplomatic agents of a neu- 
tral power should not be prevented from leaving a besieged place 
before hostilities commence. This privilege can not be claimed 
while hostilities are in progress. The same privileges should prop- 
erly be accorded to a consular officer of a neutral power. Should 
they voluntarily decide to remain, they must undergo the same 
treatment as other inhabitants. 

Persons in Zone Between Troops. — Persons dwelling in the 
zone between the opposing forces in the first stages of a siege 
are treated as inhabitants of the invaded locality. 

Individuals Leaving Without Permission. — Individuals who 
attempt to leave or enter a besieged place without obtaining the 
necessary permission are liable to be fired on and may be sent back 
into the besieged place or detained and put on trial as suspects. 

Persons Expelled May Be Sent Back. — When a commander 
of a besieged place expels the non-combatants, in order to lessen 
the number of those who consume his stock of provisions, it is law- 
ful, though an extreme measure, to drive them back, so as to hasten 
the surrender. 

Not Compelled to Cease Fire When Expelled. — It is not nec- 
essary to cease or relax fire because the enemy sends women and 
children out of his lines in order to get them to a place of safety, 
or to employ compassion, but fire must not be intentionally opened 
in their direction. 

Can Forbid Communication With Besieged Place. — The 
commander of the investing force has the absolute right to forbid 
all communication between the besieged place and the outside. 
The application of this rule to diplomatic envoys of neutral powers 
is unsettled. 

Buildings Dedicated to Religious Works, Etc., to be Spared. 
— In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken 
to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art. 
science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and 
places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided that they 
are not being used at the time for military purposes. 

It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such 
buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which are 
notified to the enemy beforehand. 

Use of Geneva Flag Limited to Hospitals, Etc.— Only hos- 
pitals and places where the sick and wounded are located can be 
indicated by means of the red cross on a white ground. It is 



LAND WARFARE 773 

certainly desirable, in order to avoid injury from actual or erratic 
shots, that the sick and wounded in besieged places should be con- 
centrated in some safe place, preferably in neutral territory, if 
possible to arrange. It is the duty of the inhabitants to indicate 
such monuments, edifices, or places by visible signs, which consist 
of large, stiff rectangular panels divided diagonally into two colored 
triangular portions, the upper portion black, the lower portion 
white. 

Buildings Protected Can Not be Used for Military Purposes. 
« — The besieging forces are not required to observe the signs indi- 
cating inviolability of buildings that are known to be used for mil- 
itary purposes, such as quarters for officers and men, as observa- 
tories, or signaling stations. 

Pillage Forbidden.— The pillage of a town or any place, even 
when taken by assault, is prohibited, and severely punished under 
, the Articles of War. 

INTERCOURSE BETWEEN BELLIGERENTS 

All intercourse between the territories occupied by bellig- 
erent armies, whether by traffic, by letter, by travel, or in any other 
way, ceases. This is the general rule, to be observed without 
special proclamation. 

Exceptions to this rule, whether by safe-conduct, or permis- 
sion to trade on a small or large scale, or by exchanging mails, or 
by travel from one territory into the other, can take place only 
according to agreement approved by the Government or by the 
highest military authority. Contraventions of this rule are highly 
punishable. 

It is absolutely essential in all non-hostile relations that the 
most scrupulous good faith be observed by both parties, and that 
no advantage not intended to be given by the adversary be taken 
! under any circumstances. 

Ambassadors and other diplomatic agents of neutral powers, 
accredited to the enemy, may receive safe-conduct through the ter- 
ritories occupied by the belligerents, unless there are military 
reasons to the contrary, and unless they may reach the place of 
their destination conveniently by another route. It implies no 
international affront if the safe-conduct is declined. Such passes 
! are usually given by the supreme authority of the State, and not 
by the subordinates. 

These non-hostile relations are usually comprised under the 
"headings of parlementaires, and flags of truce, armistices, capitula- 
tions, passports, safe-conducts, safeguards, cartels and other similar 
undertakings. 



774 MILITARY TRAINING 

PARLEMENTAIRES AND FLAGS OF TRUCE 

Parlementaires are ordinarily agents in the non-hostile 
intercourse of belligerent armies. Their duties include every form 
of communication with the enemy in the field. 

A person is regarded as a parlementaire (bearing a flag of 
truce) who has been authorized by one of the belligerents to enter 
into communication with the other, and who advances bearing a 
white flag. He has a right to inviolability, as well as the trum- 
peter, bugler or drummer, the flag bearer, and interpreter who may 
accompany him. 

All soldiers, of whatever grade, should be thoroughly 
acquainted with the qualifications and privileges accorded parle- 
mentaires and with the proper method of receiving them when 
they present themselves. 

Signification of White Flag. — The white flag, when used by 
troops, indicates a desire to communicate with the enemy. The 
hoisting of a white flag has no other signification in international 
law. It may indicate that the party hoisting it desires to open 
communication with a view to an armistice or a surrender. If 
hoisted in action by individual soldiers or a small party, it has come 
to signify surrender. It is essential, therefore, to determine 
whether the flag was actually hoisted by authority of the com- 
mander. 

The enemy is not required to cease firing when a white flag 
is raised. To indicate that the hoisting is authorized, the bellig- 
erent should cease firing. He should also send a parlementaire. 

Fire Not to Be Directed on the Parlementaire. — The fire 
should not be intentionally directed on the person carrying the 
flag or upon those with him; if, however, the parlementaire or 
those near him present themselves during an engagement and are 
killed or wounded, it furnishes no ground for complaint. It is the 
duty of the parlementaire to select a propitious moment for dis- 
playing his flag, such as during the intervals of active operations, 
and to avoid the dangerous zone by making a detour. 

The parlementaire, in addition to presenting himself under 
cover of a white flag, must be duly authorized in a written instru- 
ment signed by the commander of the forces. 

No Communication at Night. — No provision is made for 
opening communication with an enemy during the hours of dark- 
ness, when a white flag can not be seen. An attempt to send a 
parlementaire at night is very dangerous, and at best uncertain. 
The commander to whom a parlementaire is sent is not obliged 
to receive him under all circumstances. He may take all the neces- 
sary steps to prevent the parlementaire from taking advantage of 



LAND WARFARE 775 

his mission to obtain information. In case of abuse, he has the 
right to detain the envoy temporarily. 

May Prescribe Formalities. — The commander may declare 
the formalities and conditions upon which he will receive a parle- 
mentaire and fix the hour and place at which he must appear. 
The present rule is that a belligerent may not declare beforehand, 
even for a specified period — except in case of reprisal for abuses of 
the flag of truce — that he will not receive parlementaires. An 
unnecessary repetition of visits need not be allowed. 

Only three persons are authorized to accompany the parle- 
mentaire. These, under the rule, are entitled to the same 
immunity. In case he is to have more than these, authority for 
the same should be previously obtained. He may be accompanied 
by a less number, and may even go alone with the flag of truce. 
It is advisable to have at least a trumpeter, bugler, or drummer 
with him in order to more readily and surely make known his 
status, thereby avoiding danger as much as possible. 

Formalities in the Reception of Parlementaires. — 1. The 
parlementaire, with necessary authorization and with his duly 
authorized attendants, should approach the enemy's outpost or 
lines at a slow pace. When he arrives near enough to be recog- 
nized — that is, seen and heard — he causes his trumpet or bugle to 
be sounded or drum to be beaten and his flag to be waved. 2. He 
then advances at a slow pace toward the line, carefully obeying all 
instructions signaled or given him by any party of the enemy sent 
out to meet or conduct him. 3. He will then proceed to the point 
and by the route designated for receiving him. He may be fur- 
nished an escort for this by the enemy. 4. On arriving at the post 
of admittance the bearer and his escort dismount, and, leaving the 
escort at a convenient distance in rear, he proceeds on foot to the 
commander or senior officer of the post and states his mission. 5. 
The escort should not attempt to enter the lines with the parle- 
mentaire, and must obey all instructions or signals given them. 
6. Marked courtesy must be observed on both sides. Conversation 
should be prudent and not touch upon the military operations. 
Great care will be exercised not to ack for nor to impart informa- 
tion. 7. The parlementaire will be treated with all the honors due 
to his rank and station and furnished an escort or guard in case of 
necessity. 8. A parlementaire can not of strict right claim to pass 
the outposts, nor can he demand to be conducted into the pres- 
ence of the commanding officer. His message, if written, may be 
transmitted to the commanding officer; if verbal, he may be 
required to reduce it to writing or deliver it orally to such person 
as may be designated to receive it. If he is sent to the rear for 
any reason whatever, he should be blindfolded and sent by a 
circuitous route. 9. In cases where resort is had to a decision 



776 MILITARY TRAINING 

from higher authority, the parlementaire must wait until same is 
returned. 10. The parlementaire will be permitted to retire and 
return with the same formalities and precautions as upon arrival. 

Detention of Parlementaire. — In addition to right of deten- 
tion for abuse of his position, a parlementaire may be detained in 
case he has seen anything, or obtained knowledge which may be 
detrimental to the enemy, or if his departure should reveal infor- 
mation of the movement of troops. He should be detained only so 
long as circumstances imperatively demand, and information should 
be sent at once to his commander as to such detention, as well as 
of any other action taken against him or against his party. The 
parlementaire loses his right of inviolability if it is proved in a 
clear and incontestable manner that he has taken advantage of 
his privileged position to provoke or commit an act of treachery. 

Abuse of Flag of Truce. — It constitutes an abuse of the flag 
of truce for an enemy not to halt and cease firing while the par- 
lementaire sent by him is advancing and being received by the 
other party. Likewise, if the flag of truce is made use of for the 
purpose of inducing the enemy to believe that a parlementaire 
is going to be sent when no such intention exists. It is also an 
abuse of a flag of truce to carry out operations under the protection 
granted by the enemy to the pretended flag of truce. An abuse of 
a flag of truce may authorize a resort to reprisals. 

CAPITULATIONS 

A capitulation is an agreement entered into between com- 
manders of belligerent forces for the surrender of a body of troops, 
a "fortress, or other defended locality, or a district of the theater of 
operations. 

Capitulations are essentially military agreements, which in- 
volve the cessation of further resistance by the force of the enemy 
which capitulate. The surrender of a territory is frequently spoken 
of as an evacuation. 

Capitulations agreed upon between the contracting powers 
must take into account the rules of military honor. Once settled, 
they must be scrupulously observed by both parties. 

Powers of Commanders. — The commander of a fort or place 
and the commander-in-chief of an army are presumed to be duly 
authorized to enter into capitulations, being responsible to their 
respective Governments for any excess of power in stipulations 
entered into by them. His powers do not extend beyond what is 
necessary for the exercise of his command. He does not possess 
power to treat for a permanent cession of the place under his com- 
mand, for the surrender of a territory, for the cessation of hos- 



LAND WARFARE 777 

tilities in a district beyond his command, or generally to make or 
agree to terms of a political nature or such as will take effect after 
the termination of hostilities. 

Forms of Capitulation. — There is no specified form for capitu- 
lations. They may be concluded either orally or in writing, but 
in order to avoid disputes which may arise as to the terms thereof 
it is best, whenever possible, that they be reduced to writing. The 
convention should contain in precise terms every condition to be 
imposed; the time, manner, and execution should be laid down in 
the most precise and unequivocal terms. In case of an uncondi- 
tional surrender following an assault, the terms might be oral, but 
should be reduced to writing if practicable. 

In the terms of capitulation the following subjects are usually 
determined: 

(a) The fate of the garrison, including those persons who 
may have assisted them: These are usually declared to be prisoners 
of war, but it frequently occurs that on account of their valorous 
resistance they are authorized to march out from the garrison with 
the " honors of war." 

(b) The disarming of the place and of the defenders: It 
frequently occurs that the officers are allowed to retain their arms, 
equipment, and certain specified articles of personal property. 

(c) The turning over of the arms and materiel, and, in a 
proper case, the locating of the mine defenses, etc.: The French, 
Russian, and other Governments require that in every case the 
commander of the place must not surrender until he has destroyed 
all flags, but this should be done before signing the capitulation. 

(d) Provisions relative to private property of prisoners, in- 
cluding personal belongings and valuables: Usually prisoners re- 
tain the ownership of their effects, personal belongings and 
valuables. However, they can be deprived temporarily of the 
possession of them as a measure of safety. 

(e) The evacuation of and taking possession of the sur- 
rendered place. The provisions relative to the withdrawal of the 
defenders and the entering into possession by the besiegers are 
fixed in advance with absolute precision, according to the circum- 
stances of each case. Commissions are named for the delivery and 
taking possession, respectively. 

(f) Provisions relative to the medical personnel, sick, and 
wounded. 

(g) Provisions for taking over the civil government and 
property of the place, with regard to th'e peaceable population. 
These, together with the preparation of the lists of prisoners, 
repatriation of prisoners, etc., may be arranged in what is known 
as the appendix to the original terms of the convention. 



t 



rm MILITARY TRAINING 

(h) Stipulations with regard to the immediate handing over 
to the besiegers of certain forts or places, or other similar provi- 
sions, as a pledge for the fulfillment of the capitulation. 

Damage or Destruction of Property Prohibited After Capitu- 
lation. — So soon as a capitulation is signed, the capitulator has no 
right to demolish, destroy, or injure the works, arms, stores, 
or ammunition in his possession during the time which elapses 
between the signing and the execution of the capitulation, unless 
otherwise stipulated in same. 

Denunciation of Capitulation. — A capitulation can be de- 
nounced and hostilities immediately resumed for failure to execute 
any clause which has been agreed upon, or in case it was obtained 
through breach of faith. 

ARMISTICES 

An armistice is the cessation of active hostilities for a period 
agreed on between belligerents. It must be agreed upon in writing 
and duly ratified by the highest authorities of the contending 
parties. 

An armistice suspends military operations by mutual agree- 
ment between the belligerent parties. If its duration is not defined, 
the belligerent parties may resume operations at any time, provided 
always that the enemy is warned within the time agreed upon, in 
accordance with the terms of the armistice. 

An armistice is not a partial or a temporary peace; it is only 
the suspension of military operations to the extent agreed upon by 
the parties. 

An armistice is binding upon the belligerents from the day 
of the agreed commencement, but the officers of the armies are 
responsible from the day only when they receive official information 
of its existence. 

In all armistices it is of the utmost importance that the 
exact moment for the commencement and for the termination of 
same shall be fixed in the terms thereof beyond any possibility of 
mistake or misconception. 

An armistice need not in terms prohibit actual hostilities. 
Anything else may be done during an armistice that is not in ex- 
press terms prohibited by the agreement. 

Form of Armistice. — No special form for an armistice is pre- 
scribed. It should, whenever practicable, be reduced to writing, 
in order to avoid misunderstandings and for purposes of reference 
should differences of opinion arise. It should be drafted with the 
greatest precision and with absolute clearness as to statements. 

An armistice may be general or local. The first suspends 



LAND WARFARE 779 

the military operations of the belligerent States everywhere; the 
second only between certain fractions of the belligerent armies and 
within a fixed radius. 

General Armistice. — General armistices are of a combined 
political and military character. They usually precede the negotia- 
tions for peace, but may be concluded for other purposes. Due to 
its political importance, a general armistice is concluded by the 
Governments concerned or by their commanders-in-chief, and afe 
ratified in all cases. General armistices are frequently arranged by 
diplomatic representatives. 

Local Armistice. — A local armistice suspends operations be- 
tween certain portions of the belligerent forces, or within a desig- 
nated district of the theater of operations. A local armistice may 
be concluded by the military forces only, or by the naval forces 
only, or between a less number than all of the belligerents at war. 

Suspension of Arms. — A suspension of arms is a form of 
armistice concluded between commanders of armies, or even of 
detachments, for some local military purpose: such as to bury the 
dead, to collect the wounded, to arrange for exchange of prisoners, 
to enable a commander to communicate with his Government or 
superior officer. 

Notification of Armistice. — An armistice must be notified 
officially and in good time to the competent authorities and to the 
troops. Hostilities are suspended immediately after notification, or 
on the date fixed. 

It rests with the contracting parties to settle, in the terms of 
the armistice, what intercourse may be held in the theater of war 
with and between the populations. 

If nothing is stipulated, the intercourse remains suspended, 
as during actual hostilities. 

What Stipulations Armistice Should Contain. — The following 
stipulations should be incorporated in an armistice: 

(a) The precise date, day, and hour of the commencement 
of the armistice. The date of commencement of an armistice may 
be different for different parts of an army. 

(b) The duration may be for a definite or indefinite period, 
and may terminate with or without notice of expiration. In case 
it is indefinite, a belligerent may resume operations at any time, 
with due notice given. If the term is fixed and no agreement has 
been made for prolonging same, hostilities may be resumed without 
notice in the absence of positive terms to the contrary. An armis- 
tice commences, in the absence of express mention to the contrary, 
at the moment it is signed. 

(c) The principal lines and all other marks or signs neces- 
sary to determine the locations of the belligerent troops should 



780 MILITARY TRAINING 

be fixed. Belligerents frequently make use of maps with the lines 
indicated shown thereon, which maps are made part of the con- 
vention. A neutral zone is frequently determined upon between 
the two armies. These lines are not to be crossed or the zone 
entered except by parlementaires or other parties by special agree- 
ment for specified purposes, such as to bury the dead and collect 
the wounded. 

(d) In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, each 
belligerent will exercise toward the inhabitants the rights of 
belligerents over occupied territory, such as billeting troops, 
requisitioning supplies, etc., as well as all intercourse between 
them. 

(e) In the absence of stipulations to the contrary, each 
belligerent is authorized to make movements of troops within his 
own lines, to receive and instruct recruits, to construct intrench- 
ments, to repair bridges, to establish new batteries, and, in general, 
to take advantage of the time and means at his disposal to pre- 
pare for resuming hostilities. This includes the right to continue 
espionage, but does not include the right to introduce supplies 
into a fortress unless especially stipulated in the agreement. 

Denunciation of Armistice. — Any serious violation of the 
armistice by one of the parties gives the other party the right of 
denouncing it, and even, in cases of urgency, of recommenc- 
ing hostilities immediately. 

To denounce an armistice without some very serious breach, 
and to surprise the enemy before he can have time to put himself 
on guard, would constitute an act of perfidy. In the absence of 
extreme urgency, some delay should be given between the de- 
nunciation and resumption of hostilities. 

The existence of an armistice does not warrant relaxation 
of vigilance in the service of security and protection, or in the 
preparedness of troops for action, or exposing positions to the 
enemy. 

A violation of the terms of the armistice by individuals 
acting on their own initiative only entitles the injured party to 
demand punishment of the offenders or, if necessary, compen- 
sation for the losses sustained. 



PASSPORTS, SAFE-CONDUCTS, SAFEGUARDS, AND 
CARTELS 



A passport is a written document given to a person or per- 
sons by a commander of belligerent forces authorizing him or them 
to travel 'unmolested within the district occupied by his troops. 



LAND WARFARE 781 

A safe-conduct is a document given to an enemy, alien, or 
other person or persons by a commander of belligerent forces 
authorizing him or them to go into places which they could rrot 
reach without coming into collision with armed forces actively 
operating against the enemy; also a written authority or license 
to carry goods to or out of, or to trade in, a certain place or places 
otherwise forbidden by the laws of war, given by a commander of 
belligerent forces to an enemy, alien, or other person. 

Both passports and safe-conducts fall within the scope of 
international law when granted by arrangement with the enemy 
or with a neutral power. The passports and safe-conducts as to 
persons are individual and nontransferable. A safe-conduct for 
goods, while restricted to the articles named in it, may be trans- 
ferred from one person to another, provided it does not designate 
who is to carry the goods or to trade. They may be transferred 
when the licensee is designated if the transferee is approved by 
the authorizing belligerent. The term "pass" is now frequently 
used instead of the older term " passport," and likewise the word 
"permit"; the word "pass" being used for a general permission 
to do certain things, the word "permit" being used like the 
word " safe-conduct," to signify permission to do a particular 
thing. 

Passports and safe-conducts may be revoked by the com- 
mander issuing them or by his superiors for reasons of military 
expediency, but, until revoked, they are binding upon grantors 
and their successors. When a time is specified in the document 
it is valid only during such time. These documents should not 
be revoked for the purpose of securing the persons of the hold- 
ers who should be given time to withdraw in safety; in case of 
violation of their terms the privilege will be withdrawn and the 
case investigated. They are valid in the district of the com- 
mander who grants them only. 

Licenses to trade are general and special. A general license 
relaxes the exercise of the rights of war, generally or partially, in 
relation to any community or individuals liable to be affected by 
their operation. A special license is one given to individuals for 
a particular voyage or journey for the importation or exportation 
of particular goods. 

A safeguard is a detachment of soldiers posted or detailed 
by a commander of troops for the purpose of protecting some per- 
son or persons, or a particular village, building, or other prop- 
erty. The term " safe-guard " is also used to designate a written 
order by a commander of belligerent forces for the protection 
of an enemy subject or enemy property. It is usually directed 
to the succeeding commander requesting the grant of protection 
to such individuals or property. 



782 MILITARY TRAINING 

Soldiers on duty as safeguards are guaranteed against the 
application of the laws of war, and it is customary to send them 
back to their army when the locality is occupied by the enemy, 
together with their baggage and arms, as soon as military exi- 
gencies permit. 

In the customary military sense a cartel is an agreement 
entered into by belligerents for the exchange of prisoners of war. 
In its broader sense it is a convention concluded between bellig- 
erents for the purpose of arranging or regulating certain kinds 
of non-hostile intercourse otherwise prohibited by the existence 
of the war. The cartel is voidable as soon as either party has 
violated it. 

Form of Passport. 

(Place and date of issue.) 

Authority is hereby granted to Mr. (or other title) 

living at (if on a mission, state the same), to pass out of 

the lines for the purpose of (state object of journey) 

He will cross the lines by the road from A to B (or at a 

designated point) during the (forenoon, afternoon, or 

day) of (date). 

He is authorized to take with him (persons, 

articles, carriages, etc.). 

He will proceed to (name of destination) by the route C. 
D. E. 



Photograph or 
finger print 
or signature. 



(Signature of officer.) 



(Rank, etc.) 
Note. — This passport is strictly personal 
and will be void unless used on the date stated. 

Note. — Blank forms for these should be issued at the com- 
mencement of hostilities. A photograph should be attached where 
a pass is for an extended period. A finger print or signature can 
be substituted if desired. 

In making application for a passport from the State Depart- 
ment, the applicant must make affidavit containing statement of 
his citizenship, residence, occupation, destination, and object of 
journey, and to which an oath of allegience is attached. Attached 
is a description of the applicant and identification with address of 
witness testifying to applicant's identity. (This is or has been 
waived in certain cases.) 



LAND WARFARE 783 



Form of Safe Conduct. 



Photograph 

* 



(Place and date of issue.) 
residing at 

(or if on a mission, the mission to be stated) is 

authorized to proceed to for the 

purpose of 

He will follow the route A. B. C. 

He is authorized to take with him (persons, articles, vehicles). 

This safe conduct is good until 

All military authorities are directed to protect the bearer of this 

safe conduct and in nowise to molest him. 

y 

(Signature of officer.) 



(Rank, etc.) 
Note. — This safe conduct is strictly personal and shall be 
void unless used within the time fixed. 

Forms of Safeguard 

(Date and place of issue.) 

All officers and enlisted men belonging to the 

(Name the army or subdivision thereof.) 

are directed to respect the premises of 

situated at 

No requisitions thereon, nor damage thereto, will be per- 
mitted, and protection will be afforded by all officers and enlisted 
men against any person who shall attempt to act in violation of 
this order. 



(Signature of officer.) 
(Rank, etc.) 

MILITARY AUTHORITY OVER THE TERRITORY OF 
THE HOSTILE STATE 

Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed 
ander the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends 
mly to the territory where such authority has been established 
ind can be exercised. 

Military occupation is a question of fact. It presupposes a 
lostile invasion as a result of which the invader has rendered the 
50 



784 MILITARY TRAINING 

invaded Government incapable of publicly exercising its authority, 
and that the invader is in position to substitute and has substituted 
his own authority for that of the legitimate Government in the 
territory invaded. 

Being an incident of war, military occupation confers upon 
the invading force the right to exercise control for the period of 
occupation. It does not transfer the sovereignty to the occupant, 
but simply the authority or power to exercise some of the rights 
of sovereignty. The exercise of these rights results from the 
established power of the occupant and is considered legitimate by 
reason of the necessity for maintaining law and order, indispensable 
for both the inhabitants and for the occupying force. 

Invasion. — The state of invasion corresponds with the period 
of resistance. Invasion is not necessarily occupation, although it 
precedes it and may frequently coincide with it. An invader may 
push rapidly through a large portion of enemy country without 
establishing that effective control which is essential to the status 
of occupation. He may send small raiding parties or flying col- 
umns, reconnoitering detachments, etc., into or through a district 
where they may be temporarily located and exercise control, yet 
when they pass on it can not be said that such district is under 
his military occupation. 

Subjugation and Conquest. — Subjugation and conquest imply 
the annexation of the property or territory by the conqueror 
through the treaty of peace, and with it the sovereignty. Military 
occupation is based upon the fact of possession and is essentially 
provisional until the conclusion of peace or the annihilation of the 
adversary, when sovereignty passes and military occupation tech- 
nically ceases. 

It follows from the definition that military occupation must 
be both actual and effective; that is, the organized resistance must 
be overcome and the forces in possession have taken measures to 
establish law and order. It is sufficient that the occupying army 
can, within a reasonable time, send detachments of troops to make 
its authority felt within the occupied district. It is immaterial by 
what methods the authority is exercised, whether by fixed garri- 
sons or flying columns, small or large forces. 

The existence of a fort or defended area within the occupied 
district, provided such place is invested, does not render the occu- 
pation of the remainder of the district ineffective, nor is the con- 
sent of the inhabitants in any manner essential. 

In a strict legal sense no proclamation of military occupation L 
is necessary. On account of the special relations established between ( 
the inhabitants of the occupied territory and the occupant by virtue re< 
of the presence of the invading force, the fact of military occupa- 0ri 



LAND WARFARE 785 

tion, with the extent of territory affected by the same, should be 
made known by proclamation. 

Commencement of Occupation. — In the absence of a procla- 
mation or similar notice the exact time of commencement of occu- 
pation may be difficult to fix. The presence of a sufficient force 
to disarm the inhabitants or enforce submission and the cessation 
of local resistance due to the defeat of the enemy's forces deter- 
mine the commencement of occupation. 

Occupation once acquired must be maintained. In case the 
occupant evacuates the district or is driven out of the same by the 
enemy, or by a levee en masse, and the legitimate government 
actually resumes its functions, the occupation ceases. It does not 
cease, however, if the occupant, after establishing his authority,, 
moves forward against the enemy, leaving a smaller force to ad- 
minister the affairs of the district Nor does the existence of a 
rebellion or the operation of guerrilla bands cause it to cease unless 
the legitimate government is reestablished and the occupant fails; 
to promptly suppress such rebellion or guerrilla operations. Hos- 
tile military occupation ceases on the conclusion of peace. 

Administration of Occupied Territory. — Military government 
is the organization through which a belligerent exercises authority 
over the territory of the enemy invaded and occupied by him. 
The necessity for such government arises from the failure or ina- 
bility of the legitimate government to exercise its functions on 
account of the military operations or occupation. 

The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed 
into the hands of the occupant, the latter takes all the measures 
in his power to restore, and insure, as far as possible, public order 
and safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws 
in force in the country. 

All the functions of the hostile government — legislative, ex- 
ecutive or administrative — whether of a general, provisional, or 
local character, cease under military occupation, or continue only 
with the sanction, or, if deemed necessary, the participation of the 
occupier or invader. 

It is immaterial whether the government established over an 
enemy's territory be called a military or civil government. Its 
character is the same and the source of its authority is the same. 
'It is a government imposed by force, and the legality of its acts 
ire determined by the laws of war. During military occupation 
t may exercise all the powers given by the laws of war. 

The Laws in Force. — The principal object of the occupant is 

J :o provide for the security of the invading army and to contribute 

o its support and efficiency and the success of its operations. In 

estoring public order and safety he will continue in force the 

ordinary civil and criminal laws of the occupied territory which 



786 MILITARY TRAINING 

do not conflict with this object. These laws are administered by the 
local officials as far as practicable. All crimes not of a military 
nature and which do not affect the safety of the invading army are 
left to the jurisdiction of the local courts. 

The military occupant may suspend existing laws and 
promulgate new ones when the exigencies of the military service 
demand such action. 

Nature of Laws Suspended. — The occupant will naturally 
alter or suspend all laws of a political nature as well as political 
privileges and all laws which affect the welfare and safety of his 
command. Of this class are those relating to recruitment in occu- 
pied territory, the right of assembly, the right to bear arms, the 
right of suffrage, the freedom of the press, the right to quit or 
travel freely in occupied territory. Such suspensions should be 
made known to the inhabitants. 

Nature of Laws Promulgated. — An occupant may create new 
laws for the government of a country where none exists. He will 
promulgate such new laws and regulations as military necessity de- 
mands. In this class are included those laws which come into 
being as a result of military rule; that is, those which establish 
new crimes and offenses incident to a state of war and are neces- 
sary for the control of the country and the protection of the 
army. 

It is especially forbidden to declare abolished, supended, or 
inadmissible in a court of law the rights and rights of action of 
the nationals of the hostile party. 

.The occupant has the unquestioned right to regulate com- 
mercial intercourse in occupied territory; i. e., he may prohibit 
entirely or place such restrictions and limitations upon such inter- 
course as he considers desirable for military purposes. 

The military occupant may establish censorship of the press 
and of telegraphic and postal correspondence. He may prohibit 
entirely the publication of newspapers, prescribe regulations for 
their publication and circulation and especially in unoccupied por- 
tions of the territory and in neutral countries. He is not required 
to furnish facilities for postal service, but may take charge of them 
himself, especially if the officials of the occupied district fail to 
act or to obey his orders. 

The military occupant exercises authority over all means of 
transportation, both public and private within the occupied district, 
and may seize and utilize the same and regulate their operation. 

If, in the territory occupied, the occupant collects the taxes, 
dues, and tolls imposed for the benefit of the State, he does so, as 
far as is possible, in accordance with the rules of assessment and 
incidence in force, and in consequence is bound to defray the ex- 
penses of the administration of the occupied territory to the same 



LAND WARFARE 787 

extent as the legitimate Government was so bound. The imposi- 
tion of taxes being an attribute of sovereignty, no new taxes 
should be imposed by the occupant. The occupant may, however, 
levy contributions and requisitions. 

If due to the flight or unwillingness of the local officials, it 
is impracticable to follow the rules of incidence and assessment in 
force, then the total amount of the taxes to be paid may be al- 
lotted among the districts, towns, etc., and the local authorities be 
required to collect it as a capitation tax or otherwise. 

The first charge upon the State taxes is for the cost of local 
maintenance. The balance may be used for the purposes of the 
occupant. 

The words " for the benefit of the State " were inserted in 
the article to exclude local dues collected by local authorities. The 
occupant will supervise the expenditure of such revenue and pre- 
vent its hostile use. 

EFFECTS OF OCCUPATION ON THE POPULATION 

The occupant can determine and enforce from the inhabi- 
tants of occupied territory such obedience as may be necessary 
for the security of his forces, for the maintenance of law and order, 
and the proper administration of the country. It is forbidden to 
compel the inhabitants of occupied territory to swear allegiance 
to the hostile power. Family honor and rights, the lives of persons, 
as well as religious convictions and practice, must be respected. 

United States Rule. — The United States acknowledge and 
protect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and moral- 
ity; the persons of inhabitants, especially those of women; and 
the sacredness of domestic relations. Offenses to the contrary are 
rigorously punished. 

In return for such considerate treatment, it is the duty of the 
inhabitants to carry on their ordinary peaceful pursuits, to behave 
in an absolutely peaceful manner, to take no part whatever in the 
hostilities carried on, to refrain from all injurious acts toward 
the troops or in respect of their operations, and to render strict 
obedience to the officials of the occupant. 

Limitation as to Service of Inhabitants. — Services are not de- 
manded from inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occu- 
pation. They are of such a nature as not to involve the inhabi- 
tants in the obligation of taking part in military operations against 
their own country. 

Such services are only demanded on the authority of the 
commander in the locality occupied. 

General Right to Requisition Services. — Services of the in- 
habitants of occupied territory may be requisitioned for the needs 



788 MILITARY TRAINING 

of the Army. These include the services of professional men and 
tradesmen, such as surgeons, carpenters, butchers, bakers, etc., 
employees of gas, electric light, and water works, and of other 
public utilities, and of sanitary boards in connection with their 
ordinary vocations. The officials and employees of railways, 
canals, river or coastwise steamship companies, telegraph, tele- 
phone, postal and similar services, and drivers of transport, 
whether employed by the State or private companies, may be 
requisitioned to perform their professional duties so long as the 
duties required do not directly concern the operation of the war 
against their own country. 

The occupant can requisition labor to restore the general 
condition of the public works of the country to that of peace; 
that is, to repair roads, bridges, railways, and as well to bury the 
dead and collect the wounded. In short, under the rules of obedi- 
ence, they may be called upon to perform such work as may be 
necessary for the ordinary purposes of government, including 
police and sanitary work. 

The prohibition against forcing the inhabitants to take part 
in the operations of war against their own country precludes 
requisitioning their services upon works directly promoting the 
ends of the war, such as construction of forts, fortifications, and 
entrenchments; but there is no objection to their being employed 
voluntarily, for pay, on this class of work, except the military 
reason of preventing information concerning such work from fall- 
ing into the hands of the enemy. 

OFFICIALS IN OCCUPIED TERRITORY 

The occupant may require such officials as are continued in 
their offices to take an oath to perform their duties conscientiously 
and not to act to his prejudice. Every such official who declines to 
take such oath may be expelled; but, whether they do so or not, 
they owe strict obedience to the occupant. 

It is to the best interests of the occupant, and more especially 
to that of the population, that at least some of the civil officials 
should remain in their offices in order to assist in the mainte- 
nance of order, as well as for the safety of the inhabitants them- 
selves and of their property. 

Municipal officials, including the judges and magistrates, 
sanitary and police authorities, as well as the staffs of museums, 
libraries, and all establishments entitled to special protection dur- 
ing hostilities, should remain and be retained in office if consistent 
with the safety of the Army. The political officials, as well as 
railway, postal, telegraph, and telephone officials, will probably 
cease work. 



^ 



LAND WARFARE 789 

The salaries of civil officials of the hostile government who 
remain in the invaded territory, and continue the work of their 
offices, especially those who can properly continue it under the 
circumstances arising out of the war — such as judges, adminis* 
trative or police officers, officers of city or communal governments 
— are paid from the public revenues of the invaded territory, until 
the military government has reason wholly or partially to dispense 
with their services. Salaries or incomes connected with purely 
honorary titles are always suspended. 

An official of the hostile government who has accepted ser- 
vice under the occupant should be permitted to resign and should 
not be punished for exercising such privilege. Such official should 
not be forced to exercise his functions against his will. 

By virtue of his powers of control the occupant is duly em- 
powered to remove officials of every character. He will on prin- 
ciple remove political officials. Any official considered dangerous 
to the occupant may be removed, made a prisoner of war, or ex- 
pelled from the occupied territory. 

Acts of civil officers that are harmful or injurious to the 
occupant will be dealt with under the laws of war. Other wrongs 
or crimes committed by them will be punished according to the 
law of the land. 

TREATMENT OF ENEMY PROPERTY 

It is especially forbidden to destroy or seize the enemy's 
property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively de- 
manded by the necessities of war. 

The rule is that in war a belligerent can destroy or seize 
all property of whatever nature, public or private, hostile or neu- 
tral, unless such property is specifically protected by some definite 
law of war, provided such destruction or seizure is imperatively 
demanded by the necessities of war. 

Devastation. — The measure of permissible devastation is 
found in the strict necessities of war. As an end in itself, as a sep- 
arate measure of war, devastation is not sanctioned by the law of 
war. There must be some reasonably close connection between the 
destruction of property and the overcoming of the enemy's army. 
Thus the rule requiring respect for private property is not violated 
through damage resulting from operations, movements, or combats 
of the army; that is, real estate may be utilized for marches, camp 
sites, construction of trenches, etc. Buildings may be used for 
shelter for troops, the sick and wounded, for animals, for recon- 
naissance, cover, defense, etc. Fences, woods, crops, buildings, etc., 
may be demolished cut down, and removed to clear a field of fire, 



790 MILITARY TRAINING 

to construct bridges, to furnish fuel if imperatively needed for the 
army. 

American Rule. — This rule (respect for private property, etc.) 
does not interfere with the rights of the victorious invader to tax 
the people or their property, to levy forced loans, to billet soldiers, 
or to appropriate property, especially houses, boats or ships, lands, 
and churches, for temporary and military use. Private property 
can not be confiscated. 

All captures and booty belong, according to the modern law 
of war, primarily to the Government of the captor. Prize money 
whether on land or sea can now only be claimed under local law. 
Neither officers nor soldiers are allowed to make use of their posi- 
tion or power in the hostile country for private gain, not even for 
commercial transactions otherwise legitimate. Offenses to the con- 
trary committed by commissioned officers will be punished with 
cashiering or such other punishment as the nature of the offense 
may require; if by soldiers, they shall be punished according to 
the nature of the offense. Pillage is formally forbidden. 

Private property can be seized only by way of military 
necessity for the support or other benefit of the Army or of the 
occupant. All destruction of property not commanded by the au- 
thorized officer, all pillage or sacking, even after taking a town 
or place by assault, are prohibited under the penalty of death, or 
such other severe punishment as may seem adequate to the gravity 
of the offense. A soldier, officer, or private, in the act of committing 
such violence, and disobeying a superior ordering him to abstain 
from it, may be lawfully killed on the spot by such superior. 

All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air, adapted 
for the transmission of news, or for the transport of persons or 
things, exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots of arms, 
and, generally, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, 
even if they belong to private individuals, but must be restored and 
compensation fixed when peace is declared. 

The foregoing rules includes everything susceptible of direct 
military use, such as cables, telephone and telegraph plants, horses, 
and other draft and riding animals, motors, bicycles, motorcycles, 
carts, wagons, carriages, railways, railway plants, tramways, ships 
in port, all manner of craft in canals and rivers, balloons, airships, 
aeroplanes, depots of arms, whether military or sporting, and in 
general all kinds of war material. 

The destruction of the foregoing property and all damages to 
the same are justifiable if it is required by the exigencies of the 
war. 

Submarine cables connecting an occupied territory with a 
neutral territory are not seized or destroyed except in the case of 



5^ 



LAND WARFARE 791 

absolute necessity. They must likewise be restored and compen- 
sation fixed when peace is made. 

REQUISITIONS 

Requisitions in kind are not demanded from municipalities 
or inhabitants except for the needs of the army of occupation. 
They are in proportion to the resources of the country, and of 
such a nature as not to involve the inhabitants in the obligation of 
taking part in military operations against their own country. 

Such requisitions are only demanded on the authority of the 
commander in the locality occupied. 

Contributions in kind shall as far as possible be paid for in 
cash; if not, a receipt shall be given and the payment of the amount 
due shall be made as soon as possible. 

Practically everything may be requisitioned that is necessary 
for the maintenance of the Army and not of direct military use, 
such as fuel and food supplies, clothing, wine, tobacco, printing 
presses, type, etc., leather, cloth, etc. Billeting of troops for quar- 
ters and subsistence is also authorized. 

Requisitions must be made under the authority of the com- 
mander in the locality. No prescribed method is fixed, but if 
practicable requisitions should be accomplished through the local 
authorities by systematic collection in bulk. They may be made 
direct by the detachments if local authorities fail for any reason. 
Billeting may be resorted to if deemed advisable. 

The expression " needs of the army " was adopted rather 
than " necessities of the war" as more favorable to the inhabitants, 
but the commander is not thereby limited to the absolute needs of 
the troops actually present. The object was to avoid reducing the 
population to starvation. 

The prices of articles requisitioned to be paid for, can and 
should be fixed by the commander. The prices of commodities on 
sale may also be regulated and limits placed on the hours and 
places of trading. All authorities agree that it is good policy to 
pay cash if possible and to take up receipts as soon as possible. 

If cash is paid, coercion will seldom be necessary. The coer- 
cive measures adopted are limited to the amount and kind necessary 
to secure the articles requisitioned. 

CONTRIBUTIONS 

If, in addition to the taxes mentioned above, the occupant 
levies other money contributions in the occupied territory, this is 
only for the needs of the army or of the administration of the 
territory in question. 



792 MILITARY TRAINING 

No contribution shall be collected except under a written 
order, and on the responsibility of a commander in chief. 

The collection of the said contribution shall only be effected 
as far as possible in accordance with the rules of assessment and 
incidence of the taxes in force. 

For every contribution a receipt shall be given to the con- 
tributor. No general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, is inflicted 
upon the population on account of acts of individuals for which 
they can not be regarded as jointly and severally responsible. 

Collective punishments may be inflicted for such offenses as 
the community has committed or permitted to be committed. Such 
offenses are not necessarily limited to violations of the laws of 
war. Any breach of the occupant's proclamations or martial-law 
regulations may be punished collectively. For instance, a town 
or village may be held collectively responsible for damage done to 
railways, telegraphs, roads, and bridges in the vicinity. The most 
frequent form of collective punishment consists in fines. 

REAL PROPERTY OF A STATE 

The occupying State is regarded as admintstrator and usu- 
fructuary of public buildings, real estate, forests, and agricultural 
estates belonging to the hostile State, and situated in the occupied 
territory. It must safeguard the capital of these properties, and 
administer them in accordance with the rules of unufruct. 

The occupant does not have the absolute right of disposal 
or sale of enemy's real property. As administrator or usufructuary 
he should not exercise his rights in such wasteful and negligent 
manner as to seriously impair its value. He may, however, lease 
or utilize public lands or buildings, sell the crops, cut and sell tim- 
ber, and work the mines. A lease or contract should not extend 
beyond the conclusion of the war. 

Real property of a State which is of direct military use, 
such as forts, arsenals, dockyards, magazines, barracks, railways, 
canals, bridges, piers, wharves, remain in the hands of the occu- 
pant until the close of the war and may be destroyed or dam- 
aged, if deemed necessary, in military operations. 

The property of municipalities, that of institutions dedicated 
to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences, even when 
State property, is treated as private property. All seize of, de- 
struction or willful damage done to institutions of this character, 
historic monuments, works of art, science, is forbidden, and should 
be made the subject of legal proceedings. 

The property included in the foregoing rule may be utilized 
in case of necessity for quartering the troops, the sick and wounded, 



L 



LAND WARFARE 793 

horses, stores, etc., and generally as prescribed for private property. 
Such property must, however, be secured against all avoidable in- 
jury, even when located in fortified places which are subject to 
seizure or bombardment. 

An army of occupation can only take possession of cash 
funds, and realizable securities which are strictly the property of 
the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, 
and, generally, all movable property belonging to the State which 
may be used for military operations. 

All movable property belonging to the State directly suscep- 
tible of military use may be taken possession of as booty and 
utilized for the benefit of the invader's Government. Other mov- 
able property, not directly susceptible of military use, must be 
respected and can not be appropriated. 

Where the ownership of property is unknown — that is, where 
there is any doubt as to whether it is public or private, as fre- 
quently happens — it should be treated as public property until 
ownership is definitely settled. 

PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS OF THE LAWS OF WAR 

A belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said 
regulations is, if the case demands, liable to pay compensation. It 
is responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of 
its armed forces. 

From the inherent nature of war as a last remedy of States, 
and from the nature of governments themselves, no penalties can be 
directed against the State itself, although certain practical measures 
are recognized in international law for securing the legitimate con- 
duct of war by belligerents which are considered under the fol- 
lowing heads: (a) Public complaints; (b) punishment of individ- 
uals; (c) reprisals or retaliation; and (d) taking hostages. 

Complaints. — (1) Complaints through the public, and es- 
pecially foreign, press have force solely through the formation of 
adverse public opinion, which no nation at war can afford to dis- 
regard. 

(2) Complaints sent through neutral States — the only channel 
of diplomatic intercourse — may result in mediation or good of- 
fices, or intervention. 

(3) Complaints sent direct by parliamentaires made use of 
between commanders of belligerent forces produce results in the 
future avoidance of acts complained of or in the punishment of 
offenders for violations of the laws of war. 

Offenses Committed by Land Forces. — The principal offenses 
of this class are: Making use of poisoned and otherwise forbidden 



794 MILITARY TRAINING 

arms and ammunition; killing of the wounded; refusal of quarter; 
treacherous request for quarter; maltreatment of dead bodies on the 
battle field; ill treatment of prisoners of war; breach of parole by 
prisoners of war; firing on undefended localities; abuse of the flag 
of truce; firing on the flag of truce; abuse of the Red Cross flag and 
emblem; and other violations of the Geneva Convention; use of 
civilian clothing by troops to conceal their military character dur- 
ing battle; bombardment of hospitals and other privileged build- 
ings, improper use of privileged buildings for military purposes; 
poisoning of wells and streams; pillage and purposeless destruction; 
ill-treatment of inhabitants in occupied territory. Individuals of the 
armed forces are not punished for these offenses in case they are 
committed under the orders or sanction of their government or 
commanders. The commanders ordering the commission of such 
acts, or under whose authority they are committed by their troops, 
may be punished by the belligerent into whose hands they may 
fall. 

When an entire corps, or body of troops, systematically dis- 
regards the laws of war, e. g., by refusal of quarter, any individuals 
belonging to it who are taken prisoners may be treated as impli- 
cated in the offense. All troops of the enemy known or discovered 
to give no quarter in general, or to any portion of the army, receive 
none. 

Persons who take up arms and commit hostilities without 
having complied with the conditions prescribed for securing the 
privilege of belligerents, are, when captured by the enemy, liable to 
punishment for such hostile acts as war criminals. 

War Rebels. — War rebels are persons within an occupied ter- 
ritory who rise in arms against the occupying or conquering army, 
or against the authorities established by the same. If captured, they 
may suffer death, whether they rise singly, in small or large bands, 
and whether called upon to do so by their own, but expelled gov- 
ernment or not. They are not prisoners of war; nor are they, if 
discovered and secured before their conspiracy has matured to an 
actual rising or armed violence. 

Highway Robbers and Pirates of War. — Men, or squads of 
men, who commit hostilities, whether by fighting, or by inroads for 
destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind, without commission, 
without being part and portion of the organized hostile army, and 
without sharing continuously in the war, but who do so with inter- 
mitting returns to their homes and avocations, or with the oc- 
casional assumption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting 
themselves of the character or appearance of soldiers — such men, 
or squads of men, are not public enemies, and, therefore, if cap- 
tured, are not entitled to the privileges of prisoners of war, but 
shall be treated summarily as highway robbers and pirates. 



LAND WARFARE 795 

Acts Punished as War Treason. — Some of the principal acts 
punished as treasonable by belligerents in invaded territory, when 
committed by the inhabitants, are espionage, supplying information 
to the enemy, damage to railways, war material, telegraphs, or 
other means of communication; aiding prisoners of war to escape; 
conspiracy against the armed forces of the enemy or members 
thereof; intentional misleading of troops while acting as guides; 
voluntary assistance to the enemy by giving money or serving as 
guides; inducing soldiers to serve as spies, to desert, or to sur- 
render; bribing soldiers in the interest of the enemy; damage or 
alteration to military notices and signposts in the interests of the 
enemy; fouling sources of water supply and concealing animals, 
vehicles, supplies, and fuel in the interest of the enemy; knowingly 
aiding the advance or retirement of the enemy; circulating procla- 
mations in the interests of the enemy. 

Armed Prowlers. — Armed prowlers, by whatever names they 
may be called, or persons of the enemy's territory, who steal within 
the lines of the hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing, or 
of destroying bridges, roads, or canals, or of robbing or destroying 
the mail, or of cutting the telegraph wires, are not entitled to the 
privileges of the prisoners of war. 

■" Marauders. — Marauders are individuals, either civilians or 

soldiers, who have left their corps, and who follow armies on the 
march or appear on battlefields, either singly or in bands, in quest 
of booty, and rob, maltreat, or murder stragglers and wounded, 
and pillage the dead. Their acts are considered acts of illegitimate 
warfare, and the punishment is imposed in the interest of either 
belligerent. 

Other Crimes. — There are many other crimes or offenses 
which are the result of war and which a belligerent may forbid 
and punish in the maintenance of order and the safety of his army, 
such as evasion of censorship regulations; making false claim* for 
damage; making false accusations against the troops; furnishing 
liquor to soldiers; being in possession of animals, stores, or sup- 
plies pertaining to the army, and, generally, neglect and disobedi- 
ence of orders of the Government, including police and sanitary 
regulations. All such crimes should be defined and the liability to 
punishment therefor made known to the inhabitants. In every case 
trial of individuals before military or other courts designated by the 
belligerent should precede punishment. 

Punishments. — All war crimes are subject to the death pen- 
alty, although the fact of trial indicates that a lesser penalty may 
be pronounced. The punishment should be deterrent, and in im- 
posing a sentence of imprisonment it is not necessary to take into 
consideration the end of the war, which fact does not necessarily 



J 



796 MILITARY TRAINING 

limit the imprisonment imposed. Any other construction of this 
would result in belligerents imposing the extreme penalty of death 
in all cases. 

Crimes punishable by all penal codes, such as arson, murder, 
maiming, assaults, highway robbery, theft, burglary, fraud, forgery, 
and rape, if committed by an American soldier in a hostile country 
against its inhabitants, are not only punishable as at home, but in 
all cases in which death is not inflicted, the severer punishment shall 
be preferred. 

Reprisals. — Reprisals are acts of retaliation, resorted to by 
one belligerent against the enemy individuals or property for 
illegal acts of warfare committed by the other belligerent, for the 
purpose of forcing future compliance with the recognized rules of 
civilized warfare. 

Retaliation. — The law of war can no more wholly dispense 
with retaliation than can the law of nations, of which it is a branch. 
Yet civilized nations acknowledge retaliation as the sternest feature 
of war. A reckless enemy often leaves to his opponent no other 
means of securing himself against the repetition of barbarous 
outrage. 

Retaliation will, therefore, never be resorted to as a measure 
of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and, 
moreover, cautiously and unavoidably; that is to say, retaliation 
shall only be resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occur- 
rence, and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retri- 
bution. Unjust or inconsiderate retaliation removes the belligerents 
farther and farther from the mitigating rules of regular war, and 
by rapid steps leads them nearer to the internecine wars of sav- 
ages. 

The illegal acts of warfare may be committed by a govern- 
ment, by its military commanders, or by a community, or individ- 
uals thereof whom it is impossible to apprehend, try, and punish. 

All prisoners of war are liable to the infliction of retaliatory 
measures. Persons guilty of no offense whatever may be punished 
as retaliation for the guilty acts of others. 

Reprisals should never be resorted to by individual soldiers 
but solely under the direct orders of a commander. The rule re- 
quiring careful inquiry into the real occurrence will always be 
followed unless the safety of the troops requires immediate drastic 
action and the persons who actually committed the offense can 
not be ascertained. 

The acts resorted to as reprisal need not conform to those 
complained of by the injured party, but should not be excessive or 
exceed the degree of violence committed by the enemy. Villages 
or houses, etc., may be burned for acts of hostility committed from 
them where the guilty individuals can not be identified, tried and 



LAND WARFARE 797 

punished. Collective punishments may be inflicted either in form 
of fine or otherwise. 

Hostages. — Hostages have been taken in recent wars for the 
following purposes: (1) To insure proper treatment of wounded 
and sick when left behind in hostile localities; (2) to protect the 
lives of prisoners of war and railroad officials who have fallen 
into the hands of irregular troops or whose lives have been 
threatened; (3) to protect lines of communication by placing them 
on engines of trains in occupied territory; (4) to insure compliance 
with requisitions, contributions, etc. When a hostage is accepted he 
is treated as a prisoner of war. 

NEUTRALITY 

Neutrality on the part of a State not a party to the war, 
consists in refraining from all participation in the war, and in exer- 
cising absolute impartiality in preventing, tolerating, and regulating 
certain acts on his own part, by its subjects and by the belliger- 
ents. It is the duty of belligerents to respect the territory and 
rights of the neutral States. 

The existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral 
powers without delay, and does not take effect with regard to them 
until after the receipt of a notification, which may, however, be 
given by telegraph. Neutral powers, nevertheless, can not rely 
on the absence of notification if it is clearly established that they 
were in fact aware of the existence of a state of war. 

NEUTRAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES 

Inviolability of Territory. — The territory of neutral powers is 
inviolable. Belligerents are forbidden to move troops or convoys 
of either munitions of war or supplies across the territory of a 
neutral power. The fact of a neutral power resisting, even by 
force, attempts to violate its neutrality can not be regarded as a 
hostile act. 

Patrolling the Frontier. — It is quite usual, frequently neces- 
sary, and therefore the duty of a neutral power whose territory is 
adjacent to a theater of war, to mobilize a portion of its forces to 
enforce its neutrality along the frontier. That is to prevent troops 
of either belligerent to enter its territory, to intern such as may be 
permitted to enter, and generally to enforce its neutrality duties. 

Should the neutral State be unable, or fail for any reasons, to 
prevent violations of its neutrality by the troops of one belligerent 
entering or passing through its territory, the other belligerent may 
be justified in attacking the enemy forces on this territory. 



798 MILITARY TRAINING 

Convoys of Munitions and Supplies. — A distinction must be 
drawn between the official acts of the belligerent State in convoy- 
ing or shipping munitions and supplies through neutral territory 
as part of an expedition and the shipment of such supplies com- 
mercially. The former is forbidden while the latter is not. 

Forming Corps of Combatants and Recruiting Forbidden. — 
Corps of combatants can not be formed nor recruiting agencies 
opened on the territory of a neutral power to assist the belliger- 
ents. 

The establishment of recruiting agencies, the actual recruit- 
ing of men, the formation and organization of hostile expeditions 
on neutral territory, and the passage across its frontiers of organ- 
ized bodies of men intending to enlist are prohibited. 

This prohibition does not extend to the medical personnel 
and units of a recognized voluntary aid society duly authorized to 
join one of the belligerents. 

The responsibility of a neutral power is not engaged by the 
fact of individuals crossing the frontier separately to offer their 
services to one of the belligerents. 

The prohibition in the two foregoing rules is directed against 
organized bodies which only require to be armed to become an 
immediate fighting force. Individuals crossing the frontier singly 
or in small bands that are unorganized create no obligation on the 
neutral State. 

Nationals of a belligerent State are permitted freely to leave 
neutral territory to join the armies of their country. 

Officers of the land forces of neutral powers on the active 
list should not be permitted to join a belligerent, and having 
joined such belligerent forces should be recalled. 

Neutral Not Bound to Prevent Shipment of Supplies. — A 
neutral power is not called upon to prevent the export or trans- 
port, on behalf of one or other of the belligerents, of arms, muni- 
tions of war, or, in general, of anything which can be of use to an 
army or a fleet. 

A neutral state, as such, is prohibited from furnishing sup- 
plies, munitions of war, or to make loans to a belligerent. It is 
also forbidden to permit the use of its territory for the fitting out 
of hostile expeditions. It should issue a proclamation of neutrality. 

Commercial transactions by neutral companies, citizens, or 
persons resident in its territory with belligerents are not pro- 
hibited. That is, a belligerent can purchase from neutral compan- 
ies, citizens, or persons within its territory supplies, munitions of 
war, or anything that can be of use to an army or fleet, which can 
be exported or transported without involving the neutral state. 

A neutral power is not called upon to forbid or restrict the 
use on behalf of the belligerents of telegraph or telephone cables 



LAND WARFARE 799 

or of wireless telegraph apparatus belonging to it or to companies 
or private individuals. 

The liberty of a neutral State to transmit dispatches by- 
means of its telegraph lines on land, its submarine cables, and 
wireless apparatus does not imply the power to use them or per- 
mit their use to lend a manifest assistance to one of the belliger- 
ents. 

Use of Neutral Territory to Establish Wireless Telegraphy. — 
Belligerents are likewise forbidden to: (a) Erect on the territory 
of a neutral power a wireless telegraphy station or other apparatus 
for the purpose of communicating with belligerent forces on land 
or sea. (b) Use any installation of this kind established by them 
before the war on the territory of a neutral power for purely mili- 
tary purposes, and which has not been opened for the service of 
public messages. 

Internment. — A neutral power which receives on its terri- 
tory troops belonging to the belligerent armies may intern them, 
as far as possible, at a distance from the theater of war. 

It may keep them in camps and even confine them in fort- 
resses or in places set apart for this purpose. 

It may decide whether officers can be left at liberty on giving 
their parole not to leave the neutral territory without permission. 

A neutral is not bound to permit belligerent troops to enter 
its territory. On the other hand it may permit them to do so with- 
out violating its neutrality. But they must be interned or con- 
fined in places designated by the neutral. They will naturally be 
disarmed and placed under the necessary guard, thereby occupying 
in many respects the same status as prisoners of war. 

If troops or soldiers of a belligerent are permitted to seek 
refuge in neutral territory, the neutral can impose the terms upon 
which they may do so. In case of large bodies of troops seeking 
refuge in neutral territory, these conditions are usually stipulated 
in a convention drawn up by and between the duly authorized 
representative of the neutral power and the senior officer of the 
troops. 

Beyond the right of deciding which, if any, of the officers are 
to be paroled, no conditions are specified and no penalties are pre- 
scribed for breach of parole. 

The munitions, stores, and effects which the interned troops 
bring with them should be restored to their Government at the ter- 
mination of the war. 

In the absence of a special convention to the contrary, the 
neutral power supply the interned with the food, clothing and 
relief required by humanity. 

At the conclusion of peace the expenses caused by the intern- 
ment are made good. 



800 MILITARY TRAINING 

A neutral power which receives escaped prisoners of war 
leaves them at liberty. If it allows them to remain in its territory- 
it may assign them a place of residence. 

The same rule applies to prisoners of war brought by troops 
taking refuge in a territory of a neutral power. 

A neutral power may authorize the passage into its territory 
of the sick and wounded belonging to the belligerent armies, on 
condition that the trains bringing them carry neither personnel nor 
war material. In such a case, the neutral power is bound to take 
whatever measures of safety and control are necessary for the | 
purpose. 

The sick or wounded brought under these conditions into 
neutral territory by one of the belligerents, and belonging to the 
hostile party, must be guarded by the neutral power so as to insure 
their not taking part again in the military operations. The same 
duty devolves on the neutral State with regard to wounded or sick 
of the other army who may be committed to its care. 

The neutral power is under no obligation to permit the pas- 
sage of a convoy of evacuation of sick and wounded through its 
territory, but when permitted to pass, the neutral must exercise 
control, must see that neither personnel nor materiel is carried, 
and generally must accord impartiality of treatment to the bellig- 
erents. 

There is no indicated necessity for obtaining the consent of 
the other belligerent before granting authority for the passage of 
the convoy, but this action seems advisable, especially where the 
passage of a considerable body of sick and wounded is contem- 
plated. 

The sick and wounded of the belligerent convoying them 
may be carried through to their own territory. If, however, they 
are left in the neutral's territory they must be interned so as to 
insure their not taking part again in the war. 

Sick and wounded prisoners of war brought into neutral ter- 
ritory as part of a convoy of evacuation, granted right of passage 
through neutral territory, can not be transported to their own 
country nor liberated, as are prisoners of war escaping into or 
brought by troops seeking asylum in neutral territory, but must 
be detained by the neutral power. 

The medical personnel belonging to belligerent forces, who 
have sought asylum and are interned, can be released by the neutral 
and permitted to return to their own State or army. Medical per- 
sonnel and materiel necessary for the care of the sick and wounded 
of a convoy of evacuation, permitted to pass through neutral ter- 
ritory, may be permitted to accompany the convoy. The neutral 
State may retain the necessary medical personnel and materiel for 
the care of the sick and wounded left in its care, and, failing this, 



LAND WARFARE 801 

may furnish same and will have expense of same refunded by the 
belligerent concerned after the termination of the war. 

The nationals of a State which is not taking part in the war 
are considered as neutrals. 

Neutral persons resident in occupied territory are not entitled 
to claim different treatment, in general, from that accorded the 
other inhabitants. They must refrain from all participation in the 
war, from all hostile acts, and observe strictly the rules of the 
occupant. 

Diplomatic agents of neutral sovereigns and Governments 
must be treated with all courtesy, and be permitted such freedom 
of action as is possible to allow, with due regard to the necessities 
of the war. 

All subjects of neutral powers whether resident or tem- 
porarily visiting in occupied territory may be punished for offenses 
committed by them to the same extent and in the same manner 
as enemy subjects. 

A neutral can not avail himself of his neutrality: (a) If he 
commits hostile acts against a belligerent, (b) If he commits acts 
in favor of a belligerent, particularly if he voluntarily enlists in 
the ranks of the armed force of one of the parties. In such a case, 
the neutral is not more severely treated by the belligerent as 
against whom he has abandoned his neturality than a national of 
the other belligerent State could be for the same act. 

The following acts are not considered as committed in favor 
of one belligerent: (a) Supplies furnished or loans made to one 
of the belligerents, provided that the person who furnishes the 
supplies or who makes the loans lives neither in the territory of 
the other party nor in the territory occupied by him, and that the 
supplies do not come from these territories, (b) Services rendered 
in matters of police or civil administration. 

Railway material coming from the territory of neutral 
powers, whether it be the property of the said powers or of com- 
panies or private persons, and recognizable as such, is not requisi- 
tioned or utilized by a belligerent except where and to the extent 
that it is absolutely necessary. It is sent back as soon as possible 
to the country of origin. A neutral power may likewise, in case of 
necessity, retain and utilize to an equal extent material coming 
from the territory of the belligerent power. 

AUTOMATIC SUBMARINE CONTACT MINES 

There are three general classes of mines: (1) Observation 
mines which are anchored along the coast and connected therewith 
by wires by which they can be exploded electrically. (2) Anchored 



802 MILITARY TRAINING 

automatic contact mines which are attached to heavy weights, and 
which can be placed at any required depth below the surface; these 
mines are exploded automatically by contact with heavy bodies 
sucjj as ships. (3) Unanchored automatic contact mines which also 
explode by contact. 

It is forbidden to lay unanchored automatic contact mines 
unless they be so constructed as to become harmless one hour at 
most after those who laid them have lost control over them. 

It is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the coasts 
and ports of the enemy, with the sole object of intercepting com- 
mercial navigation. 

It is not probable that a belligerent resorting to the use 
of these contact mines off the coasts and ports of his enemy will 
hesitate to disavow the intention of intercepting commercial navi- 
gation. In its present form this rule permits the use of such 
mines so as to cause great risks to neutral navigation. 

It is forbidden to lay anchored automatic contact mines 
which do not become harmless as soon as they have broken 
loose from their moorings. 

When anchored automatic contact mines are employed, 
every possible precaution must be taken for the security of peace- 
ful navigation. The belligerents undertake to provide, as far as 
possible, for these mines becoming harmless after a limited time 
has elapsed, and, where the mines cease to be under observation, 
to notify danger zones, as soon as military exigencies permit, by 
a notice to mariners, which must also be communicated to the 
Governments through the diplomatic channel. 

Neutral Powers Can Lay Mines. — Neutral powers which lay 
automatic contact mines off their coasts must observe the same 
rules and take the same precautions as are imposed on belligerents. 

The neutral power must give notice to mariners in advance 
of the places where automatic contact mines have been laid. This 
notice must be communicated at once to the Governments through 
the diplomatic channel. 

Must Remove Mines at Close of War. — At the close of the 
war the contracting powers undertake to do their utmost to remove 
the mines which they have laid, each power removing its own 
mines. 

As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid by one 
of the belligerents off the coast of the other, their position must 
be notified to the other party by the power which laid them, and 
each power must proceed with the least possible delay to remove 
the mines in its own waters. 

Torpedoes. — It is forbidden to use torpedoes which do not 
become harmless when they have missed their mark. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

MILITARY GYMNASTICS AND PHYSICAL TRAIN- 
ING IN THE MILITARY SERVICE 

" A System of Military Gymnastic Exercises and a System of 
Land-taught Swimming" was prepared and published by the author 
in 1881, under the instructions of the Superintendent of the United 
States Military Academy, for the use of the cadets and military 
colleges. The object of this course of gymnastics was to develop 
and increase the physical powers of the cadet or soldier by advanc- 
ing him, step by step, from the preliminary extension movements 
to the most arduous and complicated machine exercises, his 
advancement being always regulated by his growing strength and 
capacity. Later Major Herman J. Koehler, United States Army, 
enlarged this system which developed into the Manual of Physical 
Training used by the United States Army, which aims to attain 
the development of the physical attributes of every individual to 
the fullest extent of his possibilities. These may be summed up 
as (1) General health and bodily vigor; (2) Muscular strength 
and endurance; (3) Self-endurance; (4) Smartness, activity, and 
precision. 

It is upon the first of these, health and bodily vigor, that the 
development of all the other qualities so essential in a soldier are 
dependent, and for that reason the maintenance of robust health 
and the development of organic vigor should be considered the 
primary object of this training. 

The tendency of the age is to treat all conditions of health 
from a pathological standpoint; and while much has been accom- 
plished in the way of increasing the resistive powers of the human 
organism against the inroads of disease by means of inoculation 
and other methods of prevention, the development of the inherent 
power of resistance, which every individual possesses in a greater 
or lesser degree by means of natural physiological methods, has 
been much neglected. 

It is not sufficient, however, for a soldier to be healthy; his 
profession demands that he possess more than the average amount 
of muscular strength and endurance in addition to good health, 
in order that he may be ready to exchange the comparative com- 



804 MILITARY TRAINING 

forts of barrack life for the hardships of field service at any 
moment without diminishing his effectiveness. Hence, the prepara- 
tory training he receives must contain those elements that will 
enable him to do so successfully. 

With robust health as a basis and with the knowledge that 
he is the possessor of more than average strength and endurance, 
he must be taught how to value the former and how to use the latter 
to the best advantage. By doing so he will unwittingly develop 
self-reliance, which, after all, is a physical quality, as it induces 
men to dare because of the consciousness to do. 

Smartness, activity and precision are the physical expressions 
of mental activity. All are essential soldierly qualities, as they 
make for self-respect, neatness, and grace, which combined spell 
discipline. Precision and exactitude should therefore always be 
insisted upon in the performance of all exercises prescribed. 

In the endeavor to attain the objects referred to above the 
soldier is the recipient of a course of training that can not fail to 
develop him harmoniously, and the liability of developing one 
portion of his body at the expense of another is obviated. 

SCOPE 



The material at the disposal of instructors embraces: 1. Set 
ting-up exercises; 2. Marching at quick or double time and running; | 
3. Dumb-bell, club, : nd rifle exercises; 4. Climbing; 5. Jumping; 
6. Apparatus work; 7. Gymnastic contests; 8. Athletics; 9. Swim- 
ming; 10. Boxing and wrestling. 

Setting-up exercises are the foundation upon which the entire |o 
course of training in the service is based. Their importance can idi 
not be overestimated, as by means of them alone it is possible to jj 
effect an all-around development impossible of attainment by any |tf 
other method. They should therefore form a very important part 
of every drill. 

Marching in quick time and exercises calling into action the 
various parts of the body while marching tend to develop coordi- 
nation, upon which to a great extent poise, posture, carriage, and 
rhythm are dependent. Marching in double time is a heart and 
lung developing exercise of moderate severity. Running, on the 
other hand, especially when continued for long periods, or at a 
high rate of speed, or when taken in conjunction with leg exer- 
cises, affects those organs in a very marked degree. Both double 
time and running are invaluable in the development of endur- 
ance and organic vigor. 

Dumb-bell exercises are closely allied to the setting-up exer- 
cises and differ from these only by the extra weight that is imposed |j e 
by the bells, which should, however, never exceed 2 pounds. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 80S 

Club exercises are of use principally as a means for the develop- 
ment of coordination and grace in the upper extremities; their 
weight, since muscular development is not aimed at, should not 
exceed 2 pounds. 

Rifle exercises have for their object the development of "handi- 
ness " with the piece. Owing to the weight of the rifle they are 
powerful factors in the development of the muscles of the arms, 
upper back, shoulders, and chest, and when taken in conjunction 
with trunk and leg exercises they are excellent agents for the all- 
round development of those who possess the strength to wield 
the piece to advantage. 

Climbing, on poles or ropes, when both arms and legs are used, 
brings into action nearly every muscle of the body and exerts 
considerable influence upon the heart. Where poles or ropes of 
sufficient length are used this exercise will also develop self- 
reliance. 

Jumping, when indulged in as a gymnastic exercise, where a 
series of from 8 to 10 jumps of moderate length are executed suc- 
cessively, is essentially a leg and heart developing exercise. When 
form is insisted upon and the nature of the jump is varied by 
introducing various leg, arm, and trunk movements, it becomes a 
strong factor in the development of coordination. 

Apparatus work should be supplementary to all other forms of 
training. The chief object of this work in the service should be to 
use it as a means for the development of the ability of the soldier 
to control his body while its weight is supported by or suspended 
from the arms and hands, in order to enable him to successfully 
Dvercome and surmount such obstacles as may present themselves 
luring field service. The exercises composing this part of the 
training should, therefore, be confined to those that will develop 
Uhe muscular strength of the entire body in general and that of 
; he arms and legs in particular, and at the same time tend to make 
:he soldier agile and active and teach him decision and self-reliance. 

Gymnastic contests are the simpler forms of antagonistic 
gymnastics in which the participants are pitted against each other, 
Und which never fail to induce the usual rivalry for superiority 
Attending personal contests. Their chief value lies in the develop- 
ment of agility and quickness of thought and action. They are 
juite the most interesting of those exercises in which the effort is 
" ost sight of in the desire to win. 

Athletics, when employed for the sake of their value as a means 
''or the development of large numbers, which should be the case 
n the service, have nothing in common with competitive athletics, 
.'n other words, their value lies entirely in their usefulness in the 
levelopment of physical strength, endurance, skill, and not in the 
naking or breaking of records. 



806 MILITARY TRAINING 

Swimming is of vital importance to every one connected with 
the service, and it should be made obligatory upon all officers and 
enlisted men to make themselves proficient in it. Aside from its 
usefulness it is without doubt the best single means to all round 
physical development. 

Boxing and wrestling, while not recommended as an obligatory 
part of the enlisted man's training, should still be encouraged at 
all times, not only on account of their value as a means to bodily 
development, but on account of the self-reliance and confidence 
they give to those who are proficient in them. 

METHODS 

In the employment of the various forms of physical training 
enumerated above it is necessary that well-defined methods should] 
be introduced in order that the object of this training may be at- 
tained in the most thorough and systematic manner. Whenever 
it is possible this work should be conducted out of doors. In 
planning these methods the following factors must be considered: 
(1) the condition and physical aptitude of the men; (2) the facil- 
ities; (3) the time; (4) instruction material. 

The question of the physical aptitude and general condition, 
etc., of the men is a very important one, and it should always de- 
termine the nature and extent of the task expected of them; never 
should the work be made the determining factor. In general, it is 
advisable to divide the men into three classes, viz., the recruit 
class, the intermediate class, and the advanced class. The work 
for each class should fit the capabilities of the members of that 
class and in every class it should be arranged progressively. 

Facilities are necessarily to be considered in any plan of in- ; 
struction, but as most posts are now equipped with better than 
average facilities the plan herewith laid will answer all purposes. 

Time is a decidedly important factor, and no plan can be made 
unless those in charge of this work know exactly how much time 
they have at their disposal. During the suspension of drills five 
periods a week, each of 45 minutes' duration, should be devoted *> 
to physical training; during the drill period a 15-minute drill in ' 
setting-up exercses should be ordered on drill days. The time of 
day, too, is important. When possible, these drills should be held I 
in the morning about two hours after breakfast, and at no time ' 
should they be held immediately before or after a meal. 

The proper use of the instruction material is undoubtedly the 
most important part of an instructor's duty, for it not only means P 
the selection of the proper material but its application. Every ex- f 
ercise has a function peculiarly its own; in other words, it has a 
certain effect upon a certain part of the body and plays a role in 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 807 

the development of the men. It is, therefore, the sum of these 
various exercises properly grouped that constitutes the method. 
So far as possible every lesson should be planned to embrace 
setting up exercises that call into action all parts of the body, 
applied gymnastics, apparatus work, and exercises that develop 
co-ordination and skill, such as jumping and vaulting. 

The best results are obtained when these exercises which affect 
the extensor muscles chiefly are followed by those affecting the 
flexors; i.e., flexion should always be followed by extension, or vice 
versa. It is also advisable that a movement requiring a consider- 
able amount of muscular exertion should be followed by one in 
which this exertion is reduced to a minimum. As a rule, especially 
in the setting-up exercises, one portion of the body should not be 
exercised successively; thus, arm exercises should be followed by 
a trunk exercise, and that in turn by a leg, shoulder, or neck 
exercise. 

Clubs, dumb-bells, bar-bells, wands, or rifles may be substi- 
tuted for the setting-up exercises occasionally, and the gymnastic 
contests may also be used in place of the jumping and vaulting 
exercises. 

Large numbers may be employed in a body in the setting up 
exercises and also in the exercises with the clubs, etc. 
In the applied or apparatus work, unless the facilities afford a suffi- 
.cient number of the same kind of apparatus, it is advisable to 
.divide the men into small squads. 

Officers who have been placed in charge of this work must not 
for an instant lose sight of the fact that to them has been intrusted 
a part of the soldier's training, which is of great importance, and 
hat success or failure is dependent entirely upon themselves. Work 
as important as this is worthy of the best efforts, and it should 
never be intrusted to those who are not enthusiastic about it. 

Whenever possible the officer in charge should conduct the work 
personally, as in no profession does the individuality and personal 
influence of a leader carry such weight as it does in the military. 
\ well-defined program should be mapped out before the drill 
pegins, and this should be carried out faithfully. Every day's work 
mould dovetail into the next and be progressive. 

Instructors should not" fail to do as much as possible themselves, 

f is an example is always more impressive than a precept; it will 

also serve to keep the officer in fit condition. Where commands 

ire large, the athletic officer should be given officer assistants, 

vhom he should train so that they may be able to carry out his 

program intelligently. If officers are not available, he should 

elect likely enlisted men and train them to be leaders and capable 

I'if taking charge of a squad. 

The work should be so conducted that the men are developed 



808 MILITARY TRAINING 

harmoniously; that is, any tendency to develop one side or one 
portion of the body at the expense of the other should be avoided. 
Insist upon accurate and precise execution of every movement. By 
doing so those other essential qualities, besides strength and en- 
durance — activity, agility, gracefulness, and accuracy — will also be 
developed. Exercises which require activity and agility, rather 
than those that require strength only, should be selected. 

It should be constantly borne in mind that these exercises are 
the means and not the end; and if there be a doubt in the mind of 
the instructor as to the effect of an exercise, it is always well to 
err upon the side of safety. Underdoing is rectifiable; overdoing 
is often not. The object of this work is not the development of 
expert gymnasts, but the development of physically sound men by 
means of a system in which the chances of bodily injury are re- 
duced to a minimum. When individuals show a special aptitude for 
gymnastics they may be encouraged,, within limits, to improve this 
ability, but never at the expense of their fellows. 

The drill should be made attractive, and this can best be ac- 
complished by employing the mind as well as the body. The 
movements should be as varied as possible, thus constantly offering 
the men something new to make them keep their minds on their 
work. A movement many times repeated presents no attraction 
and is executed in a purely mechanical manner which should always 
be discountenanced. 

Short and frequent drills should be given in preference to long 
ones, which are liable to exhaust all concerned, and exhaustion 
means lack of interest and benefit. All movements should be care- 
fully explained, and, if necessary, illustrated by the instructor. 

The lesson should begin with the least violent exercises, grad- 
ually working up to those that are more so, then gradually work- 
ing back to the simpler ones, so that the men at the close of the 
drill will be in as nearly a normal condition as possible. 

When one portion of the body is being exercised, care should 
be taken that the other parts remain quiet so far as the conforma- 
tion of the body will allow. The men must learn to exercise any 
one part of the body independent of the other parts. 

Everything i'n connection with physical training should be such 
that the men look forward to it with pleasure, not with dread, for 
the mind exerts more influence over the human body than all the 
gymnastic paraphernalia that was ever invented. 

Exercise should be carried on as much as possible in the open 
air; at all times in pure, dry air. All the men except those excused 
by the post surgeon should be compelled to attend these drills. 

Never exercise the men to the point of exhaustion. If there is 
evidence of panting, faintness, fatigue, or pain, the exercise should 
be stopped at once, for it is nature's way of saying " too much." 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 809 

By constant practice the men should learn to breathe slowly 
through the nostrils during all exercises, especially while running. 
A fundamental condition of exercise is unimpeded respiration. 
Proper breathing should always be insisted upon; "holding the 
breath" and breathing only when it can no longer be held is in- 
jurious. Every exercise should be accompanied by an unimpeded 
and, if possible, by an uninterrupted act of respiration, the inspira- 
tion and respiration of which depends to a great extent upon the 
t nature of the exercise. Inhalation should always accompany that 
part of an exercise which tends to elevate and distend the thorax — - 
cas raising arms over head laterally, for instance; while that part 
| of an exercise which exerts a pressure against the walls of the chest 
, should be accompanied by exhalation, as for example, lowering 
.arms laterally from shoulders or overhead. 

7 If after exercismg, the breathing becomes labored and dis- 

tressed, it is an unmistakable sign that the work has been exces- 
sive. Such excessiveness is not infrequently the cause of serious 
injury to the heart and lungs, or to both. In cases where exercise 
.produces palpitation, labored respiration, etc., it is advisable to 
.recommend absolute rest, or to order such exercises that will re- 
lieve the oppressed and overtaxed organ. Leg exercises slowly 
executed afford such relief; by drawing the blood from the upper 
jto the lower extremities they equalize the circulation, thereby 
lessening the heart's action and quieting the respiration. 

Never exercise immediately after a meal; digestion is more 
important at this time than extraneous exercise. 

Never eat or drink immediately after exercise; allow the body 
to recover its normal condition first, and the most beneficial results 
will follow. If necessary, pure water, not too cold, may be taken 
in small quantities, but the exercise should be continued, especially 
M in a state of perspiration. 

Never, if at all possible, allow the underclothing to dry on the 
Ibody. Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat; 
-this should be lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled; 
hence, after exercise, never remove clothing to cool off, but, on the 
contrary, wear some wrap in addition. In like manner, be well 
wrapped up on leaving the gymnasium. 

Cold baths, especially when the body is heated, as in the case 
after exercising violently, should be discouraged. In individual 
instances such baths may appear apparently beneficial, or at least 
not injurious; in a majority of cases, however, they can not be used 
with impunity. Tepid baths are recommended. When impossible 
to bathe, the flannels worn while exercising should be stripped off, 
the body sponged with tepid water, and then rubbed thoroughly 
with coarse towels. After such a sponge the body should be 
:lothed in clean, warm clothing. 



810 MILITARY TRAINING 

Flannel is the best material to wear next to the body during 
physical drill, as it absorbs the perspiration, protects the body 
against drafts and in a mild manner excites the skin. When the 
conditions permit it the men may be exercised in the ordinary 
athletic costume, sleeveless shirt, flappers, socks, and gymnasium 
shoes. 

SETTING UP EXERCISES 



The various movements comprising an exercise are executed 
by commands and, unless otherwise indicated, the continuation of 
an exercise is carried out by repeating the command, which usually 
takes the form of numerals, the numbers depending upon the num- 
ber of movements that an exercise comprises. Thus, if an exercise 
consists of two movements, the counts will be one, two; or if it 
consists of eight movements, the counts will be correspondingly 
increased; thus every movement is designated by a separate 
command. 

Occasionally, especially in exercises that are to be executed 
slowly, words rather than numerals are used, and these must be 
indicative of the nature of the various movements. In the continu- 
ation of an exercise the preparatory command is explanatory, the 
command of execution causes the execution and the continuation 
is caused by a repetition of numerals denoting the number of move- 
ments required, or of words describing the movements if words are 
used. The numerals or words preceding the command. HALT 
should always be given with a rising inflection on the first numeral 
or word of command of the last repetition of the exercise in order 
to prepare the men for the command HALT. 

Each command must indicate, by its tone, how that particular 
movement is to be executed; thus, if an exercise consists of two 
movements, one of which is to be energized, the command cor- 
responding to that movement must be emphasized. 

Judgment must be used in giving commands, for rarely is the 
cadence of two movements alike; and a command should not only 
indicate the cadence of an exercise, but also the nature of its 
execution. Thus, many of the arm exercises are short and snappy; 
hence the command should be given in a smart tone of voice, and 
the interval between the commands should be short. 

The leg exercises can not be executed as quickly as those of the 
arms; therefore, the commands should be slightly drawn out and 
follow one another in slow succession. 

The trunk exercises, owing to the deliberateness of execution, 
should be considerably drawn out and follow one another in slow 
succession. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 811 

The antagonistic exercises, where one group of muscles is made 
to antagonize another, tensing exercises, the commands are drawn 
still more. In these exercises words are preferable to numerals. 
In fact it should be the object of the instructor to convey to the 
men, by the manner of his command, exactly the nature of the 
exercise. 

All commands should be given in a clear and distinct tone of 
voice, articulation should be distinct, and an effort should be made 
to cultivate a voice which will inspire the men with enthusiasm and 
tend to make them execute the exercses with willingness, snap, 
and precision. It is not the volume, but the quality, of the voice 
which is necessary to successful instruction. 

THE POSITION OF ATTENTION 

This is the position an unarmed dismounted soldier assumes 
when in ranks. During the setting-up exercises, it is assumed 
whenever the command ATTENTION is given by the instructor. 
Having allowed his men to rest, the instructor commands: 1. Squad, 
2. ATTENTION. The word class, section, or company may be 
substituted for the word " squad." 

At the command attention, the men quickly assume and retain 
the following position: 

Heels on same line and as near each other as the conformation 
of the man permits. Feet turned out equally and forming an angle 
of about 45 degrees. Knees straight without stiffness. The body 
erect on the hips, the spine extended throughout its entire length. 
The shoulders falling naturally, are forced back until they are 
square. Chest arched and slightly raised. The arms hang natur- 
ally; thumbs along seams of trousers; back of hands out and 
elbows turned back. Head erect, chin drawn in so that the axis 
of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front and, 
when the nature of the terrain permits it, fixed on an object at 
their own height. 

Too much attention can not be given to this position, and in- 
structors are cautioned to insist that the men accustom themselves 
to it. As a rule, it is so exaggerated that it not only becomes 
ridiculous, but positively harmful. The men must be taught to 
assume a natural and graceful position, one from which all rigidity 
is eliminated and from which action is possible without first relax- 
ing muscles that have been constrained in an effort to maintain the 
position of attention. In other words, coordination rather than 
strength should be depended upon. 

In the position described the weight rests principally upon the 
balls of the feet, the heels resting lightly upon the ground. The 
knees are extended easily, but never locked. The body is inclined 
forward until the front of the thighs is directly over the base of 



812 MILITARY TRAINING 

the toes; the hips are square and the waist is extended by the 
erection of the entire spine, but never to such a degree that mobility 
of the waist is lost. 

In extending the spine, the chest is naturally arched and the 
abdomen is drawn in, but never to the extent where it interferes 
with respiration. In extending the spinal column, the shoulders 
must not be raised, but held loosely in normal position and forced 
back until the points of the shoulders are at right angles with an 
anterior-posterior plane running through the body. 

The chin should be square; i. e., horizontal and forced back 
enough to bring the neck in a vertical plane; the eyes fixed to the 
front and the object on which they are fixed must be at their own 
height whenever the nature of the terrain permits it. 

When properly assumed, a vertical line drawn from the top 
of the head should pass in front of the ear, just in front of the 
shoulder and of thigh, and find its base at the balls of the feet. 

All muscles should be contracted only enough to maintain this 
position, which at all times should be a lithesome one, that can be 
maintained for a long period without fatigue — one that makes for 
activity and that is based upon a correct anatomical and physiologi- 
cal basis. 

Instructors correct the position of attention of every man in- 
dividually and ascertain, when the position has been properly as- 
sumed, whether the men are " on their toes," i.e., carrying the 
weight on the balls of the feet, whether they are able to respire 
properly. This position should be repeated until the men are 
able to assume it correctly without restraint or rigidity. 

At the command rest or at ease the men, while carrying out 
the provisions of the drill regulations, should be cautioned to avoid 
assuming any position that has a tendency to nullify the object of 
the position of attention; as standing on one leg for instance: 
allowing the shoulders to slope forward; drooping the head; folding 
arms across chest, etc. The weight should always be distributed 
equally upon both legs; the head, trunk, and shoulders remain 
erect and the arms held in a position that does not restrict the 
chest or derange the shoulders. 

FORMATIONS 

The men form in a single or double rank, the tallest men on the 
right. The instructor commands: 1. Count off. At this command, 
all except the right file execute " eyes right " and, beginning on the 
right, the men in each rank count 1, 2, 3, 4; each man turns his 
head and eyes to the front as he counts. 

The instructor then commands: 1. Take distance, 2. MARCH, 
3. Squad, 4. HALT. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 813 

At the command march, No. 1 of the front rank moves straight 
to the front; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 of the front and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 
of the rear rank in the order named move straight to the front, 
each stepping off, so as to follow the preceding man at four paces; 
the command halt is given when all have their distances. 

If it i's desired that a less distance than four paces be taken, 
the distance desired should be indicated in the preparatory com- 
mand. The men of the squad may be caused to cover No. 1 front 
rank by the command cover. 

The instructor then commands: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 
3. COVER. 

At these commands the men face in the direction indicated and 
cover in file. 

To assemble the squad the instructor commands: 1. Right 
(left), 2. FACE, 3. Assemble, 4. MARCH. 

After facing and at command march, No. 1 of the front rank 
stands fast, the other members of both ranks resuming their orig- 
inal positions, or for convenience in the gymnasium they may be 
assembled to the rear, in which case the assemblage is made on 
No. 4 of the rear rank. Unless otherwise indicated, the guide is 
always right. 

SPECIAL TRAINING 

In addition to the regular squad or class work instructors 
should, when they notice a physical defect in any man, recommend 
some exercise which will tend to correct it. 

The most common physical defects are drooping head, round 
and stooped shoulders, weak back, weak abdomen, and slight depth 
and width of chest. 

STARTING POSITIONS 

In nearly all the arm exercises it is necessary to hold the arms 
in some fixed position from which the exercise can be most ad- 
vantageously executed, and to which position the arms are again 
returned upon completing the exercise. These positions are termed 
starting positions; and though it may not be absolutely necessary 
to assume one of them before or during the employment of any 
other portion of the body, it is advisable to do so, since they give to 
the exercise a finished, uniform, and graceful appearance. 

In the following positions, at the command down, resume the 
attention. Practice in assuming the starting position may be had 
by repeating the commands of execution, such as raise, down. 

Intervals having been taken and attention assumed, the in- 
structor commands: 



814 MILITARY TRAINING 

1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command raise, raise the arms to the front smartly, ex- 
tended to their full length, till the hands are in front of and at 
the height of the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and 
joined, thumbs under index fingers. At arms down, resume posi- 
tion of attention. 

1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command raise, raise the arms laterally until horizontal, 
palms down, fingers as in 1. The arms are brought down smartly 
without allowing them to touch the body. 

1. Arms upward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command raise, raise the arms from the sides, extended 
to their full length, with the forward movement, until they are 
vertically overhead, back of hands turned outward, fingers extended 
and joined. 

1. Arms backward, 2. CROSS, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command cross, the arms are folded across the back; 
hands grasping forearms. 

1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command raise, raise the forearms to the front until 
horizontal, elbow forced back, upper arms against the chest, 
hands tightly closed, knuckles down. 

1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command place, place the hands on the hips, the finger 
tips in line with trouser seams; fingers extended and joined, thumbs 
to the rear, elbows pressed back. 

1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command place, raise the forearms to the vertical posi- 
tions, palms inward, without moving the upper arms; then raise 
the elbows upward and outward until the upper arms are horizontal; 
at the same time bending the wrist and 'allowing the finger tips to 
rest lightly on the shoulders. 

1. Fingers in rear of head, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN. 

At the command Place, raise the arms and forearms, and 
place the fingers behind the lower portion of the head, elbows well 
up and pressed well back. 

These positions should be practiced frequently, and instead of 
recovering the position of attention after each position, the in- 
structor may change directly from one to another by giving the 
proper commands instead of commanding arms, down. These 
changes should, however, be made only after the positions are 
thoroughly understood and correctly assumed. 

As these exercises form the basis upon which the entire system 
of physical training in the service is founded too much importance 
can not be attached :o them. Through the number and variety 
of movements they offer it is possible to develop the body har- 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 815 

moniously with little if any danger of injurious results. They de- 
velop the muscles and impart vigor and tone to the vital organs 
and assist them in their functions; they develop endurance and are 
important factors in the development of smartness, grace, and 
precision. They should be assiduously practiced, and the fact that 
they require no apparatus of any description makes it possible to 
do this Out of doors or even in the most restricted room, proper 
hygienic conditions being the only adjunct upon which their success 
is dependent. No physical training drill is complete without them. 
They should always precede the more strenuous forms of training, 
as they prepare the body for the greater exertion these forms 
demand. 

HOPPING EXERCISES 

Hopping is executed by raising the body on the balls of the 
feet and forcing the body from the ground by a series of quick 
extensions of the toe and ankle joints; knees remain easily ex- 
tended, heels together and free from the floor. 

Having assumed a position for the arms, the instructor com- 
mands: 1. On toes, 2. RISE, 3. HOP. 

At the command hop execute one spring, alighting on the balls 
of the feet. Continue by repeating one, two. 

LEAPING 

Leaping or jumping as a setting-up exercise has for its object 
the raising of the body from 8 to 12 inches from the ground; there 
is, however, no gaining of ground as in gymnastic or athletic 
jumping. 

At the first command, the arms are rafsed to the front hori- 
zontal and the body is elevated on the toes. 

At the command leap, the arms are swung downward and back- 
ward and the knees are slightly bent; without pausing the arms are 
swung forward again and as they pass through the vertical plane 
' the knees are extended and the oody is forced from the floor. 

The moment the feet leave the floor the knees are extended; 
3 feet are closed and toes depressed; the arms are in the front hori- 
- zontal; the back is arched and the head is erect. 

In alighting, the balls of the feet touch the floor first, knees 
i slightly bent; the latter are quickly extended, however, and the 
! arms brought down by the sides and the position of attention is 
assumed. 

WALKING AND MARCHING 

The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured 
from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per 
minute. 
52 



816 MILITARY TRAINING 

Proper posture and carriage have ever been considered very 
important in the training of soldiers. In marching, the head and 
trunk should remain immobile, but without stiffness; as the left 
foot is carried forward the right forearm is swung forward and 
inward obliquely across the body until the thumb, knuckles being 
turned out, reaches a point about the height of the belt plate. The j 
upper arm does not move beyond the perpendicular plane while 
the forearm is swung forward, though the arm hangs loosely from 
the shoulder joint. The forearm swing ends precisely at the 
moment the left heel strikes the ground; the arm is then relaxed 
and allowed to swing down and backward by its own weight until 
it reaches a point -where the thumb is about the breadth of a hand 
to the rear of the buttocks. As the right arm swings back the left 
arm is swung forward with the right leg. The forward motion of 
the arms assists the body in marching by throwing the weight 
forward and inward upon the opposite foot as it is planted. The 
head is held erect; body well stretched from the waist; chest 
arched, and there should be no rotary motion of the body about the 
spine. 

As the leg is thrown forward the knee is smartly extended, the 
heel striking the ground first. 

The instructor having explained the principles and illustrated 
the step and arm swing, commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH — and 
to halt the squad he commands: 1. Squad, 2. HALT. 

In executing the setting-up exercises on the march the cadence I 
should at first be given slowly and gradually increased as the men 
become more expert; as some exercises require a slow and others a 
faster pace, it is best in these cases to allow the cadence of the 
exercise to determine the cadence of the step. 

The men should march m a single file at proved intervals. The 
command that causes and discontinues the execution should be 
given as the left foot strikes the ground. 

On the march, to discontinue the exercise, command: 1. 
Quick time, 2. MARCH, instead of halt, as when standing. 

All of the arm, wrist, finger, and shoulder exercises, and some 
of the trunk and neck, may be executed on the march by the same 
commands and in the same manner as when standing. 

STEPS 

In the steps, the command march given as the left foot strikes 
the ground, determines the execution, which always begins with 
the left foot, and is continued until the command: 1. Quick time, 
2. MARCH, is given, when the direct step is resumed. 



turn. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 817 

The different steps are executed at the following commands: 

1. Cross step. 2. MARCH. 

As the legs move forward they are crossed. The body does not 



1. Halting step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced and planted; the right foot is brought 
directly in rear of the left, resting on the ball only; the right is 
then advanced and planted and the left brought up, and so on. 

1. Foot-balancing step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced and planted; the right foot is brought 
up beside it, heels touching; the body is then raised on the toes 
and lowered. The right foot is then advanced and planted and the 
left brought up, and so on. 

1. Continuous change step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced and planted; the toes of the right are 
then advanced near the heel of the left in the halting step; the left 
foot is then advanced about half a step (15 inches) and the right 
foot is advanced with the full step and planted; the toes of the 
left foot are then brought up to the heel of the right foot, which 
advances a half step, when the left foot is advanced a full step, and 
so on. 

1. Knee-rocking step, 2. MARCH. 

As each foot is planted it is accompanied by a slight bending 
and extension in the corresponding knee, the other leg remaining 
fully extended, heel raised. 

1. Lunging step, 2. MARCH. 

The length of the step is 45 inches, the knee in advance being 
well bent; the other leg remaining fully extended, heel raised; trunk 
erect. 

1. Leg-balance step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced, ankle high ; it is then swung backward 
and forward and planted, the body during the swing balancing on 
the right leg. The right foot is then advanced, swung backward 
and forward and planted, and so on. 

1. Body-balance step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced, ankle high, body being bent slightly 
to the rear; the left foot is then swung backward, body being bent 
slightly to the front; the same foot is then swung forward again 
and planted, the body in the meantime becoming erect. This is 
repeated with the right foot, and so on. 

1. Heel-and-toe step, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced and allowed to rest on the heel; it 
is then swung backward and allowed to rest on the toes; it is 
once more advanced and planted. This is repeated with the right 
foot, and so on. 



818 MILITARY TRAINING 

1. Cross step, raising knees, 2. MARCH. 

Execute the cross step and raise the knees. The cross step may 
also be executed in combination with the swings of the extended 
leg. 

The change step may be combined with the following: Cross 
step, halting step, raising knees, foot-rocking step, on toes, raising 
heels, swinging and circling legs, heel-and-toe step. These may 
also be combined with the change step hop. 

1. Continuous change step hop, 2. MARCH. 

Execute the ordinary change step, hopping with the change. 

1. Forward gallop hop, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced and planted, the right is brought up in 
rear as in the halting step; this is done four times in succession. 
The same is done four times with the right foot in advance, and 
so on. 

1. Sideward gallop hop, 2. MARCH. 

The left foot is advanced, body turning on the right; four hops 
are then executed sideward on the left foot followed by the right; 
at the fourth hop the body is turned to the left about and four hops 
executed sideward on the right foot followed by the left, and so on. 

DOUBLE TIMING 

The length of the step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence 
is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. To march in double time 
the instructor commands: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. 

If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body to 
the right leg. At the command March raise the forearms, fingers 
closed, to a horizontal position along the waist line; take up an 
easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a 
natural swinging motion to the arms inward and upward in the 
direction of the opposite shoulder. 

In marching in quick time, at the command, double time, march, 
given as either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, 
and then step off in double time. 

When marching in double time and in running the men breathe 
as much as possible through the nostrils, keeping the mouth closed. 

A few minutes at the beginning of the setting-up exercises 
should be devoted to double timing. From lasting only a few 
minutes at the start it may be gradually increased, so that daily 
drills should enable the men at the end of five or six months to 
double time for 10 or 15 minutes without becoming fatigued or 
distressed. 

After the double time the men should be marched for several 
minutes at quick time; after this the instructor should command: 
1. Route step, 2. MARCH. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 819 

In marching at route step, the men are not required to preserve 
silence nor keep the step; if marching at proved intervals, the latter 
is preserved. 

To resume the cadence step in quick time, the instructor com- 
mands: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. 

Great care must be exercised concerning the duration of the 
double time and the speed and duration of the run. The demands 
made upon the men should be increased gradually. 

When exercise rather than distance is desired, the running 
should be done on the balls of the feet, heels raised from the 
ground. 

RIFLE EXERCISES 

The object of these exercises, which may also be performed 
with wands or bar-bells, is to develop the muscles of the arms, 
shoulders, and back so that the men will become accustomed to 
the weight of the piece and learn to wield it with that " handiness " 
so essential to its successful use. When these exercises are com- 
bined with movements of the various other parts of the body, they 
serve as a splendid, though rather strenuous, method for the all- 
round development of the men. As the weight of the piece is 
considerable instructors are cautioned to be reasonable in their 
demands. Far better results are obtained if these exercises are 
performed at commands than when they are grouped and performed 
for spectacular purposes. 

All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the 
low extended arm horizontal position in front of the body, arms 
straight; the right hand grasping the small of the stock and the 
left hand the barrel; the knuckles turned to the front and the 
distance between the hands slightly greater than the width of the 
shoulders. 

This position is assumed at the command: 1. Starting, 2. PO- 
SITION; at the command position the piece is brought to the port 
and lowered to the front horizontal snappily. 

To recover the position of order, command: 1. Order, 2. 
ARMS; the piece is first brought to the port and then ordered. 

ARM COMBINATIONS 

All the following exercises consist of four movements, the third 
carrying the piece back to the first position, and the fourth to 
the starting position; in other words, the piece is carried back in 
reverse order at three and four. 1. Raise piece to high extended 



820 MILITARY TRAINING 

arm horizontal; flex to the bent arm horizontal in front of 
shoulders and return in reverse order. 2. Same as above, except 
that the piece is brought to the shoulders in rear of head. 3. Raise 
piece as in 1, lower to right horizontal, and return in reverse order. 
4. Same, left. 5. Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, shoulder 
high; thrust piece upward, and return in reverse order. 6. Same, 
thrusting piece forward or sideward right or left. 7. Raise piece to 
front extended arm perpendicular, right hand up; reverse bringing 
left hand up; reverse again and lower. 8. Raise piece to low side 
perpendicular, left hand up; change to high side perpendicular, 
right hand up; and return in reverse order. 9. Same on the 
left. 10. Raise piece to front extended arm horizontal; 
cross and bend arms to front bent arm horizontal right 
over left; and return in reverse order. 11. Raise piece to front 
bent arm horizontal, arms crossed, right over left; change by 
crossing left over right; reverse and down. 

DUMB-BELLS 

Exercises with dumb-bells are similar in every way to the 
setting-up exercises, in fact all of the latter may be performed 
with the dumb-bells. The object of these exercises is the same as 
that of the setting-up exercises, except that the weight of the 
dumb-bells necessitates a greater expenditure of muscular energy, 
chiefly on the part of the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and 
upper back and chest. It is advisable that light wooden dumb- 
bells weighing from 2 to 2y 2 pounds be used, as the amount of 
additional exertion this weight calls for is sufficient for the pur- 
pose of muscular development without detracting from the activity 
and suppleness with which an exercise may be performed. These 
exercises should be restricted to those who have been thoroughly 
drilled in the setting-up exercises, and for the sake of uniformity 
the dumb-bells should, unless otherwise specified, be held as 
follows: In all positions in which the arms assume a horizontal 
position they are vertical, and when the arms are in a vertical 
plane the plane of the bells is horizontal. The grip on the bells 
should, as a rule, always be firm. 

CLUB EXERCISES 

The effect of these exercises, when performed with light clubs, 
is chiefly a neutral one, hence they are primary factors in the de- 
velopment of grace and coordination and rhythm. As they tend to 
supple the muscles and articulations of the shoulders and of the 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 821 

upper and fore arms and wrist, they are indicated in cases where 
there is a tendency toward what is ordinarily known as "muscle 
bound." 

The club exercises consist of arm and wrist circles, the former 
being divided into extended or full-arm circles and bent or half-arm. 
circles. In the extended arm circle the shoulder is the pivot and in 
the bent arm circle the elbow. 

These circles derive their designation from the direction in 
which the club moves with reference to a median vertical line 
running through the body; thus an outward circle is one in which 
the initial movement of the club is away from this line and an 
inward circle where that movement is toward it; a forward circle 
is one in which it moves to the front and a backward circle in 
which it moves to the rear. When both clubs move in the same 
plane, the direction is either right or left, forward or backward, 
and when they move in opposite directions the circles are either 
inward or outward. 



APPARATUS 

The terms "cross" and "side," as used in the text with ref- 
erence to the various exercises, denote the relation between the 
longest line of the apparatus and the line running from shoulder 
to shoulder of the soldier. Thus, a "side rest" is one where the 
line from shoulder to shoulder of the soldier is parallel to the 
longest line of the apparatus. In the case of the horse this line 
is from croup to neck. A "cross rest" is one where the line of 
the shoulders is perpendicular to the longest line of the apparatus. 

In all dismounts from any apparatus the body invariably alights 
on the toes, the knees being well bent and separated so the point 
of the knees is directly over the toes; the body is erect on the hips, 
head up. From this position the knees are extended quickly and 
smartly to the position of attention. The entire motion from the 
moment the toes strike the ground till the position of attention is 
assumed is a continuous one. 

When exercising on the parallel bars, the horses, or the vaulting 
bars the hand nearest the apparatus rests on it momentarily while 
dismounting, but it is lowered to the side smartly when the knees 
are being extended. The hand farthest from the apparatus is low- 
ered to the side. When the front of the body is turned to the 
apparatus in dismounting, both hands rest on it. 

The preparatory command for all exercises on apparatus is 
Ready; the command of execution, depending upon the character 
of the movement, is Leap, Mount, or Vault. To alight from any 
apparatus command Dismount or Drop. 



822 MILITARY TRAINING 

SIDE HORSE EXERCISES 

Exercises when the take-off is placed at the side of the horse 
are known as side horse exercises. 

The horse is placed in such a position that the neck is on the 
left of the take-off. 

As a rule these exercises are executed with the pommels fixed; 
the height of these pommels being equal to the height of the 
breast of the average man of the squad. 

The parts of the horse to which reference is made in the ex- 
ercises are: The neck, saddle, croup, and the pommels. The pom- 
mel between the neck and the saddle is known as the front and 
that between the saddle and the croup as the rear pommel. 

The side nearest the take-off is the near and the opposite 
side the off-side. 

Horse exercises are intended to specially develop activity, 
agility, and gracefulness, which can, however, be obtained only 
by constantly insisting that every movement, no matter how 
simple, be accurately and smartly executed. 

These exercises are of special value in the training of mounted 
troops, as they teach men the proper coordination of those muscles 
that are employed in riding. 

LONG HORSE EXERCISES 

On these exercises the horse is placed lengthwise, the pommels 
being removed and the height of the horse being the same as in the 
side horse exercises. All these exercises are similar to the side 
horse exercises. 

HORIZONTAL BAR EXERCISES 

The object of these exercises is not the development of gym- 
nastic proficiency, but the practice of such simple movements as 
will develop and bring into play those muscle groups upon which a 
soldier must depend in successfully overcoming obstacles that 
may present themselves to him in the field. 

The bar should be placed high enough to allow the soldier to 
hang in the extended-arm without touching the ground or floor 
with his toes. In the absence of a regular bar one may be impro- 
vised of 2 by 4 scantling, the edges being rounded to permit a firm 
grip. 

The grips used in these various exercises are: (1) ordinary 
grip, knuckles turned to the rear, the thumbs around the bar. (2) 
reversed grip, knuckles turned forward, the thumbs around the 
bar. (3) combined grip, a combination of the two. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 823 
PARALLEL BARS 

All movements of a slow and cumbersome nature, the so-called 
strength exercises, and those in which considerable continued 
strain is thrown upon the upper back, chest and arm muscles, 
should be eliminated; instead, only such that make for activity 
and agility and in which the support of the body upon the arms is 
only momentary should be practiced. In many respects these 
exercises are very similar to those on the horses and vaulting bars, 
and, like these, their greatest value lies in quick and speedy 
execution. All of the prescribed exercises are well within the 
capabilities of men of ordinary strength. 

The exercises should first be practiced on bars 4 feet high, the 
height being gradually increased to 5 feet as the proficiency of the 
men increases. The width of the bars should equal the width of 
the shoulders of the average man of the squad. 

RINGS 

For the best results, rings should be hung on adjustable straps, 
which will allow them to be used at any height, from height of 
chest to jumping height. Circular rings whose inside diameter 
is about 7 inches — outside \% inches more — are the best for all 
purposes. In all ring exercises the hands grasp the rings with 
knuckles turned out, the side of the rings being parallel to the 
sides of the body. 

MOUNTED GYMNASTICS 

Mounted gymnastics comprise exercises that, if properly con- 
ducted and not pushed beyond the capabilities of the average man, 
are valuable for supplying the rider and imparting confidence. 
Those exercises that may occasion hard falls or those that a few 
men can do and others can not do are destructive of confidence 
and harmful to progress in equitation, since the soldier who can 
not do them is prone to think that he is too poor a gymnast to 
be a good rider. The exercises, then, should be such that every 
man, with a little practice, can perform them with a fair degree of 
proficiency. 

Mounted gymnastics in themselves are not an object of in- 
struction. They are but a means to an end and must be so 
considered. 

GYMNASTIC CONTESTS 

These exercises are those in which the benefits are lost sight 
of in the pleasure their attainment provides, which in the case of 
these contests is the vanquishing of an opponent. The men are 



824 MILITARY TRAINING 

pitted against each other in pairs; age, height, weight and general 
physical aptitude being the determining factors in the selection. 

In the contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill and 
agility no restriction need be placed upon the efforts of the con- 
testants; but those that are a test of strength and endurance it is 
well to call a contest a " draw," when the men are equally matched 
and the contest is likely to be drawn out to the point of exhaus- 
tion of one or both contestants. 

Contests that require skill and agility should alternate with 
those that depend upon strength and endurance. In order to 
facilitate the instruction a number of pairs should be engaged 
at the same time. 

1. Cane wrestling: The cane to be about an inch in diameter 
and a yard long, ends rounded. It is grasped with the right hand 
at the end, knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, 
inside of and close to the opponent's right hand. Endeavor is then 
made to wrest the cane from the opponent. Loss of grip with 
either hand loses the bout. 

2. Cane twisting: Same cane. as in 1. Contestants grasp it as 
in 1, only the knuckles of both hands are up, and the arms are 
extended overhead. Object: The contestants endeavor to make 
the cane revolve in their opponent's hands without allowing it to 
do so in their own. The cane must be forced down. 

3. Cane pulling: Contestants sit on the ground, facing each 
other, legs straight and the soles of the feet in contact. The cane 
is grasped as in 2 but close to the feet. Object: To pull the op- 
ponent to his feet. The legs throughout the contest must be kept 
rigid. 

4. "Bucked" contest: Contestants sit on the ground 
" bucked;" i. e., the cane is passed under the knees, which are drawn 
up, and the arms passed under the cane with the fingers laced in 
front of the ankles. Object: To get the toes under those of the 
opponent and roll him over. 

5. Single pole pushing: Contestants grasp end of pole, 6 feet 
long and 2 inches thick, and brace themselves. Object: To push 
the opponent out of position. 

6. Double pole pushing: The poles are placed under the arms 
close to the arm pits, ends projecting. Object: Same as in 5. 

7. Double pole pulling: Position as in 6 but standing back 
to back. Object: To pull the opponent out. of position. 

8. " Cock fight": Contestants hop on one leg with the arms 
folded closely over the chest. Object: By butting with the fleshy 
part of the shoulder without raising the arms, or by dodging to 
make the opponent change his feet or touch the floor with his hand 
or other part of his body. 

9. One-legged tug of war: Contestants hop on one leg and 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 825 

grasp hands firmly. Object: To pull the opponent forward or 
make him place the raised foot on the floor. 

10. The "siege": One contestant stands with one foot in a 
circle 14 inches in diameter, the other outside, and the arms folded 
as in 8. Two other contestants, each hopping on one leg, en- 
deavor to dislodge the one in the circle by butting him with the 
shoulder. The besieged one is defeated in case he raises the 
foot in the circle, or removes it entirely from the circle. The be- 
siegers are defeated in case they change feet or touch the floor as 
in 8. As soon as either of the latter is defeated his place is im- 
mediately filled, so that there are always two attacking. The be- 
sieged should resort to volting, ducking, etc., rather than depend 
upon his strength. 

11. One-armed tug: Contestants stand facing each other; 
right hands grasped, feet apart. Object: Without moving feet to 
pull the opponent forward. Shifting the feet loses the bout. 

12. " Tug royal ": Three contestants stand facing inward and 
grasp each others wrists securely and with their feet outside a circle 
about three feet in diameter. Object: By pulling or pushing to 
make one of the contestants step inside of the circle. 

13. Indian wrestling: Contestants lie upon the ground face up 
right shoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one the 
right leg is raised overhead and lowered, this is repeated at two, 
and at three the leg is raised quickly and locked with the op- 
ponent's right leg. Object: To roll him over by forcing his leg 
down. 

14. Medicine ball race: Teams of five or six men are organ- 
ized and a track for each team is marked out. This track consists of 
marks on the floor or ground at distances of 4 yards. On each 
of these marks stands a man with legs apart, the team forming a 
column of files. At ready, get set, the contestants prepare for the 
race, and at go the first man in the column rolls a medicine ball, 
which he has on the floor in front of him, through his legs to No. 
2, he in turn rolls it to 3, etc., when it reaches the last man he picks 
it up and runs to the starting place with it and, the others all hav- 
ing shifted back one mark, the rolling is repeated. This continues 
until the first man brings the ball back to the starting place and 
every man is in his original position. The ball should be kept roll- 
ing; each man, as it comes to him, pushing it on quickly. Any ball 
about 9 inches in diameter will answer; it may be made of strong 
cloth and stuffed with cotton waste. 

ATHLETICS 

The value of athletic training in the service is dependent upon 
the effect it has upon the mass, and not upon the effect it has 
upon the individual few. The training, in order to meet the re- 



826 MILITARY TRAINING 

quirements of the service, should have nothing in common with 
competitive athletics, but should be broad enough in the method 
of its application to reach out and include the development of every 
man to the extent of his capabilities in those branches of athletics 
the utility of which to the service is unquestioned. In other 
words, it should have an applicable value, be educational, and not 
spectacular, for it is the ability of the average of the mass that 
determines the efficiency of a fighting machine. Consequently it 
should be the aim of instructors to place this phase of the training 
of the men upon precisely the same plane as that of other portions 
of the soldier's education. 

To attain this, it is necessary to eliminate those athletic events 
that have nothing to commend them from a military point of view, 
such as short-distance runs, pole vaulting, and hammer throwing. 
These events should be confined to the more skillful, for whose 
benefit an annual field day competition should be arranged. To 
the service the long distance, the half mile, mile, two and five mile 
runs, and the jumps are much more essential than the dashes, pole 
vaulting, etc. 

This training should be conducted entirely out of doors, and 
in mapping out programs for the outdoor period instructors should 
alternate this work with the setting-up exercises, gymnastic con- 
tests and gymnastic games. 

In order to stimulate interest, the men should be grouped into 
classes upon the basis of ability and promoted or demoted as their 
progress, or lack of it, warrants. 

Instructors are cautioned to go about this training cautiously 
and train the men carefully; by doing so they will not fail to obtain 
good results and avoid those injuries that are directly chargeable 
to over-indulgence and over-exertion. In the following progres- 
sive method squads of from 10 to 12 men may be trained at the 
same time, each squad under the supervision of a non-commissioned 
officer or trained enlisted man, and all under the direction of the 
athletic officer. 

A distinction is made between double timing, running, and 
the flexion run. 

Double timing has for its purpose the quick advancement of 
troops in the shortest space of time with the least expenditure of 
physical effort, commensurate with military traditions which still 
demand that the carriage of the body should assume a certain uni- 
form attitude during this method of progression. In double timing 
the saving in physical effort is made by diminishing the leg mo- 
tions, thereby reducing the height of the flight of the body between 
the strides when neither foot is upon the ground and by curtailing 
the height the foot is raised. 

Running is the most expensive, as well as the swiftest method 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 827 

of progression the body is capable of, and differs from the double 
timing by the increased number and exaggerated character of the 
leg motions; by the increased force with which the body is thrust 
forward and upward by these motions, and by the increased de- 
mand upon the muscles of the trunk and neck, which are con- 
tracted in order to give the trunk and head that immobility without 
which speed is impossible. It is chiefly because of this immobility, 
which interferes seriously with respiration and which in turn 
affects the heart action, that running is so exhaustive. Thus, 
while running will develop lung, heart, and leg power, and endur- 
ance as no other form of exercise will, it does it with the ever- 
present liability to injury when carried to excess. Instructors are 
therefore cautioned to exercise the utmost care in its application, 
especially when handling untrained men. 

Flexion Run is a method of progression in which physical 
exertion is reduced to a minimum. The number of strides per min- 
ute is as in double timing, but a considerable latitude in the car- 
riage of the body is permitted. As its name implies, the muscles 
of the entire body are flexed, relaxed as much as possible, and 
every movement is shorn of every unnecessary exaggeration. The 
trunk rests loosely upon the hips and is allowed to fall forward 
until the center of gravity falls on a point about the length of a 
stride in front of the body; the muscles of the shoulders, chest, 
and back are relaxed and the arms, flexed at the elbows, hang 
loosely by the sides; the knees are slightly flexed constantly and 
should never be fully extended; the feet are raised only high enough 
to clear the ground and are allowed to swing forward with the soles 
as nearly parallel to the ground as possible; in striking the ground 
the heels come in contact with it first, the toes, however, being 
raised only just high enough to keep them from becoming chafed 
by rubbing against the front of the shoes. 

When properly assumed, the attitude of the body is such that 
the weight is constantly falling forward and the legs are moved 
forward in the effort to establish an ever changing equilibrium. 
This means of progression has been variously designated as the 
" dog trot," " running walk," and " fox gait," and is similar to the 
gait used by Indian runners and the jinrickisha men. 

The advantages of this gait over all others lies in the fact that 
it produces the maximum results through the minimum of exertion; 
that the strain on the vital organs is reduced so that it is a little 
more than that caused by marching in quick time; and that, finally^ 
it is dependent upon a greatly reduced muscular effort and not 
upon excessive respiratory, circulatory, or neural effort. When it 
becomes necessary to move troops rapidly it is almost imperative 
that they should reach their designation in such physical condition 
that they may be engaged actively with some assurance of 



828 MILITARY TRAINING. 

success; therefore the value of this method to the service can 
hardly be overestimated. 

SWIMMING 

Arrangements for the instruction in swimming must be deter- 
mined by the facilities existing at the various posts or stations. 
At such of the latter where there is sufficient depth of water and 
available docks, swimming platforms can be readily erected. These 
platforms; which may be built in sections so that they can be re- 
moved after the swimming season, should project not less than 4 
feet beyond the edge of the dock, and the distance from the plat- 
form floor to the surface of the water should not be less than 30 
inches. The length of the platform depends upon the available 
space and the number of men to be instructed. A space of 4 by 12 
feet should be allowed for each man. 

Uprights of 4 by 4 stuff, projecting 8 feet above the platform 
and carrying a crosspiece sufficiently long to project at least a 
foot beyond the outer edge of the platform, should be erected at 
intervals of 12 feet. These uprights, with their crosspieces, provide 
the support for the swimmer and they must, therefore be securely 
bolted to the face of the dock and to the sleepers of the platform, 
and the crosspiece, which has a swivel pulley large enough to take 
the swimming rope attached to the outer end, must be braced 
against the upright. Ladders leading to the platform from the 
water should be placed where they will not be in the way. 

Where it is impracticable to build the platform described 
above, the uprights alone will answer the purpose of instructing the 
men in the stroke, swimming poles being used when the soldier is 
able to propel himself. 

The simplest device, in connection with giving this instruc- 
tion from the dock, consists in erecting an upright about 42 inches 
high close to the edge of the dock, and use it as a fulcrum for the 
swimming pole, the soldier being suspended from a rope attached 
to the end of the pole. 

When no docks are available, platforms along the lines de- 
scribed may be erected in the water on piles or, when this is 
impracticable, floats with raised platforms and uprights may be 
substituted. 

In the absence of any facilities, but where the character of 
the water and the bottom is such as to make it possible, the men 
must be instructed to assist one another. This is done by standing 
in water of sufficient depth and holding the one to be instructed in 
the proper position by placing the left hand under his chin and 
the right hand between his shoulder blades and assuming a posi- 
tion that does not interfere with the swimmer's movements. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 829 
BELTS 

These are 3 inches wide, made of canvas, padded on the inside 
with hair and bound and faced with some soft material that will 
not irritate the skin. The length should be great enough to 
bring the ends of the belt to within 4 inches of meeting in the back. 
On the outside of the belt three ^4-inch iron rings are securely 
sewed to it at regular intervals, while at each end of the belt 
there is a larger ring 1 inch in diameter. 

ROPES 

A half inch cotton rope should be used; for beginners 15 feet 
will be found ample, while 30 feet should be used for those pre- 
paring to qualify. 

POLES 

These should be of some tough, but light, material, 2 inches 
in diameter and from 8 to 10 feet long. At one end a swivel pulley 
is attached through which the swimming rope is run. 

In the absence of projecting swimming platforms, beginners 
are suspended from the end of these poles resting on the upright 
fulcrum until they have acquired the stroke. When they begin 
to make progress and are propelling themselves, the instructor 
carries the pole in his hands with the end projecting far enough, 
over the edge of the dock to give the swimmer sufficient space to 
move in without coming in contact with the dock. 

THE BREAST STROKE 

This stroke having for many years been found the best 
adapted for military purposes, has been adopted by all armies in 
which the instruction in swimming is made compulsory. 

It is the basis upon which all other methods of progression 
in the water are founded, and those who acquire proficiency in its 
use develop coordination to such a degree that they have no 
difficulty whatever in acquiring any other stroke, no matter how 
complicated. 

The character of the movements comprising this stroke brings 
into play such a great variety of muscle groups, all in accordance 
with their natural functions and with such an equal distribution 
of effort, that aside from its usefulness this stroke has an incom- 
parable value as an agent for all-around development. 

LAND INSTRUCTION 

Various methods are used for swimming instruction on land, 
and some of them are noted here for the benefit of those who 
desire to make use of them. 



830 MILITARY TRAINING 

The appliance most commonly used is the so-called " swim- 
ming buck," a camp stool slightly wider and higher than the ordi- 
nary one, upon which the beginner assumes a position in every way 
similar to that assumed in the water. The instruction proceeds in 
identically the same way as that described in the water instruction. 

Another method is to lie on the back in a position that ap- 
proximates as closely as possible to the first position in the water 
instruction and execute the movements in that position. 

Still another method is to stand on one leg, supporting the 
body with the hand on the same side, and with the body bent for- 
ward horizontally and the other arm and leg extended to the front 
and rear, respectively, execute the movements with one side several 
times and then repeat it with the other. 

WATER INSTRUCTION 

The belt having been adjusted, which is done by slipping it 
over the head of the soldier and securing it well up under his arms, 
being careful not to have it so tight that it will bind his movements 
or restrict his respiration, and being careful also that the loop of 
the rope is squarely between the shoulder blades, he is prepared 
to leap into the water. This should always be insisted upon, since, 
while it appears drastic, it is most efficacious in overcoming the 
fear of the water so common amongst adults who have not learned 
how to swim. 

The soldier having been cautioned not to gasp or open his 
mouth when he strikes the water and not to throw his arms about 
wildly, but to open his eyes and to keep cool, leaps from the plat- 
form at the command Jump, which is executed with the feet 
striking the water first, legs together and extended, trunk erect, 
and arms at the sides. 

After reaching the surface, in which he is assisted by the in- 
structor, he assumes the following position: 

The body, chest down, is fully extended horizontally, the 
head is bent back; the arms, with fingers extended and closed and 
thumbs together and palms down, are stretched to the front, hands 
just under the surface; the legs, with knees straight, are closed and 
extended horizontally to the rear; the heels are together and the 
feet are turned out an angle of about 60° and the toes are turned up 
perpendicular to the surface. 

In assuming this position care should be taken to avoid any 
tendency toward rigidity; the muscles are stretched, not contracted. 

In this position the instructor commands: 
1. Arm Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. TWO, 4. THREE. 

At one, the arms fully stretched, palms down, are moved 
sideward horizontally, in a circular motion of greatest possible 
radius until they are in a line with the shoulders. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 831 

At two, the elbows are flexed until the upper arms touch and 
are parallel to the chest, the forearms, palms still turned down, con- 
tinue the motion until the thumbs are brought together directly 
under the chin. 

At three, the arms are stretched forward to the original 
position. 

In the beginning a pause should be made in every position 
to insure accuracy; when that has been attained the arm stroke is 
executed in one continuous movement in the following manner: 

At o-n-e, drawn out to indicate the character of the move- 
ment, which is comparatively slow, the arms are brought in line 
with the shoulders; the moment that movement is about to be com- 
pleted the command and — two is given, briskly followed by the 
command three. At and — two, the arms are drawn to the body and 
extended forward, in a continuous movement; and at three, the 
arms pause in the first position. 

The cadence indicated here is the regular swimming cadence, 
the first count requiring as much time as the others combined. 
The legs may be relaxed while the arms are being exercised. 

Proper breathing is always a source of considerable annoy- 
ance to beginners, and instructors can not begin too early to teach 
how and when to inhale and to exhale. This should be done when 
the arm stroke is taught and insisted upon throughout the instruc- 
tion until respiration is carried on naturally. The inhalation oc- 
curs while the arms are being moved outward and sideward, and the 
exhalation follows immediately after their extension. In quiet water 
this breathing may be carried on through the nostrils, but in 
rough water or where there is a tendency to choke because of water 
entering the nostrils, mouth breathing must be resorted to. 

When the arm movements are understood and accurately per- 
formed the instructor will command: 
1. Leg Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. TWO, 4. THREE. 

The arms are held in the forward position without constraint. 

At one, the legs and thighs are flexed on the body by drawing 
the knees under it until the thighs are slightly beyond the perpen- 
dicular and the legs horizontal; the heels remain together, the toes 
turned out and up, but the knees are separated, being in line with 
the feet. 

At two, the legs are quickly and fully extended in as wide 
a straddle as possible with an outward and backward motion, the 
soles of the feet being forced against the water. 

At three, the legs, remaining fully extended, are brought 
together briskly to the first position. 

As in the arm stroke, a pause should be made in each position 
to insure accuracy, and when that has been accomplished the leg 



832 MILITARY TRAINING 

movements should be blended into one continuous motion as 
follows: 

At one, the legs remain in the first position, and at and, they are 
drawn up as described above, the movement being executed quietly 
and without force in order to avoid offering too much resistance 
to the water; just as the legs reach the prescribed position the 
commands two and three are given briskly and in quick succession, 
indicating tnat the completion of sideward movement is followed 
instantly by the closing of the legs. 

When these movements are thoroughly understood and cor- 
rectly carried out, the arm and leg movements are combined and, 
executed at the command: 
1. Stroke, 2. ONE, 3. AND— TWO, 4. THREE. 

At one, the arms begin the sideward movement, the legs 
remaining in the first position. 

At and, the arms are drawn in to the body and the knees 
are brought up. 

At two, the arms are extended forward and the legs side- 
ward; and at three, the legs are closed, while the arms remain in 
the first position. 

Until the soldier has learned to coordinate and to grasp what 
is required of him, it is advisable to pause in each position; when he 
has succeeded in doing this the stroke is given in the proper swim- 
ming cadence, the arm movements beginning at one and ceasing at 
two and pausing at three; while the legs remain motionless in the 
first position at one, but begin at and and cease at three; a con- 
siderable pause should be made between strokes. 

It is advisable to impress upon beginners that swimming with 
this stroke is not dependent upon excessive muscular exertion or 
rigidity, but that all extensions of the arms and legs are reaches 
rather than thrusts, and that the body must be relaxed as much as 
possible. 

Since there is no danger of the body sinking while it is mov- 
ing, too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of the 
pause between strokes, which in the case of even ordinary swim- 
mers should be equal to the length of time it takes to complete the 
stroke, while in powerful swimmers this pause is from three to four 
times the duration of each stroke, a husbanding of muscular energy 
which makes it possible to swim long distances without becoming 
exhausted. The men must also be given to understand that the 
legs furnish the entire propelling power in which the closing of 
the legs after the extension is equally as valuable as the extension 
itself. The arms for ordinary purposes, are used merely for the 
purpose of buoying up the head, not for the purpose of propulsion, 
and for that reason they are held and moved in a position that 
Has the advantage of being the most natural, the least fatiguing, 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 833 

and that offers the least resistance to the water. Thus the entire 
burden of the effort devolves upon those members of the body upon 
which this burden is imposed upon the land, the legs, and not upon 
those members which nature never intended for such a purpose, 
the arms. It is due entirely to this natural and equable employ- 
ment of those members that the breast stroke is used, without 
exception almost, by all long-distance swimmers when it is a 
question of endurance rather than of speed. For the latter purpose 
the hands may be turned with the palms out in the first motion, 
but this should be restricted to those who have qualified with the 
regular stroke, and who appreciate the value of the leg stroke. 

When the soldier can execute the movements faultlessly and 
without the numbers, he is released from further instruction on 
the stationary line and given instruction on a loose line. The belt, 
being adjusted as before, is attached to a line that is held in the 
hands of the instructor. The man now begins the stroke at one 
end of the platform and as he forces himself forward the instructor 
advances with him, having the rope taut and standing while the 
pupil is bringing his arms around and his knees up and slightly 
slackening the rope and advancing a step as he extends. 

In a short time he begins to carry his own weight, and when 
he has learned to swim from 30 to 50 strokes he should be made 
to swim on the arch of a circle whose radius should be constantly 
increased until he is able to swim several minutes. When he can 
do this he should be timed daily until he is able to swim for ten 
minutes, when he should be excused from further instruction, but 
encouraged to continue practice daily until he has gained confidence 
in himself and learned to keep himself afloat by other methods 
besides the breast stroke. 

COMMON FAULTS 

The following are the faults and bad habits most common 
with beginners: 

The tendency to arch the back in order to raise the head 
higher above the water than necessary: This causes the body to be 
held in a constraint position and the legs to sink, thereby presenting 
a greater resistive surface to the water, causing slow and deep 
swimming. The body must be relaxed and if necessary the chin 
may rest upon the surface of the water; this causes the legs to rise. 

Raising the hips while drawing the knees up: This causes 
the head to be thrown forward into the water and detracts from 
the power of the leg motions. 

Not flexing the thighs sufficiently, which causes the feet to 
assume a horizontal instead of a perpendicular position, thereby not 



834 MILITARY TRAINING 

only decreasing the sideward reach of the leg stroke but also the 
power of the backward push with the soles of the feet. 

Thrusting the arms forward below the horizontal, thereby 
lessening the buoyancy of the head which is dragged downward 
by this movement. 

Failure to draw the upper arms in close to the chin and the 
hands under the chin, which serves to decrease the buoyancy of 
the upper trunk and head. 

Thrusting the legs downward instead of straight to the 
rear, which causes deep swimming and impedes progress. 

Spreading the fingers and failing to keep the thumb close 
to the first finger, which detracts very decidedly from the buoy- 
ance power of the arms and hands. 

Not breathing properly, which causes mental anxiety, fa- 
tigue, and respiratory difficulties. 

Moving the arms too far to the rear, which causes the 
head to be lowered. 

Disregarding the tempo of the stroke and the pause be- 
tween the strokes, which always results in loss of confidence 
and of the stroke. 

SIDE STROKE 

Those who have acquired proficiency in the breast stroke 
have no difficulty in mastering any other method, by dint of a little 
practice and perseverance, regular instruction being unnecessary. 
The side stroke is readily learned, and since it can be carried out 
on either side it has many advantages over the one-sided methods. 

The swimmer lies upon his side, preferably the right, the 
head, face turned upward, resting in the water; the body and legs 
extended without constraint and the right arm stretched straight 
out under the head in prolongation of the body; the left arm 
stretched downward over the left thigh with the hand just in rear 
of the body; palms of both hands down. 

From this position the left forearm is brought up across the 
chest until the hand, palm down, is close to the chin; the right 
arm in the meanwhile is pressed downward about 45°, when the 
elbow is bent and drawn back under the chest until the hand, palm 
down, is as close as possible to the right shoulder. While the 
arms are executing these movements, the knees are drawn up 
precisely as they are in the breast stroke. From this position theif 
legs are extended and closed as in the breast stroke, except that E 
they are not so far apart, and the arms are extended, the right 1^ 
straight out under the head to its original position and the left I 
arm forward and then backward in as large a circular sweep as ff j 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 835 

possible until it, too, reaches its original position. After pausing, 
the length of the pause depending upon the carrying quality of 
the stroke, the movement is repeated. 

Variety may be given this stroke by the introduction of the 
" scissors kick," the upper leg being extended straight out to the 
front and the under leg to the rear, the legs being brought to the 
first position from there. 

BACK STROKE 

As the body displaces more water when lying on the back 
than it does in any other position, thus increasing its buoyancy, 
swimming with the back stroke is the most easily acquired of any 
stroke. Its greatest value lies in the fact that it affords an ex- 
hausted swimmer a chance to rest. 

1. With Legs 

The swimmer extends himself in the water, face upward, 
body and legs extended without constraint; the head submerged lo 
the ears and the arms lying close to the sides, palms down. In 
this position he executes the leg movements of the breast stroke, 
.except that the knees are not drawn up as high and are separated 
,more. Care should be taken not to move the hips while the knees 
are being drawn up and extended, because any motion of the 
,hips causes the head to be submerged. 

2. With Legs and Arms 

The position is the same as above. When the knees are 
being drawn up, the elbows are bent and raised until the upper 
arms are in line with the shoulders, and the hands, palms down, 
are close to the chest; as the knees are being extended and the 
legs closed, the arms are flung out sideward and brought down to 
ithe sides in a whip-like movement, the palms turned in. 

i 3. With Legs and Overhead Arm Stroke 

< In this stroke the arms are raised forward and overhead, out 

>f the water, and as they enter the water beyond the head they 
ire brought to the sides of the body with a strong horizontal move- 
nent, arms extended and palms down. The knees are drawn up 

'ust as the arms enter the water, and they are extended and closed 
vhile the arms are being brought to the sides. 



836 MILITARY TRAINING 

TREADING WATER 

The body is held in a perpendicular position and the knees 
are drawn up and extended downward alternately in quick suc- 
cession, the hands assisting by pressing the water downward. 

Treading water may also be done by executing the leg mo- 
tions of the breast stroke in a modified form in quick succession. 
These movements should be practiced until the swimmer is able 
to raise his hands out of water. 

FLOATING 

Floating is essential because it affords the swimmer the 
most complete rest in the water, thus giving him an opportunity 
to repair his strength. 

In fresh water this means of sustaining the body is possible 
only in exceptional cases with men; in salt water, however, the 
inability to float is the exception. 

The swimmer lies in the water horizontally, face up, exert- 
ing himself just enough to keep his body, arms, and legs fully 
but not rigidly extended. The whole body, except the face and 
mouth, should be submerged. The legs may be kept closed or 
separated; the arms should be held away from the body, hands 
in the plane of the waist with the palms down; the lungs should 
be inflated and by short exhalations and proportionately longer 
inhalation, carried on through the mouth, they should be kept so 
as much as possible. 

When difficulty is encouraged in floating, a slight sculling 
movement of the hands, from the wrist, will often suffice to keep 
the body afloat. If the legs should sink, they may be held flexed 
at the knees until they are at right angles to the thighs; or the 
body may be "dished" slightly; that is, bent slightly forward at 
the waist. 



DIVING 

This may be divided into the ordinary dive, in which the 
body enters the water at an angle of 45°; the perpendicular, or 
deep dive, and the shallow dive, in which the body enters the water 
at an angle of about 30°. 

In preparing to dive the swimmer stands with his toes pro- 
jecting beyond the edge of the platform and his arms stretched 
sideward. As he springs off, the arms are swung forward over 
head, palms together; the head is thrown forward between the 
arms and the legs are swung up until the body assumes the desired 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING £37 

angle. Arms and legs must be extended and closed, feet depressed. 
The moment the body enters the water the eyes are opened, the 
arms and head pressed back, and the legs relaxed; this causes the 
body to rise to the surface. 

SWIMMING WITH EQUIPMENT 

When the men become proficient swimmers they should be 
taught to swim with the equipment. 

This instruction should be divided as follows: 1. Swimming 
in uniform; if blouses are worn they should be unbuttoned. 2. 
Swimming nude with pack. 3. Swimming nude with pack and 
ammunition belt. 4. Swimming nude with pack, belt, and rifle. The 
pack should be adjusted to the body snugly to reduce the lateral 
motion as much as possible; the canteen should be empty and the 
rifle should be inserted into the middle of the pack, barrel down, 
until the breech mechanism projects over the water. 5. Repeat 
2, 3, and 4, clad in trousers. 6. Same, clad in trousers and shirts. 
7. Same, in complete uniform. 

Except when the urgency of the emergency does not per- 
mit it, the men should be permitted to divest themselves of their 
shoes, leggins and blouses and attach them to the pack. 

Since the buoyancy and water-tightness of the packs is great 
enough to keep them afloat from 15 to 20 minutes, they lend them- 
selves admirably to the formation of rafts, when fastened to- 
gether, to which those who can not swim can cling while being 
drawn over a stream by a rope, one end of which has been carried 
over by a swimmer. 



GENERAL HINTS 



1. Swimming should not be indulged in immediately before 
or after meals, the best time being an hour before or from two to 
three hours after meals. 

2. The water should not be entered when the body is over- 
" 'heated or wet with perspiration; cramps or other more serious 
1 discomforts are likely to result. 

3. The body should be dried thoroughly and the water 
mould be entered by plunging in head foremost, if practicable, 
Dr by leaping. 

4. Men should be cautioned not to stand in the water to 
;ool off, as doing so has an enervating effect. 

5. While in the water the body should be kept in motion; 
' standing about after swimming is liable to cause chills. 



838 MILITARY TRAINING 

6. When through swimming the water should be quitted 
at once and the body dried and dressed promptly. 

7. During instructions only those that are employed should 
leave the dressing rooms; when it is necessary to have more men 
than can be employed on the platform, those not employed should 
be made to wear blouses or other covering for the body. 

8. When attacked by cramps the men should be instructed 
not to lose presence of mind, but to kick out more vigorously than 
ever if a leg is affected; if an arm, they should turn over on the 
back and swim with the leg stroke, in the meantime rubbing the 
affected arm vigorously. 

9. The undertaking of hazardous ventures for the sake of 
display should meet the unqualified condemnation of those in 
charge of this instruction, since many fatalities are directly trace- 
able to such foolhardiness. 

10. Lack of confidence is never overcome by drastic meas- 
ures or ridicule; gentleness and perseverance are found much more 
efficacious. Fearsomeness while in the water is usually not due to 
cowardliness but to a lack of confidence or to an inherent fear 
over which many who do not lack bravery in other things have 
no control. 

11. Going to the assistance of a drowning man is at best 
a very precarious undertaking and should, therefore, be limited to 
those who are cool-headed and strong swimmers. 

12. In approaching a man in danger extreme caution should 
be exercised lest he grab his would-be rescuer. The approach 
should be from the left and rear, leaving the right arm of the res- 
cuer free for defensive purposes in case he should be clutched. 
The helpless man's upper arms should be firmly gripped and he 
should be pulled over on his back, the rescuer, too, turning on his 
back and towing the other in by using the backstroke. The men 
should be instructed in this method, using each other as subjects. 

13. In an extremity, when a rescuer finds his life is being 
endangered, he should not hesitate to resort to extreme measures 
of self-defense, such as striking with the fist between the eyes, 
choking, or submerging the head of him to whose rescue he has 
gone. Restoration to consciousness is readily accomplished, if 
unconsciousness has resulted from this treatment, once land has 
been reached. 

RESTORATION OF THOSE APPARENTLY DEAD FROM 

DROWNING 

As soon as the body has been recovered, resuscitation should, 
if the weather is not inclement, be attempted on the spot. 
1. Remove all the clothing from the patient's chest. 



MILITARY GYMNASTICS— PHYSICAL TRAINING 839 

2. Place him on the ground, face down, and grasp him 
under the abdomen and raise him up. This will give the water 
he has swallowed an opportunity to escape and free the air pass- 
ages. 

3. Turn the patient over, and with a handkerchief wrapped 
around the first finger clean the mouth and nostrils. 

4. Draw out the tongue and hold it in that position by an 
elastic band, string, tape, or a strip of cloth torn from a handker- 
chief; or have an assistant hold it with his fingers wrapped in a 
handkerchief or cloth. 

5. Use the following method of artificial respiration, which 
is known as the Sylvester method: Place the patient on his back 
and lay a roll of clothing, coat, or other garment under his 
shoulders. This roll must be large enough to raise the shoulders 
and throw the head slightly to the rear. 

6. Kneel at his head and grasp his arms, one in each hand, 
with fingers out and thumb in, just below the elbows, and draw 
the arms outward ,away from the chest, till they meet overhead. 
This movement imitates respiration. The arms are then turned 
down and forcibly pressed against the chest for a moment. This 
movement imitates expiration. Continue these movements per- 
severingly at the rate of about 15 times per minute until signs of 
natural respiration are perceived. 

7. While those movements are going on, the clothing re- 
maining on the patient should be removed by an assistant, with- 
out interfering with the artificial respiration, however. When the 
body is stripped it should be dried and covered with such cloth- 
ing as may be available. 

8. An attempt to produce natural respiration by exciting 
the respiratory nerves may also be made by holding ammonia to 
the nostrils, by slapping the chest alternately with cloths wrung 
out in hot and cold water ,or by tickling the nostrils with a feather. 

9. When breathing has been restored, the limbs of the pa- 
tient should be rubbed upward, toward the heart, vigorously in 
order to restore the circulation. The rubbing should be done 
under the covering as much as possible, and in order to restore 
the warmth of the body extra covering, hot flannels, bricks, or bot- 
tles should be applied. 

10. To stimulate the vital organs, small doses of aromatic 
spirits of ammonia should be given. 

For additional suggestions and information on this subject, 
see Chapter XXXI. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

MANUAL OF THE BAYONET, COMBINED MOVE- 
MENTS AND BAYONET COMBAT 

The infantry soldier relies mainly on fire action to disable 
the enemy, but personal combat is often necessary to obtain suc- 
cess and he should be instructed in the use of the rifle and bayonet 
in hand-to-hand encounters. 

The object of this instruction is to teach the soldier how to 
make effective use of the rifle and bayonet in personal combat; 
to make him quick and proficient in handling his rifle; to give 
him an accurate eye and a steady hand; and to give him con- 
fidence in the bayonet in offense and defense. When skill in these 
exercises has been acquired, the rifle still remains a most formid- 
able weapon at close quarters should the bayonet be lost or dis- 
abled. 

Efficiency of organization in bayonet fighting is judged 
the skill shown by individuals in personal combat. For this pur 
pose pairs or groups of opponents, selected at random from among|a 
recruits and trained soldiers, should engage in assaults, using the 
fencing equipment provided for the purpose. 

Officers are specially selected and thoroughly instructed non-j 
commissioned officers act as instructors. Instruction is ordinarily!; 
given on even ground; but practice should also be had on uneven 
ground, especially in the attack and defense of intrenchments. 

Before requiring soldiers to take a position or execute a 
movement for the first time, the instructor executes the same for 
the purpose of illustration, after which he requires the soldiers to|? 
execute the movement individually. As soon as the movements t j 
are executed accurately, the commands are given rapidly, as ex 
pertness with the bayonet depends chiefly upon quickness of I 
motion. 

Successful training implies that men will use on the battle 
field what they have learned on the drill-ground. To do this 
a man must move to the attack possessed not only of a determina 
tion to win, but also of a perfect confidence in his third arm— 
the rifle. Such a confidence is born only of long, constant practice, 
which is the very essence of bayonet training. 



by 
ur- 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 841 

Without this, a bayonet assault will fail. The man who 
bores in at a dead run enjoys the advantage of a superior morale. 
The man who waits to fence loses his own nerve and helps the 
-nemy take heart. The enemy may have a longer weapon than 
Durs. This gives him the advantage if we stand off and fence, but 
?ives us the advantage if we close with him. 

The growth of the spirit of the bayonet is fostered by short 
:alks on what has already been accomplished with the bayonet. 
The men must be thoroughly informed of probable treachery on 
:he part of the enemy. They must be informed of the possible 
:nemy tricks of pretending to surrender or to be wounded, only 
:o fire upon or bayonet their prospective captors the instant they 
essen their aggressiveness. 

The bayonet is the deciding factor in every assault, and the 
soldier must realize that its successful employment requires of 
lim not only individual physical courage, but also perfect dis- 
cipline and a thorough knowledge of teamwork. In a bayonet 
)ight the nerviest, best disciplined and most skillful man wins — 
:he will to use the bayonet plus cold steel and thorough training 
issure success, 

TEAMWORK 



\ While actual bayonet combat is individual, each man must 

-inderstand from the very first that he is fighting for his side 

jind not for himself alone. It follows, therefore, that he must 

5>e familiar with the tactical employment of the bayonet. He 

nust not only know how, but when and when not to use it. For 

nstance, it is absurd for a bayonet man to chase a retreating 

memy and stab him in the back; he has a bullet in his rifle for just 

hat purpose. Again, the man who, forgetting that he is only a 

nember of the team, rushes ahead of his comrades and is always 

fieedlessly killed, thus helping the enemy and wasting his own life, 

its well as the time and efforts of the country he is trying to serve. 

Perfect teamwork is required in order to have a good line in the 

.ttack, but it is of more importance there than on dress parade. 

The bayonet man is frequently called upon to act as pro- 

ector to his constant comrade, the grenade-thrower, who is prac- 

ically unarmed. This one fact requires that the bayonet man be 

amiliar with the tactics of both weapons — bayonet and grenade — 

n mopping-up parties, trench raids, shell holes, and assaulting 

/aves. 

The supreme test of a soldier's training is to demand of him 
hat he hold a position at the point of the bayonet. In such 
ases he must know just how to coordinate himself with the 



842 MILITARY TRAINING 



grenadiers and machine-gunners. He must know just what kind 
of a counter charge to make and exactly when to start it. 

Finally, there is for the instructor to consider the close rela 
tion between controlled rifle fire and the bayonet, the last — andj c 
perhaps the most important phase of bayonet training. 

The exercises are interrupted at first by short and frequent 
rests. The rests are less frequent as proficiency is attained 
Fatigue and exhaustion are specially guarded against as they pre-i 
vent proper interest being taken in the exercises and delay the 
progress of the instruction. Rests are given from the position of 
order arms in the manner prescribed in Infantry Drill Regulations. 

NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION 

The bayonet is a cutting and thrusting weapon consisting 
of three principal parts, viz,, the blade, guard, and grip. The blade If 



y , , „., , p, 

guard 

/ * tA0£ FALSE itXE 



UE3S. 



/ 



TAHG 



SACK 



POINT 



^ 



has the following parts: Edge, false edge, back, grooves, pointy 
and tang. The length of the blade from guard to point is 16j v 
inches, the edge 14.5 inches, and the false edge 5.6 inches. The 
length of the service rifle, bayonet fixed, is 59.4 inches. The weight 
of the bayonet is 1 pound; weight of rifle without bayonet is 8.69 
pounds. The center of gravity of the rifle, with bayonet fixed, is, 
just in front of the rear sight. 



INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE RIFLE 



The instructor explains the importance of good footwork 
and impresses on the men the fact that quickness of foot and 
suppleness of body are as important for attack and defense as 
is the ability to parry and deliver a strong point or cut. 

All foot movements should be made from the position off 
guard. As far as practicable, they are made on the balls of the 
feet to insure quickness and agility. No hard and fast rule can be 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 843 

;laid down as to the length of the various foot movements; this 
depends entirely on the situations occurring in combat. 

The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor 
commands: 

1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. 
I At the command guard, half face to the right, carry back and 

iplace the right foot about once and a half its length to the rear 
and about 3 inches to the right, the feet forming with each other 
jan angle of about 60°, weight of the body balanced equally on 
Ithe balls of the feet, knees slightly bent, palms of hands on 
.hips, fingers to the front;, thumbs to the rear, head erect, head 
and eyes straight to the front. 

To resume the attention, 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. The 
men take the position of the soldier and fix their attention. 

ADVANCE. Advance the left foot quickly about once its 
s'ength, follow immediately with the right foot the same distance. 

RETIRE. Move the right foot quickly to the rear about 
Dnce its length, follow immediately with the left foot the same 
listance. 

1. Front, 2. PASS. Place the right foot quickly about once 
ts length in front of the left, advance the left foot to its proper 
position in front of the right. 

1. Rear, 2. PASS. Place the left foot quickly about once 
ts length in rear of the right;, retire the right foot to its proper 
position in rear of the left. The passes are used to get quickly 
vithin striking distance or to withdraw quickly therefrom. 

1. Right, 2. STEP. Step to the right with the right foot 
ibout once its length and place the left foot in its proper relative 
>osition. 

1. Left, 2. STEP. Step to the left with the left foot about 
>nce its length and place the right foot in its proper relative 
>osition. 

These steps are used to circle around an enemy, to secure a 
nore favorable line of attack, or to avoid the opponent's attack, 
fetter ground or more favorable light may be gained in this way. 
n bayonet fencing and in actual combat the foot first used in 
tepping to the right or left is the one which at the moment bears 
he least weight. 



INSTRUCTION WITH THE RIFLE 

The men having taken intervals or distances, the instructor 
ommands: 

1. Bayonet exercise, 2. GUARD. 

At the second command take the position of guard; at the 



844 



MILITARY TRAINING 



same time throw the rifle smartly to the front, grasp the rifle 
with the left hand just below the lower band, fingers between the 
stock and gun sling, barrel turned slightly to the left, the right 
hand grasping the small of the stock about 6 inches in front of the 
right hip, elbows free from the body, bayonet point at the height 
of the chin. 

1. Order, 2. ARMS. 

Bring the right foot up to the left and the rifle to the posi- 
tion of order arms, at the same time resuming the position of 
attention. 




PARRY HIGH AND LOW PARRY 

During the preliminary instruction, attacks and defenses 
are executed from guard until proficiency is attained, after which 
they may be executed from any position in which the rifle is 
held. 

INSTRUCTION WITHOUT THE BAYONET. 



1. Club rifle, 2. SWING. 

Being at order arms, at the preparatory command quickly 
raise and turn the rifle, regrasping it with both hands between 
the rear sight and muzzle, barrel down, thumbs around the 



MAX UAL OF THE BAYONET 



845 



stock and toward the butt; at the same time raise the rifle 
above the shoulder farthest from the opponent, butt elevated 
and to the rear, elbows slightly bent and knees straight. Each 
individual takes such position of the feet, shoulders, and hands 
as best accords with his natural dexterity. SWING. Tighten 
the grasp of the hands and swing the rifle to the front and 
downward, directing it at the head of the opponent and imme- 
diately return to the position of club rifle by completing the swing 
of the rifle downward and to the rear. Repeat by the command, 
SWING. 




BUTT STRIKE AND CLUB RIFLE SWING. 



The rifle should be swung with sufficient force to break 
through any guard or parry that may be interposed. Being at club 
rifle, order arms is resumed by command. The use of this attack 
against dummies or in fencing is prohibited. 

The position of club rifle may be taken from any position 
of the rifle prescribed in the Manual of Arms. It will not be 
taken in personal combat unless the emergency is such as to 
preclude the use of the bayonet. 



846 MILITARY TRAINING 

COMBINED MOVEMENTS 

The purpose of combined movements is to develop more 
vigorous attacks and more effective defenses than are obtained 
by the single movement; to develop skill in passing from at- 
tack to defense and the reverse. Every movement to the front 
should be accompanied by an attack;, which is increased in 
effectiveness by the forward movement of the body. Every 
movement to the rear should ordinarily be accompanied by a 
parry and should always be followed by an attack. Movements 
to the right or left may be accompanied by attacks or defenses. 

Not more than three movements are used in any combina- 
tion. The instructor should first indicate the number of move- 
ments that are to be combined as two movements or three move- 
ments. The execution is determined by one command of execu- 
tion, and the position of guard is taken upon the completion of the 
last movement only. The following are examples: 

Front pass and LUNGE: Right step and THRUST: Left 
step and low parry RIGHT: Rear pass, parry left and LUNGE: 
Lunge and cut RIGHT: Parry right and parry HIGH: Butt 
strike and cut DOWN: Thrust and parry HIGH: Parry high 
and LUNGE: Advance, thrust and cut RIGHT: Right step ; 
parry left and cut DOWN: To the left, butt strike and cut 
DOWN: To the right rear, cut down and butt STRIKE. 



PRACTICAL BAYONET COMBAT e 

h 

The principles of practical bayonet combat should be taughtlp 
as far as possible during the progress of instruction in bayonet) 
exercises. 

The soldier must be continually impressed with the extreme 
importance of the offensive due to its moral effect. Should an 
attack fail, it should be followed immediately by another attack ai 
before the opponent has an opportunity to assume the offensive. 
Keep the opponent on the defensive. If, due to circumstances, it 
is necessary to take the defensive, constantly watch for an oppor- 
tunity to assume the offensive and take immediate advantage of it. 

Observe the ground with a view to obtaining the best foot- 
ing. Time for this will generally be too limited to permit more 
than a single hasty glance. 

In personal combat watch the opponent's eyes if they can 
be plainly seen, and do not fix the eyes on his weapon nor upon 
the point of your attack. If his eyes cannot be plainly seen, 
as in night attacks, watch the movements of his weapon and 
of his body. 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 847 

Keep the body well covered and deliver attacks vigorously. 
The point of the bayonet should always be kept as nearly as 
possible in the line of attack. The less the rifle is moved upward, 
.downward, to the right, or to the left, the better prepared the 
soldier is for attack or defense. 

Constantly watch for a chance to attack the opponent's 
left hand. If his bayonet is without a cutting edge he will be at 
a great disadvantage. 

The butt is used for close and sudden attacks. It is par- 
ticularly useful for riot duty. From the position of port arms a 
sentry can strike a severe blow with the butt of the rifle. 

Against a man on foot, armed with a sword, be careful 
that the muzzle of the rifle is not grasped. All the swordsman's 
energies will be directed toward getting past the bayonet. At- 
tack him with short, stabbing thrusts, and keep him beyond strik- 
ing distance of his weapon. 

The adversary may attempt a greater extension in the 
thrust and lunge by quitting a grasp of his piece with the left 
hand and advancing the right as far as possible. When this is 
done, a sharp parry may cause him to lose control of his rifle,, 
leaving him exposed to a counter attack, which should follow 
promptly. 

Against odds a small number of men can fight to best 
advantage by grouping themselves so as to prevent their being 
attacked from behind. 

In fighting a mounted man armed with a saber every 
effort must be made to get on his near or left side, because here 
his reach is much shorter and his parries much weaker. If not 
possible to disable such an enemy, attack his horse and then 
jrenew the attack on the horseman. 

In receiving night attacks the assailant's movements can 
be best observed from the kneeling or prone position, as his 
approach generally brings him against the sky line. When he 
•arrives within attacking distance rise quickly and lunge well for- 
ward at the middle of his body. 

SIGNALS 

In practicing the various movements, the use of signals 
should be begun as early as practicable. Their object is to co- 
Drdinate the eyes with the muscles, thus training the men to see 
md to avail themselves quickly of openings. The signals were 
devised to supersede the vicious custom of turning bayonet work 
I nto a drill by the use of commands, which deadens a soldier's 
nitiative and ignores the training of his eye. 
54 



848 MILITARY TRAINING 

These signals are not imitations of the movements they call 
for; imitations would be of little advantage to the pupil. The 
idea is to indicate with the trainer's hand an opening which the 
pupils perceive and act upon. 

The signals, easily learned, will be used by the men working 
in pairs — one signalling, the other thrusting, etc. 

To signal for the following positions or movements, the 
trainer moves as indicated: 

Guard. — Assume it, left hand at back, right elbow at side, 
right forearm pointing to front, fist closed. 

Short Guard. — Same as guard, except that the arm is drawn 
straight to the rear until the fist is at the right side. 

Long Thrust. — Clap the right palm, fingers apart and ex- 
tended, to that part of the body toward which the soldier is to aim. ' 

Short Thrust. — Same as long thrust, except the fist is closed. 
If pupil is not in position of short guard when he gets the signal, 
he comes to that position and executes short thrust. 

Jab. — Place both closed fists under the chin. 

Parry. — Strike a blow diagonally across the body in the 
direction the parry is to be made, fist closed. Follow by signal 
for thrust. 

Butt Strokes. — Make an upper cut with the fist to indicate a 
butt stroke to the crotch, a right hook for butt stroke to the jaw, 
an overhand swing for butt stroke to the head. 

Slash (following butt stroke). — After butt stroke signal, \ 
carry the hand upward, fingers extended and joined, and slash 
down. 

Disengage. — Describe an arc with the right hand, fingers ex-| 
tended and joined, in the direction the disengage is to be made. 
Make the arc with a forward motion. Follow by signal for thrust. 

Cut-Over. — Describe an arc up and forward with the right 
hand, fingers extended and joined, in the direction the cut-over is 
to be made. Follow by signal for thrust. In executing the move- 
ments the point of the bayonet follows the movement of the 
trainer's hand, regardless of the relative right or left. When the 
trainer wishes the pupil to step forward with the rear foot in 
making any of the movements, the trainer steps to the rear as he 
gives the signal. 

ASSAULTS 

The part of the body to be attacked is designated, by 
name, as head, neck, chest, stomach, legs. No attacks are made 
below the knees. The commands are given and the movements 
for each line are first explained thoroughly by the instructor; 
the execution begins at the command assault. Number one exe- 



M. 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 849 

cutes the attack, and number two parries; conversely, at command, 
number two attacks and number one parries. 

For convenience in instruction assaults are divided into 
simple attacks, counter attacks, attacks on the rifle, and feints. 

SIMPLE ATTACKS 



Success in these attacks depends on quickness of move- 
ment. There are three simple attacks — the straight, the disen- 
gagement, and the counter disengagement. They are not preceded 
by a feint. 

In the straight the bayonet is directed straight at an open- 
ing from the engaged position. Contact with the opponent's 
rifle may, or may not, be abandoned while making it. If the 
opening be high or low, contact with the rifle is usually aban- 
doned on commencing the attack. If the opening be near his 
guard, the light pressure used in the engage may be continued in 
the attack. 

Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number one, at neck 
(head, chest, right leg, etc.),. thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 
J. ASSAULT. 

In the disengagement contact with the opponent's rifle is 
ibandoned and the point of the bayonet is circled under or over 
lis bayonet or rifle and directed into the opening attacked. This 
ittack is delivered by one continuous spiral movement of the 
jayonet from the moment contact is abandoned. 

Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number one, at stom- 
ich (left chest, left leg, etc.), thrust; 2. Number two, parry left 
[etc.); 3. ASSAULT. 

In the counter disengagement a swift attack is made into 
:he opening disclosed while the opponent is attempting to change 
:he engagement of his rifle. It is delivered by one continuous 
spiral movement of the bayonet into the opening. 
i Example: Being at the engage right, 1. Number two, engage 

eft; 2. Number one, at chest, thrust; 3. Number two, parry left; 
% ASSAULT. 

Number two initiates the movement, number one thrusts as 
;oon as the opening is made, and number two then attempts to 
>arry. 

A counter attack or return is one made instantly after or 
n continuation of a parry. The parry should be as narrow as 
possible. This makes it more difficult for the opponent to re- 
rover and counter parry. The counter attack should also be 
nade at, or just before, the full extension of the opponent's attack, 



850 MILITARY TRAINING 

as when it is so made, a simple extension of the arms will generally 
be sufficient to reach the opponent's body. 

Example: Being at engage, 1. Number two, at chest, lunge; 

2. Number one, parry right, and at stomach (chest, head, etc.)i 
thrust; 3. ASSAULT. 

ATTACKS ON THE RIFLE 

These movements are made for the purpose of forcing or 
disclosing an opening into which an attack can be made. They 
are the press, the beat, and the twist. 

In the press the attack quickly presses against the oppo- 
nent's bayonet or rifle with his own and continues the pressure 
as the attack is delivered. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Num- 
ber one, press, and at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry right; 

3. ASSAULT. 

The attack by disengagement is particularly effective follow- 
ing the press. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, 
press, and at stomach, thrust; 2. Number two, low parry left; 3. 
ASSAULT. 

The beat is an attack in which a sharp blow is struck 
against the opponent's rifle for the purpose of forcing him to 
expose an opening into which an attack immediately follows. It is 
used when there is but slight opposition or no contact of rifles. 
Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, beat, and at stom- 
ach (chest, etc.), thrust; 2. Number two, parry left; 3. ASSAULT. 

In the twist the rifle is crossed over the opponent's rifle 
or bayonet and his bayonet forced downward with a circular! 
motion and a straight attack made into the opening. It requires; 
superior strength on the part of the attack. Example: Being at the 
engage, 1. Number one, twist, and at stomach, thrust; 2. Number 
two, low parry, left; 3. ASSAULT. 



FEINTS 

Feints are movements which threaten or simulate attacks 
and are made with a view to inducing an opening or parry that 
exposes the desired point of attack. They are either single or 
double, according to the number of such movements made by the 
attack. 

In order that the attack may be changed quickly, as little 
force as possible is put into a feint. Example: Being at the en- 
gage, Number one, feint head thrust; at stomach,, lunge; 2. Num- 
ber two, parry right and low parry right; 3. ASSAULT. Number 
one executes the feint and then the attack. Number two executes 
both parries. 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 851 

In double feints first one part of the body and then an- 
other is threatened and a third attacked. Example: Being at the 
engage, 1. Number one, feint straight thrust at chest; disengage- 
ment at chest; at stomach, lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, 
parry left, and low parry left; 3. ASSAULT. 

An opening may be offered or procured by opposition, as 
in the press or beat. 

In fencing exercises every feint should at first be parried. 
When the defense is able to judge or divine the character of the 
attack the feint is not necessarily parried,, but may be nullified by a 
counter feint. 

A counter feint is a feint following the opponent's feint or 
following a parry of his attack and generally occurs in combined 
movements. 

COMBINED MOVEMENTS 

When the men have become thoroughly familiar with the 
various foot movements, parries, guards, attacks, feints, etc., the 
instructor combines several of them and gives the commands in 
quick succession, increasing the rapidity and number of movements 
<as the men become more skillful. Opponents are changed fre- 
quently. 

1. Example: Being at the engage, 1. Number one, by disen- 
gagement at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, right step 
(left foot first),, and lunge; 3. ASSAULT. 

i 2. Example: Being at engage left, Number one, press and 

< lunge; 2. Number two, parry right, left step, and thrust; 3. AS- 
SAULT. 

3. Example: Being at the engage, Number one, by disen- 
gagement at chest, thrust; 2. Number two, parry left, front pass, 
and at head butt strike; 3. Number one, right step; 4. ASSAULT. 

A chancery is an attack by means of which the opponent is 
disarmed, which causes him to lose control of his rifle, or which 
^disables his weapon. 

When the different combinations are executed with suffi- 
cient skill the instructor devises series of movements to be 
nemorized and executed at the command assault. The accuracy and 
:elerity of the movements are carefully watched by the instructor, 
with a view to the correction of faulty execution. 

It is not intended to restrict the number of movements, 
Dut to leave to the discretion of company commanders and the 
Vngenuity of instructors the selection of such other exercises as 
* Accord with the object of the drill. 



852 MILITARY TRAINING 

VULNERABLE PARTS OF BODY 

The point of the bayonet should be directed against an 
opponent's throat, especially in hand-to-hand fighting, so that the 
point will enter easily and make a fatal wound on penetrating a i 
few inches. Also being near the opponent's face, it tends to make 
him flinch. Other vulnerable and usually exposed parts are the 
face, chest, lower abdomen, thighs, and, when the back is turned, 
the kidneys. The arm pit, which may be reached with a jab, if the 
throat is protected, is vulnerable because it contains large blood 
vessels and a nerve center. 

Four to six inches penetration is enough to incapacitate and 
allow a quick withdrawal, whereas if a bayonet is driven home too 
far it is often impossible to withdraw it. In such cases a round 
must be fired to break up the obstruction. 

GUARD. 

Point of the bayonet directed at the base of the. opponent's 
throat, the rifle, not canted, held firmly but not rigidly with both 
hands, the left hand, palm against side of rifle, at the most con- 
venient position in front of the rear sight so that the left arm is 
only slightly bent, the right hand, palm to the left and just over 
the navel, grasping the small of the stock, the right forearm press- j 
ing the upper part of the butt to the body, legs separated as in tak-jc 
ing a natural step and meeting with resistance, left foot leading, left 
knee slightly bent, feet separated laterally a few inches and both 
feet flat on the ground, toes pointed as the man naturally points 
them in walking. The weight is balanced over both legs. 

The position must not be constrained in any way, but mustjtf 
be one of aggression, alertness, and readiness to go forward for ai 
instant attack. The guard position will also be taught with the 
right foot in front. 

The point of the bayonet is directed at the base of the ^ 
opponent's throat because that is the most vulnerable part of thei 
body. The rifle is held with both hands to give the greatest 
strength. The barrel is up; i. e., "not canted," because this is the 
most offensive way of holding it. The palms of the hands are 
against the sides of the rifle because in this position the piece is 
not canted, and also the wrists are not bent in making the parries 
The hands are in the positions described because they give theL, 
best grip of the rifle and get it well advanced toward the opponent ft, 
so that he can be reached with a minimum movement of the rifle 
at the same time sufficient play is allowed to run him through 
The legs are separated as in taking a natural step and meetingL 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 853 

with resistance because this is what actually happens to a man in 
bayonet combat. Separating the feet laterally a few inches gives 
the man a broader and firmer base. The position is not con- 
strained because if it were the muscles would soon tire and free- 
dom of motion would be lost. 



SHORT GUARD 

Left hand grasping rifle just under stacking swivel, left arm 
slightly bent, right hand grasping small of stock, stock against 
right hip. Point directed at base of opponent's throat. Body, 
legs, and feet as in guard. 

HIGH PORT 

From the position of guard, without changing the grasp of 
the hands, carry the piece diagonally across the body until the left 
wrist is level with and in front of the left shoulder. 

When jumping ditches, surmounting obstacles, etc., the posi- 
tion of the piece is approximately maintained with the left hand 
alone, leaving the right hand free. The high port is adopted 
only when actually preparing to assault. At other times the rifle 
is carried on the shoulder, at the trail, or slung, according to cir- 
cumstances. 

LONG THRUST 

Grip the rifle with all your strength and vigorously deliver 
the point from the guard position to the full extent of the left 
irm, extending quickly the whole body to the front, butt running 
along the inside of and against the right forearm. If in making 
:he thrust the right elbow is carried low, so as to clamp the butt 
oetween the right forearm and the right side of the body, it fur- 
nishes a brace against the point being forced aside. In delivering 
:he thrust the butt remains between the^ right forearm and the 
oody. The leading knee and ankle are well bent, the rear leg 
traced with the heel raised, the body inclined well forward. 

The power of a thrust comes from the right arm, the 
shoulders, the back, the legs, and the weight of the body. The left 
trm is used more to direct the point of the bayonet. A delivered 
'hrust throws a man off his balance, but in fighting this is instantly 
iecovered by stepping forward with the rear foot. After a man 
las learned the details of a thrust it will always be delivered while 
hdvancing. 



854 MILITARY TRAINING 

As additional instruction, the men may be permitted to 
wield the rifle left handed, that is on the left side of the body 
left hand at the small of the stock. Many men are able to use this 
method to advantage. It is also of value in case the left hand is 
wounded. 

In group fencing it is necessary to have a sufficient number 
of umpires to decide hits. An individual receiving a hit is with 
drawn at once from the bout, which is decided in favor of thd 
group having the numerical superiority at the end. 




LEFT HANDED USE OF RIFLE. 

RULES FOR FENCING AT WILL 

1. Hits on the legs below the knees are not counted. Nd 
hit counts unless, in the opinion of the instructor, it has sufficient 
force to disable. 2. Upon receiving a hit, call out "hit." 3. Afte 
receiving a fair hit a counter attack is not permitted. A position o 
engage is taken. 4. A second or third hit in a combined attack i< 
counted only when the first hit was not called. 5. When it is 
necessary to stop the contest — for example,, because of breaking oi 
weapons or displacement of means of protection — take the positioi 
of the order. 6. When it is necessary to suspend the assault io\\ 
any cause, it is not resumed until the adversary is ready and ir f 
condition to defend himself. 7. Attacks directed at the crotch art 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 855 

8. Stepping out of bounds, when estab- 
lished, counts as a hit. 

When engaging in an assault, first study the adversary's 
position and proceed by false attacks, executed with speed, to 
discover, if possible, his instinctive parries. In order to draw 
the adversary out and induce him to expose that part of the body 
at which the attack is to be made, it is advisable to simulate 
in attack by a feint and then make the real attack. 



PA*RY RIGHT (LEFT) 

From the position of guard, vigorously straighten the left 
arm without bending the wrists or twisting the rifle in the hands, 
at the same time engaging opponent's piece and deflecting it just 
clear of your body, forcing your body forward to the full extent 
Df your reach. Keep the barrel up, the point threatening the 
Dpponent's body, preferably his throat. If the parry right is 
properly made, it is easy to kill the opponent with the thrust 
which immediately follows — in fact, the opponent will usually im- 
pale himself on your point. In parry left the point is carried out 
Df line with your opponent's body, but can be quickly brought 
Dack, as it is nearer this line than the opponent's point. Parry 
eft is followed up at once either with a thrust or a butt stroke 
:o the ribs or jaw. During the parry the eyes must be kept on 
:he point of the weapon being parried, but, having completed the 
Darry, the eyes are instantly fixed on "the part of the opponent's 
)ody to be attacked. 

In addition, practice must be given in fending off the oppo- 
lent's point with either bayonet or rifle in any position. 



THE SHORT THRUST 



Shift the left hand quickly towards the muzzle and draw the 
fle back to the extent of the right arm, this without unduly 
1 -elaxing the grasp of the small of the stock, the butt either up- 
wards or downwards, according as a low or a high thrust is to be 
nade; then deliver the thrust vigorously to the full extent of the 
1 eft arm. 

The short thrust is used at a range of about 3 feet, and in 

:lose fighting it is the natural thrust made when the bayonet has 

T ust been withdrawn after a long thrust. If a strong withdrawal 

s necessary, the right hand should be. slipped above the rear sight 

ifter the "short thrust" has been made. 



856- MILITARY TRAINING 

THE JAB 

From the position of the short thrust, shift the right hand 
up the rifle and grasp it above the rear sight, at the same time 
bringing the rifle to an almost vertical position close to the body, 
and from this position bend the knees, and, with the full force of 
the body, stepping in if necessary, jab the point of the bayonet 
upwards into the throat or other part of the opponent. 

CIRCLE EXERCISES, HAND PARRIES, ETC. 

At the command "Form circle," the pupils, not more than 
ten in number, form in a circle, facing the trainer with an interval 
of about three paces, at the position of "guard," bayonet scabbards 
on. . The trainer thrusts in varying order with the training stick 
at the pupils, who "parry" from the position of "guard," "short 
guard," and "jab," and thrust or rush in and jab at trainer, who 
retires rapidly. 

At a touch from the "training stick," the pupil whirls about 
and attacks the thrusting ring with the thrust or jab, as the dis- 
tance between his point and the stick indicates. If the ring is 
holed, the withdrawal is made and the position of "guard" resumed. 
If the first effort is a miss, the pupil will come on with "short 
thrust" and "jab" until successful. 

If the trainer presents the padded end of the stick, the pupil 
makes butt stroke one at it. If this is a miss, he comes on with 
butt stroke two, etc., until he hits the padded end. As soon as he 
hits it he resumes the guard facing out. To practice the pupil 
in all the butt strokes, the instructor jerks the stick away a short 
distance just before butt stroke one; hits it, causing the pupil to 
miss and come on with butt stroke two. Just before butt stroke 
two hits the stick, the trainer again jerks it away, causing the 
pupil to miss and come on with a slash. 

Men in pairs, one with rifle in guard position, the other on 
either side offers the ring or padded end of the stick in varying 
positions in front and behind. The man with the rifle attacks the 
stick as laid down above. 

To practice "long thrust," "short thrust," and "jab" against 
an opponent: One line of men, with bayonets and scabbards 
placed at long thrusting distance before a line of men without 
arms. The armed men make a long thrust, stepping in; at a hand 
.signal made by the unarmed men, the latter step back and with the 
other hand fend the thrust, grab and hold the bayonet to give the 
withdrawal the necessary resistance. At a second signal the at- 
tack is continued by the short thrust, stepping in, the retreat and 



MANUAL OF THE BAYONET 857 

fend repeated. The two men, now being at close quarters, a signal 
for "jab" is made, the defender grabbing the bayonet and resisting 
the stroke. 

The fend should not be made with the hand indicating the 
point of attack. The signaling hand should remain in place as a 
point at which to aim. The signal should be made with the hand 
on the side of the body at which the attack is to be made. In this 
way the bayonet is quickly pushed outside the line of the body 
with the other hand, 

WOODEN RIFLES AND PERSONAL COMBAT 

The wooden rifle, like boxing and wrestling, introduces into 
the training the most important element of personal contact, with- 
out which the true fighting spirit cannot be properly developed. 
The work with the wooden rifles is very slow and easy at first, 
the men gradually working up speed until they come together at 
full tilt. Gloves, masks, and plastrons will always be worn, and 
the instructor is responsible for the prevention of serious acci- 
dents. Men begin this combat practice by both standing still; then 
one advances at a walk, the other standing still; then both ad- 
vancing at a walk; then one man running, the other standing still, 
and, finally, both men advancing at a run. 

TRENCH COMBAT 

In trench combat, when you come to a turn in the trench, 
make a quick vault in the next sector of the trench. As you land 
in the next sector, have your rifle in the guard position (on the 
right side if the trench turned to the left, on the left side if it 
turned to the right), ready to beat your opponent's weapon aside 
or make a quick thrust. There is nothing to be gained by looking 
first, and it insures your enemy being ready for you. If you come 
to a place alone where one trench enters another about at right 
angles, it is well to look first, as one man has no show if there is 
an enemy on each side of the entrance. If you find one side clear, 
vault in the other without delaying to look. If two men approach 
such a trench, say, through a communication trench, they approach 
as nearly on a line as the width of the trench will permit. One 
vaults to the right and the other to the left without stopping to 
find out first whether the trench is occupied, 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THE ARMY RATION, ITS ISSUE AND SUBSTITU- 
TIVE EQUIVALENT ARTICLES 

The allowance for the subsistence of one person for one day 
is a ration. The garrison ration is intended for troops in gar- 
rison, and, in time of peace, for troops in maneuver camps; 
the ration issued to troops on the march in time of peace is 
prescribed by the commander, and does not exceed the allow- 
ances prescribed for the garrison ration. The travel ration is 
for troops traveling otherwise than by marching and separated 
from cooking facilities. The reserve ration is carried on the per- 
son of the men and in the trains, and constitutes the reserve for 
field service. The field ration is the ration prescribed in orders by 
the commander of the field forces. The Filipino ration is for use 
of the Philippine Scouts. The Emergency ration is for troops in 
active campaign for use on occasions of emergency or in the field 
for purposes of instruction. In time of war, when Philippine Scouts 
are serving in the field, or when it is impracticable to use the 
Filipino ration, they are subsisted the same as are regular troops. 

The kinds and quantities of the component articles of the 
army ration and the substitutive equivalent articles which may be 
issued in place of such components are as follows: 

GARRISON RATION 



Component Articles and Quantities. 


Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 




20 ounces. . . 












Beef, fresh 


Canned meat, when imprac- 
ticable to furnish fresh meat 

Hash, corned beef, when im- 
practicable to furnish fresh 


16 ounces. 
16 ounces. 






14 ounces. 












16 ounces. 




Turkey, dressed, drawn, on 
Thanksgiving Day and 
Christmas, when practic- 
able 


16 ounces. 









THE ARMY RATION 



859 



Component Articles and Quantities. 


Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 




18 ounces. . . 
0.08 ounce.. 




18 ounces. 


Flour 


1 Hard bread, to be ordered 
1 'Fsued only when the inter- 
1 ests of the Government so 




















2.4 ounces. . 
20 ounces. . . 

1.28 ounces.. 

1.12 ounces. 
3.2 ounces. . 


/Rice 




Beant 




1.6 ounces. 
15 ounces. 




[Potatoes, canned 

Onions, In lieu of an equal 
quantity of potatoes, but 
not exceeding 20 per cent, 
of total issue. 

Tomatoes, canned, in lieu of 
an equal quantity of pota- 
toes, but not exceeding 20 
per cent, of total issue. 

Other fresh vegetables (not 
canned) when they can be 
obtained in the vicinity or 
transported in a wholesome 
condition from a distance, 
in lieu of an equal quantity 
of potatoes, but not exceed- 
ing 30 per cent of total issue. 

Apples, dried or evaporated. . 

Peaches, dried or evaporated . 

Jam, in lieu of an equal quan- 
tity of prunes, but not ex- 
ceeding 50 per cent, of total 
issue. 

Coffee, roasted, not ground. . 

Coffee, green 




1.28 ounces. 
1.28 ounces. 


Coffee, roasted and ground 


1.12 ounces. 
1.4 ounces. 








Milk, evaporated, un- 










0.16 gill. .. . 


f Pickles, cucumber, in lieu of 
I an equal quantity of vine- 
| gar, but not exceeding 50 
[ per cent, of total issue. 




Salt 














0.014 ounce. 

0.64 ounce. . 
0.5 ounce. . . 
0.32 gill. . . . 


f Cloves 














0.014 ounce. 








Butter 












Flavoring extract, lemon.. 


0.014 ounce. 




0.014 ounce. 









Food for troops traveling on United States Army transports is prepared from the 
articles of subistence stores which compose the ration for troops in garrison, varied by 
the substitution of other articles of authorized subsistence stores, the total daily cost 
per man of the food consumed not to exceed 20 per cent, more than the current cost of 
the garrison ration, except on Thanksgiving Day and Christmas, when 60 per cent, 
increase over the same current cost is authorized. 



560 



MILITARY TRAINING 
TRAVEL RATION 



Component Articles and Quantities. 



Soft bread 

Beef, corned 

Beans, baked 

Tomatoes, canned 

Jam 

Coffee, roasted and ground 

Sugar . . ... . 

Milk, evaporated, un- 
sweetened 



18 ounces. . 
12 ounces. . 
4 ounces . . . 
8 ounces. . . 
1.4 ounces. 
1.12 ounces 
2.4 ounces . 



0.5 ounce. 



Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 



Hard bread 

Hash, corned beef . 



16 ounces. 
12 ounces. 



RESERVE RATION 



Component Articles and Quantities. 



Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 



Bacon 

or meat canned 

Hard bread. 

Coffee, roasted and ground 

Sugar ......:.. ' 2.4 ounces 

Salt -..-. I 0.16 ounce 



1 2 ounces. . . 
16 ounces. . . 
16 ounces. . . 
1.12 ounces. 



One day in each alternate month of the season of practical 
instruction, not exceeding three days in each year, the use of the 
reserve ration with individual cooking is required by all troops in 
the field for purposes of instruction. 

FIELD RATION 

The field ration is the ration prescribed in orders by the 
commander of the field forces. It consists of the reserve ration 
in whole or in part, supplemented by articles of food requisitioned 
or purchased locally, or shipped from the rear, provided such sup- 
plements or substitutes correspond generally with the component 
articles or substitutive equivalents of the garrison ration. 

FILIPINO RATION 



Component Articles and Quantities. 


Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 




12 ouncea. . . 
8 ounces. . . . 




8 ounces. 


Beef, fresh 
















12 ounces. 


Flour 


fHard bread 


8 ounces. 




\Soft bread 


8 ounces. 





THE ARMY RATION 


861 


Component Articles and Quantities. 


Substitutive Articles and Quantities. 


Baking powder, when in 
field and ovens are not 
available 










20 ounces. . . 
8 ounces. . . . 






Potatoes 






Coffee, roasted and ground 






Sugar 








Vinegar 


0.08 gill . 






Salt 








Pepper, black 


0.02 ounce. 












Scout orcaniz? 


Lfinns arp r 


ennirpd rn hcp flip pntirp 


• 

allnwanrp 



of the meat component, and not more than 16 ounces of rice per 
day to be used for each ration. The purchase of 1.6 ounces of 
beans per ration in substitution of the portion of the rice ration 
not drawn is made, and use of as large an extent as possible of 
native products, such as camotes, mongos, and squash will be re- 
quired. 

EMERGENCY RATION 

r The emergency ration is furnished, in addition to the regu- 

, lar ration, as required for troops on active campaign or in the 
' field for purposes of instruction, and is not opened except by order 
of an officer or in extremity, nor used when regular rations are 
obtainable. Ration returns upon which emergency rations are 
drawn bear the certificate of the organization commander that 
such rations are required for the enlisted men of his organization 
, and that the money value of any rations previously drawn by him, 
! and improperly opened or lost, has been charged against the per- 
: son responsible. Company and detachment commanders are re- 
sponsible for the proper care and use of emergency rations car- 
. ried on the person of the soldier. 

LIQUID COFFEE 



When an enlisted man or an applicant for enlistment, sup- 
plied with cooked or travel rations, travels unaccompanied by an 
officer, and it is impracticable to cook coffee en route, he may be 
supplied with funds for the purchase of liquid coffee in lieu of the 
coffee, milk and sugar components of the travel ration, at the 
rate of 21 cents a day for the number of days that the travel is 
expected to cover, to be paid to each man on the order of the 
commanding officer who directs the journey, a copy of the order 
being filed with the voucher on which payment is made. 



L 



862 MILITARY TRAINING 

On the first of the month, or whenever necessary, the quarter- 
master computes on the back of the ration and savings account the 
actual cost of the ration in use at his post at the following rates: 

Garrison ration 

Per Cent. 

Beef, fresh 70 

Bacon, issue 30 

Flour, issue 100 

Baking powder 100 

Beans . . 50 

Rice 50 

Potatoes, fresh 70 

Onions, fresh 20 

Tomatoes, canned 10 

Prunes 30 

Jam 50 

Apples, evaporated ; . . 10 

Peaches, evaporated 10 

Coffee, roasted and ground 100 

Sugar 100 

Milk, evaporated, unsweetened 100 

Vinegar 50 

Pickles, cucumber 50 

Salt 100 

Pepper, black . 100 

Cinnamon 100 

Lard ,. 50 

Lard substitute 50 

Butter 50 

Oleomargarine 50 

Syrup 100 

Flavoring extract, lemon 100 

For Thanksgiving Day or Christmas, when turkey costs 
more than the regular meat ration, the proper allowance is made 
on the ration and savings account by adding to the amount due 
the organization the product of the number of men present on the 
holiday multiplied by the excess cost of turkey over the regular 
meat ration. Should a ration of turkey cost less than the regular 
meat ration the proper deduction is made. 

Travel ration 

Per Cent. 

Soft bread or hard bread 100 

Beef, corned or hash, C. B 100 



THE ARMY RATION 863 

_ Per Cent. 
Beans, baked Kjy 

Tomatoes, canned 100 

J am 100 

Coffee, roasted and ground 100 

Su & ar ...".;; 100 

Milk, evaporated, unsweetened 100 

When 21 cents coffee money is paid, the coffee, sugar, and 
milk components are not included when computing the travel 
ration. 

Filipino ration 

„ , , Per Cent. 

Beef, fresh 70 

Bacon, issue 20 

Fish .! ^ .."..:.!! 1 ... ! 1. . M io 

Or— 

Canned meat 70 

Bacon, issue 20 

Fish 10 

Flour, or hard bread, or soft bread 100 

Baking powder, when ovens are not available 100 

Rice, unpolished 100 

Potatoes 80 

Onions 20 

Coffee, roasted and ground 100 

Sugar 100 

Vinegar 100 

Salt 100 

Pepper, black 100 

When reserve rations or surplus ration articles are ordered 
used, any excess cost of such articles over that of the articles 
ordinarily used in computing the cost of the ration is credited to 
the organization on the ration and savings account. Should any 
article so ordered be cheaper than that ordinarily used, a corre- 
sponding deduction is made from the organization's credit. The 
manner of ascertaining the amount of the credit or deduction is 
shown on the back of the ration and savings account, to which the 
order of the commanding officer directing the issue will be 
attached. 

If ration and savings accounts are not paid by a quarter- 
master in the month during which they accumulated, the proper 
organization is furnished with an extract of the account showing 
the amount due, which voucher, duly certified by the quarter- 
master and approved by the commanding officer, is presented for 
payment to any quartermaster having funds for the purpose. 



864 



MILITARY TRAINING 
COMMUTATION OF RATIONS 



Commutation of rations may be allowed at the following: 
rates, under the conditions mentioned, viz: 



Conditions. 



Rate per Day Each. 



Enlisted 
Men and 
Nurses. 



Philippine 
Scouts. 



1. To enlisted men, Philippine Scouts, male or female nurses on 

the expiration of their furloughs or leaves, provided that on 
or before the last day thereof they have reported at their 
proper stations or have been discharged 

2. To ordnance sergeants, quartermaster sergeants, senior grade, 

and quartermaster sergeants, Quartermaster Corps (and en- 
listed men acting as such) on duty at forts and stations where 
there are no other troops 

3. To an enlisted man, a Philippine Scout, or a male or female 

nurse on detached duty, stationed in a city or town where 
subsistence is not furnished by the Government; to sergeants 
detailed for duty with the National Guard, and for duty with 
disciplinary organizations; to enlisted men detailed for duty 
at institutions where one or more units of the Reserve 
Officers' Training Corps are maintained, or at schools or col- 
leges pursuant to section 56, Act of Congress approved June 
3, 1916, stationed in a city or town where subsistence is not 
furnished by the Government 

4. To an enlisted man or a Philippine Scout traveling under orders 

from a place or station at which hia rations have been regu- 
larly commuted 

5. To an enlisted man or a Philippine Scout traveling under orders 

alone, when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours 
and it is impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which 
fact must be stated in the order directing the journey) ; to 
members of the Regular Army Reserve upon being sum 
moned for field training and when mobilized by the President 
and reporting for duty, while traveling from their homes to 
the places where ordered to report for duty, to members of 
the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while traveling, except 
by organization, to and from camps of instruction; and to 
members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps when ordered into 
active service, while traveling, except by organization, to and 
from the place to which ordered 

6. To two enlisted men or Philippine Scouts traveling under orders 

as a detachment, or traveling under orders as a guard to an 
insane patient or military prisoner, when the journey can not 
be performed in 24 hours and it is impracticable to carry 
rations of any kind (which fact must be stated in the order 
directing the journey), each 

7. To an insane patient or military prisoner traveling under orders 

under guard of one or two enlisted men or Philippine Scouts, 
when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours and it is 
impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which fact must 
be stated in the order directing the journey), to be paid on 
the order of the commanding officer in advance to, and to be 
receipted for by, the person to whose charge the patient or 
military prisoner is committed by the order 

8. To enlisted men or Philippine Scouts selected to contest for 

places or prizes in department or Army rifle competitions, 
while traveling under orders to and from places of contest, 
when the journey can not be performed in 24 hours and it is 
impracticable to carry rations of any kind (which fact must 
be stated in the order) each 



$0.30 



1.00 



$0.30 



.50 

.75 



1.50 



1.50 



.50 



1.50 



.75 



.75 



.75 



.75 



THE ARMY RATION 



865 



Applicants for enlistment and recruits forwarded from re- 
cruiting stations, recruiting depots, or other military posts are fur- 
nished the following allowances for subsistence while traveling, 



When 1 or 2 men are forwarded. 



For a journey of 24 hours or less. 

Travel rations, or cooked rations, to be 
obtained from the contractor for meals 
or from the company or general mess. 



For a journey of more than 24 hours. 

Commutation of rations at not exceeding 
50 cents a meal ($1.50 a day) for each 
man. 



When more than 2 men are forwarded. 



For a journey of 24 hours or less. 

For a detachment of 3 or more men: 
Travel rations (or, if not available, 
cooked rations, to be obtained from the 
contractor for meals or from the com- 
pany or general mess). 

For a journey of more than 24 hours . 

For a detachment of 3 or more men: 
Travel rations if available, or, if not 
available, commutation of rations at 
not exceeding 50 cents a meal ($1.50 a 
day) for each man. 



Commutation of rations is not allowed to enlisted men serv- 
ing where subsistence is furnished by the Government; or travel- 
ing under orders when they can carry and cook their rations, or 
can carry cooked or travel rations; or traveling under orders on 
Army transports or by steamboat or steamship where the passage 
rates include meals; or failing to report at their proper stations on 
or before the last day of furlough unless discharged; or recruiting 
parties at their stations; nor to civil employees. Commutation of 
rations is not allowed to members of the Regular Army Reserve 
while in field training or after reporting when mobilized for active 
service in the event of actual or threatened hostilities, nor to mem- 
bers of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps while in camps of in- 
struction, nor to citizens while at camps of instruction, nor to 
members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps while in active service for 
purposes of instruction or training or after reporting when ordered 
to active service in the event of actual or threatened hostilities. 

An enlisted man traveling on duty under orders on a vessel 
of the United States Army Transport Service is not allowed any 
commutation of rations for the time he is abroad. He is quartered 
with the enlisted men aboard and messes with them, and the proper 
transport officer indorses upon the travel order in the possession 
of the soldier the dates between which subsistence was so fur- 
nished. The travel order so indorsed is turned over by the enlisted 
man at the end of the journey to the quartermaster by whom com- 
mutation of rations for any portion of the journey is paid, who 
files it with the voucher on which payment is made. If commuta- 
tion of rations is ordered paid in advance, the probable time on 



h 



866 MILITARY TRAINING 

shipboard must be taken into account in determining the number 
of days' commutation to be allowed, and the paying officer indorses 
the original order and makes payment on a certified copy thereof. 

The garrison ration is intended to be issued in kind whenever 
possible. The approximate net weight of the garrison ration is 4.5 
pounds. The reserve ration is the simplest efficient ration and con- 
stitutes the reserve carried for field service. The approximate net 
weight of the reserve ration is 2 pounds. The field ration is the ra- 
tion prescribed in orders by the commander of the field forces. It 
consists of the reserve ration in whole or in part, supplemented by 
articles requisitioned or purchased locally or shipped from the rear, 
provided such supplement or substitutes correspond generally with 
the component articles or substitute equivalent of the garrison 
ration. 

In many cases it will be possible to supply a much more 
varied ration to troops of the line of communications and to the 
advance forces, when halted in the immediate vicinity of the line of 
communications, than to troops at a distance from it. The allow- 
ance of transportation for field rations with the division is based 
on carrying a 3-pound gross weight ration. While it is ordinar- 
ily possible to supply the full garrison ration to troops in mobil- 
ization and concentration camps, nevertheless, in the absence of 
orders to the contrary, these commanders have the same author- 
ity as commanders of the field force in the theater of operations 
with reference to prescribing the ration to be issued their com- 
mands. 

In the field the authorized allowances must often be reduced 
and supplemented by grazing and other kinds of food, such as 
green forage, beans, peas, rice, palay, wheat, and rye. The amount 
of each issued depends upon circumstances. Wheat and rye should 
be crushed, and fed sparingly (about one-fourth of the allowance). 
For unshelled corn, add about one quarter weight. 

The commander of the field forces in the theater of opera- 
tions may authorize in written orders the issue of increased allow- 
ances of forage for the animals of his command worn down by 
hard campaigning. Ordinarily this will be possible only during 
periods when the animals are within the immediate vicinity of the 
line of communications. 

On the march grain is the only forage carried, and recourse 
must be had to grazing, if it is not possible to procure long forage 
in the country traversed. The allowance of transportation of the 
forage ration with a division is based on carrying a 12-pound 
ration of grain for each horse and a 9-pound ration of grain for 
each mule. 

Disposition of Rations. — Organizations of all arms of a divi- 
sion carry on the man or animal and in field trains the same num- 



THE ARMY RATION 867 

ber of days' rations. The same rule applies to grain carried on 
animals and vehicles. They are all distributed between men and 
vehicles of the ration section of the field train in the same manner 
and, therefore, must be replenished from the supply train or column 
at the same time. 

In campaign a command carries as a part of its normal 
equipment the following rations and forage: 

(a) On each man: At least two days' reserve ration. Civil 
employees, etc., accompanying the combatant forces are also re- 
quired to carry with them the same reserve as enlisted men. For 
each draft animal: On each vehicle, a reserve of 1 day's grain ra- 
tion for its draft animals. 

Reserve rations are consumed only in case of extreme neces- 
sity, when no other supplies are available. They are not to be con- 
sumed or renewed without an express order from the officer in 
command of the troops who is responsible for the provision of 
supplies, namely, the division commander or other independent de- 
tachment commander. Every officer within the limits of his com- 
mand is held responsible for the enforcement of this regulation. 
Reserve rations consumed must be replaced at the first opportunity. 

In addition to the foregoing, commanders require each man 
on the march to carry the unconsumed portion of the day's ra- 
tion issued the night before, for the noonday meal. In the same 
manner, cavalry and field artillery carry on their horses a portion 
of their grain ration issued the night before, for a noonday feed. 

(b) In the ration section of the field train: For each man two 
days' field, one day's reserve, and for each animal two days' grain 
rations. Organizations equipped with rolling kitchens carry one 
day's field ration in the rolling kitchen, a corresponding reduc- 
tion being made in the number of other vehicles attached to the 
ration section. The one day's reserve ration is intended to provide 
for replacing immediately any reserve ration carried by the man 
which may be consumed. The two remaining days' field rations 
are more varied in character. 

(c) In Supply Train: Of an infantry division two days' 
field and grain rations. Of a cavalry division one day's field and 
grain rations. Independent cavalry, when in front or on the flanks 
of an army, have to depend to a great extent on the resources of 
the country. The rapid operations of cavalry often necessitate 
complete separation from slow moving field and supply trains dur- 
ing extended periods. Autotrucks are employed, whenever pos- 
sible, in the supply of independent cavalry. 

Operations of the Supply Service. — Ordinarily rations and 
grain are issued to troops during the afternoon from the ration 
section of the field train sent forward for the purpose. These sup- 
plies provide the evening meal, the following day's breakfast, and 



868 MILITARY TRAINING 

the lunch to be carried on the man, and in addition, grain for the 
evening's feed, the following morning's feed, as well as the noon- 
day feed to be carried in the nosebag. 

In the presence of the enemy the same method is used with 
organizations equipped with rolling kitchens, the endeavor being 
to furnish two hot meals, evening and morning, and a cold lunch 
to be carried on the man. When not in the presence of the enemy 
and on the march, the rolling kitchen usually marches with the 
combat train and a hot lunch is supplied. 

Empty vehicles of the ration section are conducted to the 
designated distributing point at the hour specified (usually during 
the morning), refill, and rejoin the grouped field trains. 

Rolling kitchens are refilled whenever empty, usually in the 
early morning, by the other vehicles of their ration section. 

The supplies carried in the supply train may be held as a re- 
serve or, on the other hand, the supply train may be so operated 
as to form the connecting link between the refilling point and the 
distributing point. When operating as a connecting link, the sup- 
ply train of a division is ordinarily divided into sections, each 
carrying one day's supply. 

The service of supply is directed and controlled in orders 
and instructions issued by the division commander. These orders 
fix the distributing point or points to which the empty vehicles of 
the ration sections of the field trains are to be sent for resupply. 
The commander of trains is advised by division headquarters of 
the location of the refilling point to which the empty vehicles of 
the supply train can be sent for replenishment. The commander 
of trains then directs the movement forward of the necessary num- 
ber of loaded vehicles of the supply train to the distributing points, 
and makes arrangements for their prompt return and for reloading 
all empty vehicles of the supply train at refilling points. 

When supply columns are operated by the line of communi- 
cations the division commander advises the assistant chief of staff 
of the advance section as to most convenient rendezvous point and 
has the supply column met at this point by a representative of the 
commander of trains and conducted to the distributing points. 

The positions of the distributing points are subject to fre- 
quent changes and are ordinarily communicated to the division 
daily in orders. It is not necessary to inform the whole division 
as to the positions of refilling and rendezvous points, but informa- 
tion as to the points fixed must be communicated to the comman- 
der of trains. 

The division quartermaster keeps the chief of staff informed 
at all times of the state of the ration and forage supply of the di- 
vision, the condition of the quartermaster equipment and suggests 
the means for their replenishment. He controls the operation of 



THE ARMY RATION 



869 



detachments sent out for the purpose of purchasing or otherwise 
collecting supplies. Such supplies, transport, or animals, as may 
be procured are turned over to organizations or to the supply train. 
He daily formulates and presents to the chief of staff all orders 
relating to the resupply of the ration vehicles and advises as to 
the most suitable places for refilling, rendezvous, and distributing 
points. 

The quartermaster in charge of the supply train is the sub- 
ordinate of the commander of trains and operates his train as di- 
rected by the latter authority. He is responsible for the efficient 
operation of the supply train and commands its personnel. 

Fresh Beef. — Whenever possible, troops should be supplied 
with fresh beef. This supply may be effected either by driving 
herds of cattle with the supply train or preferably by sending up 
special transportation from the line of communications with frozen 
beef to the distributing points. In the first case the cattle are or- 
dinarily slaughtered by the supply train personnel at appropriate 
times and turned over to the field trains at the distributing point. 
In the second case the movement of the frozen meat to the desig- 
nated distributing points is effected by the supply column of the 
line of communications. 

A study of the following drawing, which illustrates the 
retail method of cutting beef and shows the comparative weights 




of the various cuts, will enable the quartermaster or inspector to 
know what cuts are being delivered and to see that the meat 
received is according to specifications as to quality, etc. The 
inspector should demand that the delivery be " from fore and hind 
quarter meat proportionally, including all the best cuts thereof." 
Both dark-red lean meat and yellow fat indicate age, while 
light-red lean meat and white fat indicate youth. The marrow 
in the bones of a young animal is soft and red, and that of an old 



J 



870 MILITARY TRAINING 

animal is hard and light in color. Soft, white, and wide cartilage 
indicates a young animal, while hard, dark, and thin cartilage indi- 
cates an old animal. Looking along the backbone, the character 
of the cartilage between the vertebrae can be easily determined. 
This cartilage generally becomes hard at the age of 6 or 7 years. 
The cartilage of the breastbone becomes hard in an old animal. 
'At each post at which a veterinarian is stationed and which 
is supplied with fresh beef by local dealers from cattle slaughtered 
in the vicinity, the commanding officer, whenever in his opinion it 
is practicable to do so, causes the veterinarian to inspect the cattle 
before they are slaughtered and the beef when delivered at the 
post, with a view to determining whether the contract require- 
ments have been met, and to report in writing to the command- 
ing officer the result of such inspection. 

All quartermasters and organization commanders are en- 
joined to give the question of beef inspection their most serious 
consideration, with a view to preventing fraud on the part of con- 
tractors, and for the betterment of the company messes. Unless 
the officers responsible for the inspection of beef are familiar 
with the specifications for fresh beef, determination of sex, age, 
and quality, fraud is sure to ensue, to the manifest detriment of 
the organization and corresponding advantage to the contractor. 

Fresh or Field Bread. — Fresh or field bread is issued troops 
as often as possible. The bread is baked by bakery companies 
attached to the line of communications. Fresh bread is issued 
to troops in the immediate vicinity of the field bakeries. Field 
bread is issued and transported by supply and field trains in the 
same manner as other components of the ration. 

Sales Stores. — Sales stores are not supplied in advance of 
the line of communications. When troops have gone into perma- 
nent camp or cantonment, the advance end of the line of com- 
munications will usually be established at that point and stores 
sold. It may be possible at certain times for the line of communi- 
cation to send forward to the combatant troops transportation 
loaded with this class of stores. 



CHAPTER XXX 

ORDERS, LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION AND 
OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE 

The expression of the will of leaders is conveyed by written 
or verbal orders or in letters of instruction, and the art of giving 
proper orders and instructions to troops is one of the most im- 
portant features in the exercise of command. At the beginning 
of operations and from time to time thereafter the plans of the 
superior leaders are communicated in the form of letters of in- 
struction. These regulate movements over large areas and for 
considerable periods of time. 

Field Orders. — Field orders regulate the tactical and such 
strategical actions of troops as are not carried in letters of in- 
struction. The field orders of field army and division commanders 
are almost invariably written. When conditions demand the issu- 
ance of verbal orders, written orders follow. The field orders of 
brigade commanders are usually written. The field orders of 
regimental and smaller unit commanders are usually verbal. The 
object of field orders is to bring about a course of action, in ac- 
cordance with the intention of the leader, suited to the situation 
and with full cooperation between all arms and service. They are 
issued for marches, halts, formation of camps or bivouacs, advance, 
flank and rear guards, outposts, combat, etc. In active operations, 
especially during engagements, numerous field orders are issued 
in fragmentary form — either verbally or in the form of notes, brief 
dispatches, messages, orders for assembly, etc. — which do not con- 
tain all the requirements of a formal written field order; but when- 
ever detailed instructions for operations are given, whether ver- 
bally or in writing, the sequence prescribed for the body of a for- 
mal field order is preserved. Administrative details are usually 
covered in " orders," but when circumstances make it more con- 
venient they may be included in field orders. 

To give subordinate leaders an opportunity to study the 
situation, field orders should reach them in ample time. As a 
rule, however, it is desirable to keep contemplated movements 
secret as long as possible, and to confine knowledge thereof to 






872 MILITARY TRAINING 

chiefs of staff departments and leaders of the larger units. In 
large commands it requires some time for formal orders to reach 
all the lower units; this may be roughly estimated at one hour for 
a brigade and one hour and a half for a division. The hour stated 
in the heading of an order is the hour of signature. Orders not 
connected with the tactical or strategical action of troops, but 
necessary in the ordinary administration of military affairs, are 
called general orders, orders, and special orders, according to 
circumstances. 

General Orders. — General orders include, generally, (1) all 
detailed instructions necessary in carrying out certain general 
regulations or orders issued from a superior headquarters; (2) all 
standing instructions, to the end that frequent repetition may be 
avoided; and (3) proceedings of general and special courts martial. 
General orders are issued by commanders of armies, field armies, 
divisions, brigades, regiments and separate battalions. 

Orders. — Orders, in contradistinction to field, general, and 
special orders, are used by commanders of divisions and seperate 
brigades for regulating the movements and resupply of the field 
trains, fixing the position of distributing points (rations and for- 
age), authorizing the use of reserve rations, providing for the re- 
filling of combat trains after combat or march, providing for 
ambulance and hospital service in camps, and for furnishing such 
other similar information or instructions as it is desired to com- 
municate to troops. They also include such instructions as may 
be sent to the commander of trains, relative to the movements 
and disposition of the trains and information with regard to the 
arrangements made with the line of communication relative to the 
positions of refilling, rendezvous, and evacuation points. When 
necessary, orders are used by commanders of battalions forming 
parts of regiments, and smaller units and detachments, for the 
same class of instructions as are promulgated by higher com- 
manders in general orders. 

Special Orders. — These cover only such matters relating to 
the movements or assignment of individuals as are not necessary 
to be communicated generally to the command. 

Verbal Orders. — When not communicated by the leader in 
person, verbal orders are carried by staff officers or messengers. 
Important verbal orders are recorded as soon as practicable after 
issue. As there is always a possibility of controversy as to their 
wording, verbal orders are sent by messengers in case of necessity 
only, and when so sent rarely contain more than one definite man- 
date. For example: " The brigade will halt three hours at ." 

More latitude is allowed in sending verbal orders by officers. The 
bearer of a verbal order or message is required to repeat it before 
starting. 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 873 

COMPOSITION OF FORMAL FIELD ORDERS 

To frame a suitable field order, the leader must make an 
estimate of the situation, culminating in a decision upon a definite 
plan of action. He must then actually draft or word the orders 
which will carry his decision into effect. 

An estimate of the situation involves a careful consideration, 
from the commander's viewpoint, of all the circumstances affecting 
the particular problem. In making this estimate he considers his 
mission as set forth in the orders or instructions under which he 
is acting, or as deduced by him from his knowledge of the situation, 
all available information of the enemy (strength, position, move- 
ments, probable intentions, etc.), conditions affecting his own com- 
mand (strength, position, supporting troops., etc.), and the terrain 
in so far as it affects the particular military situation. He then 
compares the various plans of action open to him and decides upon 
the one that will best enable him to accomplish his mission. 

Clear and decisive orders are the logical result of definite 
and sure decisions and are the means of transforming the decision 
into action. In framing field orders the integrity of tactical units 
is preserved whenever practicable. Expressions depending upon 
the viewpoint of the observer, such as right, left, in front of, be- 
hind, on this side, beyond, etc., are avoided, reference being made 
to points of the compass instead. The terms right and left, how- 
ever, may be applied to individuals or bodies of men, or to the 
banks of a stream; in the latter case the observer is supposed to 
be facing downstream. The terms right flank and left flank are 
fixed designations. They apply primarily to the right and left of a 
command when facing the army and do not change when the com- 
mand is retreating. The head of a column is its leading element, 
no matter in what direction the column is facing; the other ex- 
tremity is the tail. 

To minimize the possibility of error, geographical names are 
written or printed in ROMAN CAPITALS; when the spelling 
does not conform to the pronunciation, the latter is shown pho- 
netically in parentheses, thus: Bicester (Bister), Gila (Hee-la). 
When two or more places or features on the map have the same 
name they are distinguished by reference to other points; a road is 
designated by connecting two or more names of places on the 
road with dashes, thus: Leavenworth — Lowemont — Atchison road. 
As a rule, an affirmative form of expression is used. Such an order 
as: "The supply train will not accompany the division," is defec- 
tive, because the gist of the order depends upon the single word 
" not." 

Field orders are brief; short sentences are easily understood; 
conjectures, expectations, reasons for measures adopted, and de- 



874 MILITARY TRAINING 

tailed instructions for a variety of possible events, do not inspire 
confidence, and should be avoided. In framing field orders such 
expressions as "attempt to capture," " try to hold," " as far as 
possible," "as well as you can," etc., are forbidden. They tend to 
divide responsibility between the commander and his subordinates. 
An order should not trespass upon the province of a subordinate. 
It should contain everything beyond the independent authority of 
the subordinate, but nothing more. 

When the transmission of orders involves a considerable 
period of time, during which the situation may change, detailed 
instructions are avoided. The same rule holds when orders may 
have to be carried out under unforseen circumstances. In such 
cases letters of guidance are preferable; they lay stress upon the 
object to be attained, and leave open the means to be employed. 
Orders attempting to arrange matters too far in advance may have 
to be recalled and others substituted; such changes impose need- 
less hardships upon a command and injure its morale. 

Details of time and place are carefully stated. Subordinate 
commanders and staff officers regulate their watches by the time 
kept at headquarters. Orders issued by subordinates should not 
be mere repetitions of those from higher authority with additions 
of their own. New orders are generally clearer and more satis- 
factory. 

FORM OF FIELD ORDERS 

To enable the will of the commander to be quickly under- 
stood, to secure prompt co-operation among his subordinates, and 
for ready reference, field orders are required to follow a general 
form. This form divides an order into sections or parts and assigns 
to each a particular class of information. The parts are the head- 
ing, the distribution of troops, the body, and the ending. The 
following field orders for outposts and rear guards will serve as 
examples: 

Field Orders [Title] 

No.— [Place] 

[References to map used] [Date and hour] 

Troops 1. [Information of enemy and of 

our supporting troops] 

2. [Plan of commander — to estab- 
lish outpost, approximate line of re- 
sistance] 
(a) Advance Cavalry: 3. (a) [Instructions for the advance 

[Commander] cavalry — contact with enemy, roads 

[Troops] or country to be specially watched, 

special mission] 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 



875 



(b) Supports: 

No. 1. [Commander] 
[Troops] 

No. 2. [Commander] 
[Troops] 

No. 3. [Commander] 
[Troops] 

(c) Detached Post: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(d) Reserve: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 
[How and to whom issued] 



(b) [Instructions for supports — po- 
sitions they are to occupy, and sec- 
tions of line of resistance which they 
are to hold, intrenching, etc.] 

(c) [Instructions for detached post 
— position to be occupied, duties, 
amount of resistance] 

(d) [Instructions for reserve — loca- 
tion, observation of flanks, conduct 
in case of attack, duties of special 
troops] 

4. [Instruction for field train if nec- 
essary] 

5. [Place of commander or where 
messages may be sent, location of 
lines of information] 

[Authentication] 



It is sometimes necessary to issue two outpost orders; the 
first as above, containing general instructions; the second, issued 
after an inspection of the line, and containing more definite in- 
structions or involving changes. 



Field Orders 
No.— 
[Reference to map u 
Troops 



(a) Reserve — in order 

march: 

[Troops] 

(b) Support: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 

(c) Rear Cavalry: 

[Commander] 
[Troops] 



(For Rear Guards) 

[Title] 
[Place] 
sed] [Date and hour] 

1. [Information of enemy and of 
our supporting troops] 

2. [Plan of commander — mission of 
rear guard] 

of 3. (a) [Instructions for reserve — 
place and time of departure, or ap- 
proximate distance from main body, 
reconnaissance] 

(b) [Instructions for the support — 
place and time of departure or dis- 
tance from reserve, any special recon- 
naissance] 

(c) [Instructions for rear cavalry — 
place and time of departure, road or 
country to be covered, special mis- 
sion] 



876 MILITARY TRAINING 

(d). Right (left) Flank (d) [Instructions for flank guard- 
Guard: place and time of departure, route, 
[Commander] special mission] 

[Troops] 4. [Instructions for field train when 

necessary — usually to join train of 
main body] 
5. [Place of commander or where messages may be sent — loca- 
tion of lines of information] 

[How and to whom issued] [Authentication] 

The Heading. — The heading contains the title or name of 
the issuing officer's command, the place, date, and hour of issue, 
the number of the order and reference to map used. The title 
with the place, date, and number thus fully identifies an order. 
Whether named in the title or elsewhere in the order, the abbre- 
viated form for the designation of tactical organizations is 
preferable. 

Nearly every command of any size is composed of troops 
from the different arms or special services, or both, and when not 
constituting a divison, brigade, or other authorized Unit, the ques- 
tion arises whether to call such a command a " detachment " or 
to give it the tactical designation of the predominating arm or 
special service. If there is a predominating element the title of 
the command is that of the predominating element, unless the 
proportion of auxiliary troops or special troops equals or exceeds 
that prescribed for a division, in which case the command is a 
detachment. 

The Distribution of Troops. — The distribution of troops 
shows the tactical components into which a command is divided 
(advance guard, main body, etc.) and the troops assigned to each. 
It is generally used in march orders and in the first field order 
applying to a command newly created or organized. In other 
cases it is usually more convenient to name the troops in the body 
of the order, where their duties are prescribed. When a "distribu- 
tion " is used it is headed " Troops," and in written or printed 
orders is placed on the left of the body, occupying about one- 
third of the page. The tactical components are marked with let- 
tered subheads (a), (b), etc., the troops listed under each perform- 
ing the task prescribed in the similarly marked paragraph of the 
body of the order. 

The Body. — The body contains information and instructions 
for the command, and is arranged in numbered paragraphs as 
follows: 

Paragraph 1 contains such information of the enemy and of 
our supporting troops as it is desirable or proper that subordinates 
should know. 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 877 

Paragraph 2 contains the general plan of the commander, or 
so much thereof as will insure co-operation of all parts of the 
command. 

Paragraph 3 contains all the detailed tactical dispositions 
adopted by the commander to carry out the plan outlined in para- 
graph 2, including the tasks assigned to each of the several com- 
batant fractions of the command. These tasks are given under 
lettered subheads (a), (b), etc., the leading fraction, or the one 
having the most important duty to perform, being generally con- 
sidered first. For instance: In. an attack order it is customary 
to consider the artillery first; in a march order, troops are con- 
sidered according to their position in the column. 

Paragraph 4 contains instructions for the trains and may 
designate the position of ammunition distributing stations, dress- 
ing stations, and stations for slightly wounded. 

The last paragraph, usually paragraph 5, shows where the 
commander can be found or messages may be sent. In orders of 
subordinate commanders, this paragraph also gives the location of 
" lines of information," if any have been established. This para- 
graph is most important. 

If additional paragraphs are necessary, they are incor- 
porated, properly numbered, after paragraph 4. Sometimes it is 
unnecessary to include instructions for the trains; but whatever 
the number of paragraphs the last always shows where the com- 
mander can be found, etc. 

No abbreviations are used in the body of the order except 
a. m. and p. m. for morning and afternoon, the authorized ab- 
breviations for tactical organizations, and those customary in 
designating rank. In naming a night both days should be men- 
tioned, thus: Night 4/5 Feb. 08. 

The Ending. — The ending contains the authentication of the 
order and a statement of how it is communicated to the command. 
This statement is an important feature of a field order and is made 
by the officer signing the order, he being responsible that it is 
properly distributed. 

Before orders are issued they are carefully tested to see that 
the entire command is accounted for. 



MARCH TABLE 

In movements of large forces on several roads, it is some- 
times desirable to prescribe the daily marches of the various 
columns for two or more days. In such cases the order may often 
be simplified by appending or incorporating a march table usually 
in the following form, each column providing its own security. 



878 



< Army, from- 



MILITARY TRAINING 



March Table 
[date], to 



[date]. 



[Reference to map used.] 



Date. 



-Division. 



Location of main 
body or of ad- 
vance guard at 
the end of each 
day's march, and 
line of march, if 
necessary. 



-Division. 



Location of main 
body or of ad- 
vance guard at 
the end of each 
day's march, and 
line of march, if 
necessary. 



Army 
Headquarters. 



Location at end of 
each day's march. 



OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE 



The following forms and methods of writing letters and in- 
dorsements are prescribed and used in all official correspondence 
in the service of the War Department and the Army and with 
bureaus of executive departments: 

Heading, Subject, and Number of Letter. — The letter will 
begin with the place and date; below this, beginning at the left j 
margin, will come the word " From," followed by the official 
designation of the writer or, in the absence of any official desig- 
nation, the name of the writer with his rank and regiment, corps, 
or department; below this, also beginning at the left margin, will 
come the word " To," followed by the official designation or name 
of the person addressed. Next will come the subject of the com- 
munication, indicated as briefly as possible and in not to exceed 
10 words. The words " From," " To," and " Subject " will begin 
on the same vertical line. The sending office number of the com- 
munication will appear in the upper left-hand corner. 



Example 



176. 



Headquarters Eastern Division, 
Governors Island, N. Y., May 25, 1911. 
From: The Adjutant General. 
To: Captain John A. Smith, 1st Inf. 

(Through C. O. Madison Barracks, N. Y.) 
Subject: Delay in submitting reports. 

The division commander directs that you submit without 
further delay the reports of your recent inspection of the Or- 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 879 

ganized Militia of the State of New York, and that you submit 
an explanation of your failure to comply with Par. 6, S. O. 25, c. S., 
these headquarters. T ™ HENRY 

In case of letter paper, the upper third, and in the case of 
foolscap, the upper fourth of the sheet, will be devoted solely to 
the matter described in this paragraph. 

Body. — : Then will come the body of the letter, which, when 
typewritten, will be written single, spaced, with a, double space 
between paragraphs, which will be numbered consecutively. 

Signature. — The body of the letter will be followed by the 
signature. If the rank and the regiment, corps, or department of 
the writer appear at the beginning of the letter they will not ap- 
pear after his name; but if they do not appear at the beginning 
of the letter they will follow under his name as at present. 

Examples 

200. Company A, 24th Infantry. 

Madison Barracks, N. Y., Jan. 3, 1911. 
From: Commanding Officer, Co. A, 24th Inf. 
To: The Commanding Officer. 
Subject: Private Smith's case. 

The case of Private Smith has been investigated and charges 
have been preferred under the 62 Article of War. 

ROBERT JONES, 
1st Lt, 24th Inf. 

190. Madison Barracks, N. Y., 

Jan. 10, 1911. 
From: Capt. John A. Smith, 24th Inf. 
To: The Adjutant General, U. S. A. 
Subject: Leave of absence. 

I have this day taken advantage of the leave granted me by 
Par. 1, S. O. 1, Headquarters D. E., 1911. My address will be c/o 
Army and Navy Club, 107 West 43d Street, New York. 

JOHN A. SMITH. 

Omission of Ceremonial Forms. — All ceremonial forms at 
the beginning and end of letters, such as " Sir," " I have the 
honor," " I would respectfully," " Very respectfully," etc., will be 
omitted. 

Use of Only One Side of Sheet. — Only one side of the paper 
will be used, the writing beginning about 1 inch from the top. 
56 



880 MILITARY TRAINING 

Office Marks. — The stamps bearing office numbers will be 
placed on the back of the lower fold of the first sheet. The re- 
ceived and received-back stamps will be placed immediately below 
the body of the letter, and, in the case of indorsements, imme- 
diately after the proper indorsement. When a communication of 
two or more sheets is filed, the back of the lower fold of the first 
sheet will be on the outside, thus exposing to view the office 
numbers. 

Folding. — Letter paper will be folded in three and foolscap 
in four equal folds, parallel with the writing; the top fold will be 
folded toward the back of the letter and the lower fold over the 
face of the letter. In three-fold letters both the brief and the 
office mark will be on the outside. In three-fold letters of more 
than one sheet the two lower folds of the sheets other than the 
first will be placed between the first and second folds of the first 
sheet, thus exposing to view both the brief and the office mark. 
In four-fold letters, whether of one or more sheets, the brief will 
be exposed to view by covering the office-mark fold or the office^, 
mark be exposed to view by covering the brief, according as it is 
desired to keep either the one or the other exposed to view for 
the purpose in hand. 

Inclosures. — All inclosures will be numbered and will bej 
given the proper office marks. Inclosures to the original communi 
cation will be noted on the face of the letter to the left of the 
signature. If others are added when an indorsement is made, their) 
number will be noted at the foot of the indorsement to which 
they pertain and also on the back of the lower fold of the first 
sheet of the original communication. To the latter notation will 
be added the number of the indorsement to which they belong 
thus: "One inclosure — fifth indorsement." Inclosures to indorse-h, 
ments are numbered in the same series as those to the original i 
paper and the number of the indorsement to which they belong is £ 
added below. If few in number and not bulky, inclosures may be 
kept inside the original paper; otherwise they will be folded to- 
gether in a wrapper marked " Inclosures." Officers through whose 
hands official papers pass will make the inclosures secure when 
they are not so. The entry of serial numbers on inclosures and 
of notations on papers to show the presence of inclosures to ar 
original communication or to show inclosures added to or with- 
drawn from a case when indorsements are written, as illustrated ^ 
by the Correspondence Model distributed by the Adjutant General 
of the the Army, will be made in the office in which the inclosures eti 
concerned originate or are added or withdrawn. The total num 
ber of inclosures accompanying a paper will be noted at the foot oi^ 

each indorsement thereon. 

rill 



n, 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 881 

INDORSEMENTS 

The writing width of indorsements will be the same as that 
of letters. The first indorsement will begin about one-half inch 
below the rank after the signature of the writer of the letter, and 
succeeding indorsements will follow one another serially, with a 
space of about one-half inch between indorsements. 

When typewritten, all indorsements will be written single- 
spaced with a double space between paragraphs. The paragraphs 
will be numbered consecutively. Should one or more additional 
sheets be necessary for indorsements, sheets of the same size as 
the letter will be usel. 

In referring, transmitting, forwarding, and returning papers, 
the expressions "Respectfully referred," "Respectfully trans- 
mitted," " Respectfully forwarded," and " Respectfully returned," 
will be omitted. 

Indorsements of a routine nature, referring, transmitting, 
forwarding, and returning papers, will not be signed with the full 
lame, but with the initials. For example: 

1st Ind. 
headquarters 24 Inf., Madison Bks., N. Y., Jan. 1, 1911— To C. O., 

Co. C, 24 Inf. 
i To note and return. M. A. R. 

2d Ind. 
: :o. C, 24 Inf., Madison Bks., N. Y., Jan. 2, 1911— To the Com- 
manding Officer. 

Returned. Contents noted. I. K. S. 

Nothing in this order shall be construed as prohibiting the 
Practice that obtains at department and other headquarters of 
referring, transmitting, forwarding, and returning papers to the 
i-arious staff officers thereat without signature or initials. 



LETTERS AND INDORSEMENTS 



The pages, beginning with the first, will be numbered mid- 
day about one-half inch from the bottom. In referring to an 
idorsement by number, the number of the page will also be 
•iven. Thus: "5th Ind., page 3." 

All letters and indorsements that are typewritten excepting 
otters of transmittal, reports of taking leave of absence, periodical 
eports, and other communications of a similar nature, will be 
»iade with two carbon copies. One copy will be retained for the 
ecords of the office in which the letter was written, and the other 
rill be forwarded with the communication for the files of the first 



882 MILITARY TRAINING 

office in which a complete copy of the communication is required 
for the records. The carbon copy retained for the office record 
will be initialed by the person responsible for the letter, and such 
person is charged with the duty of seeing that the name of the 
official who signs the letter and any changes made before signa- 
ture are inserted in the carbon. When a complete copy of a com- 
munication is not required for the records of an intermediate 
office the carbon copy will be forwarded to the next office. In 
offices authorized to use the record card system the carbon copies 
will be made on sheets of perforated paper, furnished by the 
Quartermaster's Department, with perforated sections the same 
width as the standard record file cards. The sheets will be torn 
along the perforations and the sections attached to the record file 
cards. In other offices the carbon copies will be made on ordinary 
paper and the retained copy filed in the document file. The pro- 
visions of this paragraph apply only to communications addressed 
to individuals and offices within the military service. 

Press copies will not be used except by written authority of 
the Secretary of War. 

All classes of official communications other than that ad- 
dressed to the Adjutant General of the Army will be addressed to 
the commanding officer concerned. The following example may 
be used as a guide in carrying out the instructions relative to letters 
and indorsements: 

20. Fort Riley, Kans. 

October 27, 1910. 
From: The Ordnance Officer. 
To: The Commanding Officer, 7th Cav. 
Subject: New system of issuing ordnance stores. 

1. In compliance with instructions contained in a letter from 
the Adjutant General's Office, dated November 27, 1909, regarding 
the testing of a new system of issuing ordnance stores, the follow- 
ing report concerning the working of this system is submitted. 

2. As far as I have been able to observe, the new system has 
no disadvantages. Its advantages are: 

******* 

A B -, 

1st Lt., 7th Cav. 6 , 
1st Ind. 
Headquarters 7th Cav., Ft. Riley, Kans., Oct. 29, 1910— To the C 
O., Ft. Riley, Kans. 

I concur in the conclusions of the Ordnance Officer. 

C D , 

Major, 7th Cav., Comdg. 



ORDERS AND LETTERS OF INSTRUCTION 883 

2d Ind. 
Headquarters Ft. Riley, Kans., Nov. 1, 1910— To Comdg. Gen., 
Dept. of the Mo. 
Approved. 

E F , 

Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
(Stamp) To Chief Ordnance Officer. 

3d Ind. 
Headquarters Dept. of the Mo., Nov. 2, 1910— To the Adjt. Gen., 
U. S. A. 

Approved. 

G H , 

Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
j 4th Ind. 

\. G. O., Nov. 5, 1910— To the C. of O. 
] 

56949—204 5th Ind. Ghs— Bam 

pffice of the C. of O., Nov. 9, 1910— To Comdg. Officer, Seek 
Island Arsenal. 

For remark with reference to paragraph 2 of the within 
etter. By order of the Chief of Ordnance. 

I J , 

Capt., Ord. Dept. 

159—181 

6949—204 6th Ind. Hf— L 

lock Island Arsenal, 111., Nov. 14, 1910— To the Chief of Ordnance. 

1. It is the practice at this arsenal to make shipments of all 
rticles required on * * * * * 

2. The final shipment in this particular case was delayed by 
:ie failure of to supply acceptable * * * 

K L , 

Lt. Col., Ord. Dept., Comdg. 
(Stamp) Rec'd back, O. C. of O., Nov. 16, 1910. 

5949_204 7th Ind. JMy 

)ffice of the C. of O., Nov. 17, 1910— To The Adjt. Gen., U. S. A. 
Returned in connection with O. O. file 36949—198 (A. G. O. 
527570). 

M N , 

Lt. Col., Ord. Dept., 
(Stamp) Rec'd back, A. G. O., Nov. 18, 1910. Actg. C. of O. 



884 MILITARY TRAINING 

1527570 8th Ind. 

War Department, A. G. O., Nov. 18, 1910— To Comdg. Gen., Dept. 
of the Lakes; Comdg. Gen., Dept. of Dakota; Comdg. Gen., 
Dept. of the Mo.; etc. * * * 

Returned in connection with papers referred to in the pre- 
ceding indorsement hereon. The early return of all papers is 
desired. By order of the Secretary of War. 

O P , 

Adjutant General. 
9th Ind. 
Headquarters Dept. of the Lakes, Nov. 22, 1910 — To Comdg. Gen. 
Dept. of Dakota. 

Noted. R S , 

Brig. Gen., Comdg. 
10th Ind. 
(Stamped indorsement.) 

A. G. O. D. D. 

Nov. 25, 1910. 

To the Chief Ordnance Officer. 

Correspondence in Battalions or Squadrons. — Correspond- 
ence relating to the personnel, instruction, discipline, or equipment 
of a company, battery, or troop in battalion or squadron will pass 
through the battalion or squadron commander. No official record, 
however, will be kept by the battalion or squadron commander of 
such correspondence. 

Prompt Reply to Be Made to Official Communications. — 
Officers who fail to make prompt reply to official communications L 
without satisfactory excuse for the delay will be subjected to j s j 
disciplinary measures. 

When, in order to make proper reply, it is necessary to ex- 
amine papers not at hand or to consult with other persons at a 
distance, or when for other sufficient reason full and prompt reply 
is impossible, acknowledgment of the receipt of the communica- 
tion will be made at once with a statement giving the cause of the 
anticipated delay. 

The comanding officer of every Army post and station will 
take such steps as he may deem expedient to insure prompt replyjL 
by officers of his command to official communications sent them L 
which require reply. j th 

fo, 
fh 

Hi 

ar 
ta 



CHAPTER XXXI 

PERSONAL HYGIENE, FIRST AID AND MILITARY 
SURGICAL TREATMENT 

It is a terrible truth that a soldier who violates the rules 
of health may be the means of destroying more of his comrades 
than are killed by the bullets of the enemy. It is therefore most 
important that every soldier should learn how to take care of his 
health when in the field and that he should also insist that his 
comrades do not violate any of the rules prescribed for this pur- 
pose. A great many diseases are due to germs, which are either 
little animals or plants so very small that they can only be seen 
by aid of the microscope. All disease caused by germs are " catch- 
ing." All other diseases are not "catching." 

There are only five ways of catching disease: (a) Getting 
certain germs on the body by touching some one or something 
which has them on it. Thus, one may catch venereal diseases, 
smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, chicken pox, mumps, boils, body 
lice, ringworm, barber's itch, dhobie itch, and some other diseases. 
Wounds are infected in this manner, (b) Breathing in certain 
?erms which float in the air. In this way one may catch pneu- 
monia, consumption, influenza, diphtheria, whooping cough, ton- 
sillitis, spinal meningitis, measles and certain other diseases, (c) 
Taking certain germs in through the mouth in eating or drinking. 
Dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea, and intestinal worms 
f may be caught in this manner, (d) Having certain germs injected 
into the body by the bites of insects, such as mosquitoes, fleas, and 
bedbugs. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and bubonic plague 
"nay be caught in this way. (e) Inheriting the germ from one's 
parents. 

Persons may have these germs sometimes without ap- 
>arently being sick with any disease. Such person and persons 
who are sick with the diseases are a great source of danger to 
Dthers about them. Germs which multiply in such persons are 
found in their urine and excretions from the bowels; in discharges 
from ulcers and abscesses; in the spit or particles coughed or 
sneezed into the air; in the perspiration or scales from the skin; 
ind in the blood sucked up by biting insects. Those who have 
aken care of their health and who have not become weakened bv 



886 MILITARY TRAINING 

bad habits, exposure, and fatigue are not only less liable to catch 
disease, but are more apt to recover when taken sick. Knowing 
all these things, the soldier can understand the reasons for the 
following rules and how important it is that they should be carried! 
out by each and every person: 

Stay away from persons having "catching" diseases. If| 
you have any disease, don't try to cure it yourself, but go to the 
surgeon. Insist that other soldiers do likewise. 

Typhoid fever is one of the most dangerous and common 
camp diseases. Modern medicine has, however, discovered an 
effective preventive for this disease in the typhoid prophylactic, 
which renders the person immune from typhoid fever. The treat- j 
ment consists in injecting into the arm a preventive serum. The 
injection is given three times at 10-day intervals. All enlisted men \ 
should take this prophylactic, which will be administered by the r 
medical officer free of charge. |il 

Association with lewd women is dangerous. It may result [ 
in disabling you for life. It is the cause of a disease (syphilis)h 
which may be transmitted by a parent to his children. Soldiers j 
with venereal diseases should not use basins or toilet articles usedj 
by others, as the germs of these diseases if gotten into the eye very r 
often causes blindness. Likewise, if they use the same drinking t 
cup used by others, they may give others the disease. They should i 
promptly report their trouble to the surgeon, that they may receive^ 
the best medical advice and attention. \\ 

Should a soldier expose himself to infection by having inter-j;i 
course with an unknown woman, he should report as soon as pos-i 
sible afterwards to the regimental infirmary for prophylactic treat-jij 
ment, which, if taken within a few hours after intercourse, willjiri 
prevent to a large degree the liability of contracting any disease.! 

Cooked germs are dead and therefore harmless. Watery 
even when clear, may be alive with deadly germs. Therefore, whenjii 
the conditions are such that the commanding officer orders all 
drinking water to be boiled, be careful to live up to this order, ft 

Use the latrines and don't, go elsewhere to relieve yourself.]]? 
In open latrines cover your deposit with dirt, as it breeds flies andju 
may also be full of germs. Flies carry germs from one place tojai 
another. Therefore see that your food and mess kit are protected jj 
from them. All slops and scraps of food scattered about camp) . 
soon produce bad odors and draw flies. Therefore do your partjig 
toward keeping the camp free from disease by carefully depositing^ 
such refuse in the pits or cans used for this purpose. 

Urinate only in the latrines, or in the cans set out for thrsj 
purpose, never on the ground around camp, because it not onlyuc 
causes bad smells, but urine sometimes contains the germs of 0] 
" catching " diseases. 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 887 

Soapy water thrown on the ground soon produces bad odors. 
Therefore in camps of several days' duration this water should be 
thrown in covered pits or in cans used for this purpose. 

As certain mosquitoes can transmit malaria and yellow fever, 
use your mosquito bar for this reason, as well as for personal com- 
fort. 

Keep the mouth clean by brushing the teeth once or twice a 
day. It helps to prevent the teeth from decaying. Decayed teeth 
':ause toothache. They also lead one to swallow food without 
'properly chewing it, and this leads to stomach troubles of various 
kinds. Foods left around and between the teeth is bad for teeth 
and forms good breeding places for germs. 

Keep the skin clean. Through the pores of the skin the 
fjody gets rid of much waste and poisonous matter. Therefore 
remove this and keep the pores open by bathing once every day, 
f possible. If water is scarce, rub the body over with a wet towel. 
Kf no water is at hand, take a dry rub. Wash, carefully, the arm 
)its, between the legs, and underneath the foreskin, as this will 
>revent chafing. 

The skin protects the sensitive parts underneath from any 

injury and helps to keep out germs. Therefore when blisters are 

formed don't tear off the skin. Insert a needle under the skin a 

tittle distance back from the blister and push it through to the 

pposite side. Press cut the liquid through the holes thus formed. 

leat the needle red hot first, with a match or candle, to kill the 

erms. 

When the skin is broken (in cuts and wounds) keep the 
pening covered with a bandage to keep out germs and dirt; other- 
wise the sore may fester. Pus is always caused by germs. 

Keep the hair short. Long hair and a long beard in the field 
enerally means a dirty head and a dirty face and favors skin 
diseases, lice, and dandruff. 

Don't let any part of the body become chilled, as this very 

ften is the direct cause of diarrhea, dysentery, pneumonia, rheu- 

atism, and other diseases. Wet clothes may be worn while 

arching or exercising without bad results, but there is great 

Hnger if one rests in wet clothing, as the body may become ' 

lilled. Don't sit or lie or sleep directly on damp ground, as this 

o sure to chill the body. When hot or perspiring or when wear- 

!g damp clothes, don't remain where a breeze can strike you. You 

S e sure to become chilled. 

Every day, if possible, hang the blanket and clothing out to 

?r in the sun; shake or beat them with a small stick. Wash shirts. 

tderwear, and socks frequently. The danger of blood poisoning 

lorn a wound is greately increased if the bullet passes through 

rty clothes. 



888 MILITARY TRAINING 

Ditch the tent as soon as you can, particularly a shelter tent, 
even if you camp for one night only. Otherwise a little rain may 
ruin a whole night's rest. Always prepare the bed before dark. 
Level off the ground and scrape out a little hollow for the hips. 
Get some straw or dry grass, if possible. Green grass or branches 
from trees are better than nothing. Sleep on your poncho. Thi9 
keeps the dampness from coming up from the ground and chilling 
the body. 

The use of intoxicating liquor is particularly dangerous in 
the field. Its excessive use, even at long intervals, breaks down 
one's system. Drinking men are more apt to get sick and less 
liable to get well than are their more sober comrades. If alcohol 
is taken at all, it is best after the work of the day is over. It 
should never be taken when the body is exposed to severe cold, as 
it diminishes the resistance of the body. Hot tea or coffee is much 
preferable under the circumstances. 

THE CARE OF THE FEET 

All soldiers should be familiar with the proper methods of 
caring for the feet. The Germans treat sore feet as a military 
offense, as it is generally due to carelessness, neglect, or ignorance 
on the part of the soldier. 

The most important factor in the care of the feet and the 
marching ability of the soldier is the shoe. Civilian shoes, par- 
ticularly light, patent leather, or low shoes, are sure to cause in- 
jury and in time will ruin a man's foot. Only the marching shoe 
issued by the Quartermaster Corps should be worn, and they must 
be properly fitted to the individual. It will not suffice to order a 
marching shoe of the same size as one's ordinary civilian shoes, for 
it must be remembered that a soldier may have to march many 
miles daily over rough roads and carrying a heavy pack. The pack 
itself causes the foot to spread out to a larger size, and the rough 
roads give so much exercise to the muscles of the feet that they 
swell greatly through the increased blood supply. 

Do not start out on a march wearing new shoes. This is 
a frequent cause of sore feet. New shoes should be properly 
broken in before beginning a march by wearing them for several 
hours daily for a week before the march, and they should be 
adapted to the contours of the feet by stretching them with shoe 
stretchers with adjustable knobs to take the pressure off painful 
corns and bunions. Such stretchers are issued by the Quarter- 
master Corps, and there should be one or more pair in every com- 
p^tiv of infantry. Should this be impracticable, then the following 
is suggested: The soldier stands in his new shoes in about 2^'° 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 889 

inches of water for about five minutes until the leather is thor- 
oughly pliable and moist; he should then walk for about an hour 
on a level surface, letting the shoes dry on his feet, to the irregu- 
larities of which the leather is thus moulded in the same way as 
it was previously moulded over the shoe last. On taking the shoes 
off a very little neat's-foot oil should be rubbed into the leather to 
prevent its hardening and cracking. If it is desired to waterproof 
shoes at any time, a considerable amount of neat's-foot oil should 
be rubbed into the leather. Waterproof leather causes the feet of 
some men to perspire unduly and keeps them constantly soft. 

Light woolen or heavy woolen socks are habitually worn for 
marching. Cotton socks are not worn unless specifically ordered 
by the surgeon. The socks should be large enough to permit free 
movement of the toes, but not so loose as to permit of wrinkling. 
Darned socks, or socks with holes in them, should not be worn 
in marching. Until the feet have hardened they should be dusted 
with foot powder, which can be obtained at the regimental in- 
firmary, before each day's march. Clean socks should be worn 
daily. 

As soon as possible after reaching camp after a day of 

[marching the feet should be washed with soap and water, and the 

N soldier should put on a dry pair of socks and his extra pair of shoes 

■ from his surplus kit. If the skin is tender, or the feet perspire, 

wash with warm salt water or alum water, but do not soak the feet 

a long time, as this, although very comforting at the time, tends 

to keep them soft. Should blisters appear on the feet, prick and 

evacuate them by pricking at the lower edge with a pin which has 

been passed through the flame of a match and cover them with 

zinc oxide plaster applied hot. If serious abrasions appear on the 

feet, or corns, bunions, and ingrowing nails cause trouble, have 

your name placed on sick report and apply to the surgeon for 

treatment. Cut the toe nails square (fairly close in the middle, but 

leaving the sides somewhat longer), as this prevents ingrowing 

[ nails. 

FIRST AID RULES 

The bandages and dressings contained in the first-aid packet 
have been so treated as to destroy any germs thereon. Therefore, 
,'when dressing a wound, be careful not to touch or handle that part 
I of the dressing which is to be applied to the wound. 

A sick or injured person should always be made to lie down 
on his back, if practicable, as this is the most comfortable posi- 
tion, and all muscles may be relaxed. 

All tight articles of clothing and equipment should be 
loosened, so as not to interfere with breathing or the circulation 



890 MILITARY TRAINING 

of the blood. Belts, collars, and the trousers at the waist should 
be opened. 

Don't let mere onlookers crowd about the patient. They 
prevent him from getting fresh air and also make him nervous and 
excited. 

In case of injury the heart action is generally weak from 
shock, and the body, therefore, grows somewhat cold. Do not 
remove any more clothing than is necessary to expose the injury. 
Cut or rip the clothing, but don't pull it. Try to disturb the patient 
as little as possible. 

Do not touch a wound with your fingers or a handkerchief, 
or with anything else but the first aid dressing. Do not wash the 
wound with water, as you may infect it. 

Do not administer stimulants (whisky, brandy, wine, etc.) 
unless ordered to do so by a doctor. While in a few cases stimu- 
lants are of benefit, in a great many cases they do positive harm, 
especially where there has been any bleeding. 

The heart may be considered as a pump and the arteries as 
a rubber hose, which carry the blood from the heart to every part 
of the body. The veins are the hose which carry the blood back 
to the heart. Every wound bleeds some, but, unless a large artery 
or a large vein is cut, the bleeding will stop after a short while if 
the patient is kept quiet and the first-aid dressing is bound over 
the wound so as to make pressure on it. 

When a large artery is cut the blood gushes out in spurts 
every time the heart beats. In this case it is necessary to stop the 
flow of blood by pressing upon the hose somewhere between the 
heart and the leak. 

Pressure may be applied by means of a tourniquet. Place a 
pad of tightly rolled cloth or paper, or any suitable object, over the 
artery. Tie a bandage loosely about the limb and then insert the 
bayonet, or a stick, and twist up the bandage until the pressure of 
the pad on the artery stops the leak. Twist the bandage slowly 
and stop as soon as the blood ceases to flow, in order not to bruise 
the flesh or muscles unnecessarily. 

A tourniquet may cause pain and swelling of the limb, and 
if left on too long may cause the limb to die. Therefore, about 
every hour or so, loosen the bandage very carefully, but if the 
bleeding continues pressure must be applied again. In this case 
apply the pressure with the thumb for five or ten minutes, as this 
cuts off only the main artery and leaves some of the smaller 
arteries and the veins free to restore some of the circulation. 
When a tourniquet is painful, it is too tight and should be care- 
fully loosened a little. 

A broken bone is called a fracture. The great danger in the 
case of a fracture is that the sharp, jagged edges of the bones may a 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 891 

stick through the flesh and skin, or tear and bruise the arteries, 
veins, and muscles. If the skin is not broken, a fracture is not so 
serious, as no germs can get in. Therefore never move a person 
with a broken bone until the fracture has been so fixed that the 
broken ends of the bone can not move. 

If the leg or arm is broken, straighten the limb gently, and, 
if necessary, pull upon the end firmly to get the bones in place. 
Then bind the limb firmly to a splint to hold it in place. A splint 
may be made of any straight, stiff material — a shingle or piece of 
board, a bayonet, a rifle, a straight branch of a tree, etc. What- 
ever material you use must be well padded on the side next to the 
limb. Be careful never to place the bandages over the fracture, 
but always above and below. 

Many surgeons think that the method of binding a broken 
leg to the well one, and of binding the arm to the body, is the best 
plan in the field, as being the quickest and one that serves the 
immediate purpose. 

With wounds about the body, the chest and abdomen you 
must not meddle, except to protect them, when possible without 
much handling, with the materials of the packet. 

FAINTING, SHOCK AND HEAT EXHAUSTION 

The symptoms of fainting, shock and heat exhaustion are 
very similar. The face is pale, the skin cool and moist, the pulse 
is weak, and generally the patient is unconscious. Keep the patient 
quiet, resting on his back, with his head low, Loosen the clothing, 
but keep the patient warm, and give stimulants (whisky, hot coffee, 
tea, etc.). 

SUNSTROKE 

In the case of sunstroke the face is flushed, the skin is dry 
and very hot, and the pulse is full and strong. In this case place 
the patient in a cool spot, remove the clothing, and make every 
effort to lessen the heat in the body by cold applications to the 
head and surface generally. Do not, under any circumstances, 
give any stimulants or hot drinks. 

FREEZING AND FROSTBITE 

The part frozen, which looks white or bluish white, and is 
cold, should be very slowly raised in temperature by brisk but 
careful rubbing in a cool place and never near a fire. Stimulant9 
are to be given cautiously when the patient can swallow, and fol- 



892 MILITARY TRAINING 

lowed by small amounts of warm liquid nourishment. The object 
is to restore the circulation of the blood and the natural warmth 
gradually and not violently. Care and patience are necessary to 
do this. 

RESUSCITATION OF THE APPARENTLY DROWNED 

In the instruction of the Army in First Aid the method 
of resuscitation of the apparently drowned, as described by 
" Schaefer," is taught instead of the " Sylvester Method," formerly 
used. The Schaefer method of artificial respiration is also applic- 
able in cases of electric shock, asphyxiation by gas, and of the 
failure of respiration following concussion of the brain. 

Being under water for four or five minutes is generally fatal, 
but an effort to revive the apparently drowned should alway be 
made, unless it is known that the body has been under water for a 
very long time. The attempt to revive the patient should not be 
delayed for the purpose of removing his clothes or placing him in 




ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. FIRST MOVEMENT. 

the ambulance. Begin the procedure as soon as he is out of the 
water, on the shore or in the boat. The first and most important 
thing is to start artificial respiration without delay. 

The Schaefer method is preferred because it can be carried 
out by one person without assistance, and because its procedure 
is not exhausting to the operator, thus permitting him, if required, 
to continue it for one or two hours. When it is known that a per- 
son has been under water for but a few minutes continue the 
artificial respiration for at least one and a half to two hours before 
considering the case hopeless. Once the patient has begun to 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 893 

breathe watch carefully to see that he does not stop again. Should 
the breathing be very faint, or should he stop breathing, assist him 
again with artificial respiration. After he starts breathing do not 
lift him nor permit him to stand until the breathing has become 
full and regular. 

As soon as the patient is removed from the water, turn him 
face to the ground, clasp your hands under his waist, and raise the 
body so any water may drain out of the air passages while the head 
remains low. 

SCHAEFER METHOD 

The patient is laid on his stomach, arms extended from hi9 
body beyond his head, face turned to one side so that the mouth 
and nose do not touch the ground. This position causes the tongua 
to fall forward of its own weight and so prevents its falling back 




ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. SECOND MOVEMENT. 

into the air passages. Turning the head to one side prevents the 
face coming into contact with mud or water during the operation. 
The position also facilitates the removal from the mouth of foreign 
bodies, such as tobacco, chewing gun, false teeth, etc., and favors 
the expulsion of mucus, blood, vomitus, serum, or any liquid that 
may be in the air passages. 

The operator kneels, straddles one or both of the patient's 
thighs, and faces his head. Locating the lowest rib, the operator, 
with his thumbs nearly parallel to his fingers, places his hands so 
that the little finger curls over the twelfth rib. If the hands are 
on the pelvic bones the object of the work is defeated; hence the 
bones of the pelvis are first located in order to avoid them. The 
hands must be free from the pelvis and resting on the lowest rib. 
By operating on the bare back it is easier to locate the lower ribs 
and avoid the pelvis. The nearer the ends of the ribs the hands 



894 MILITARY TRAINING 

are placed without sliding off the better. The hands are thus re- 
moved from the spine, the fingers being nearly out of sight. 

The fingers help some, but the chief pressure is exerted by 
the heels (thenar and hpothenar eminences) of the hands, with the 
weight coming straight from the shoulders. It is a waste of energy 
to bend the arms at the elbows and shove in from the sides, be- 
cause the muscles of the back are stronger than the muscles of 
the arms. 

The operator's arms are held straight, and his weight is 
brought from the shoulders by bringing his body and shoulders 
forward. This weight is gradually increased until at the end of 
the three seconds of vertical pressure upon the lower ribs of the 
patient the force is felt to be heavy enough to compress the parts; 
then the weight is suddenly removed. If there is danger of not 
returning the hands to the right position again, they can remain 
lightly in »place; but it is usually better to remove the hands en- 
tirely. If the operator is light and the patient an overweight adult, 
he can utilize over 80 per cent of his weight by raising his knees 
from the ground and supporting himself entirely on his toes and 
the heels of his hands, the latter properly placed on the ends of 
the floating ribs of the patient. In this manner he can work as 
effectively as a heavy man. 

A light feather or a piece of absorbent cotton drawn out thin 
and held near the nose by some one will indicate by its movements 
whether or not there is a current of air going and coming with each 
forced expiration and spontaneous inspiration. 

The natural rate of breathing is 12 to 15 times per minute. 
The rate of operation should not exceed this. The lungs must 
be thoroughly emptied by three seconds of pressure, then refilling 
takes care of itself. Pressure and release of pressure — one complete 
respiration — occupies about five seconds. If the operator is alone, 
he can be guided in each act by his own deep, regular respiration 
or by counting or by his watch lying by his side. If comrades are 
present, he can be advised by them. 

The duration of the efforts as artificial respiration should 
ordinarily exceed an hour; indefinitely longer if there are any evi- 
dences of returning animation, by way of breathing, speaking, or 
movements. There are liable to be evidences of life within 25 
minutes in patients who will recover from electric shock, but where 
there is doubt the patient should be given the benefit of the doubt. 
In drowning, recoveries are on record after two hours or more of 
unconsciousness; hence, the Schaefer method, being easy of opera- 
tion, is more likely to be persisted in. 

Aromatic spirit of ammonia may be poured on a handker- 
chief and held continuously within 3 inches of the face and nose. 
If other ammonia preparations are used, they should be diluted or 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 895 

held farther away. When the operator is a heavy man, it is neces- 
sary to caution him not to bring force too violently upon the ribs r 
as one of them might be broken. Do not attempt to give liquids 
of any kind to the patient while unconscious. Apply warm blankets*- 
and hot-water bottles as soon as they can be obtained. 

THE FIRST AID PACKET 

When a ball enters or goes through the muscles or soft 
parts of the body alone, generally nothing need be done except to 
protect the wound or wounds with the contents of the first aid 
packet. Each packet contains: 

(1) Two bandages of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
4 by 84 inches. 

(2) Two compresses of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
each composed of y 2 square yard of gauze, folded so as to make a 
compress 3 J / 2 by 7 inches. One compress to be placed lengthwise 
in the center of each bandage and retained in position by sewing 
along one end and across the center. The loose end of the com- 
press is then folded on the sewed part and held by one or two 
stitches, thus making a compress 2> l / 2 by 3 J / 2 inches. Each bandage 
thus prepared to be rolled loosely from each end, with the roll 
toward the back of the bandage, until the compress is reached. 
The latter is now folded through the center and the flattened rolls 
of the bandage laid on either side of the folded compress. Each 
bandage then to be wrapped separately in parchment or waxed 
paper. 

(3) Two No. 3 safety pins wrapped in waxed paper. Two 
compressers and the safety pins are then wrapped together in 
tough paper on which simple directions for application are printed. 
The packet thus prepared to be placed in a hermetically sealed 
metal case with a suitable arrangement for easy opening. All con- 
tents of the case must be sterile. Dimensions of the case should 
not execeed 4 by 2 l /i by 16 inches. 

The shell-wound dressing consists of: (1) One compress 
composed of 1 square yard of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) gauze, 
so folded as to make a pad 6 by 9 inches. Across the back of 
each end of this compress is placed a piece of gauze bandage 3 
inches wide by 48 inches long projecting beyond the compress 21 
inches on each side. These bandages are held in position by stitch- 
ing along the edges of the compress; the tails are loosely rolled 
and placed on the back of the compress. The compress thus made 
is wrapped in parchment or waxed paper. (2) One bandage, 3 
inches wide by 5 yards long, of absorbent sublimated (1:1000) 
gauze, loosely rolled and wrapped in parchment or waxed paper. 



896 MILITARY TRAINING 

(3) Two No. 3 safety pins wrapped in waxed paper. The whole 
dressing is wrapped in tough paper with directions for application 
printed thereon. The short bandages sewed to the compress axe 
for the purpose of temporarily fixing the compress on the wound, 
after which it is firmly bound on by the roller bandage. 

To apply the first aid packet carefully remove the wrapper 
and proceed as follows: 1. If there is only one wound, carefully 
remove the paper from one of the two packages without unfolding 
compress or bandage and hold by grasping the outside rolls of 
bandage between the thumb and fingers. When ready to dress 
wound, open compress by pulling on the two rolls, being careful 
not to touch the inside of the compress with fingers or anything 
else. Still holding one roll of the bandage in each hand, apply the 
compress to the wound, then wrap the bandage around the limb or 
part and tie the ends together or fasten with safety pins. The 
second compress and bandage may be applied over the first, or it 
may be used for a sling if the arm is wounded or to bind both 
legs together if one is injured. 

2. If there are two wounds opposite each other, apply to one 
wound a compress with unrolled bandage, and hold it in place by 
the bandage of the compress used to cover the other wound. 

3. If there are two wounds not opposite each other tie a 
compress over each. 

4. If the wound is too large to be covered by the compress 
find and break the stitch holding the compress together, unfold it, 
and apply as directed above. 

5. Be careful not to touch the wound with your fingers nor 
handle it in any way, for the dirt on your hands is harmful, and 
you must disturb a wound as little as possible. Never wash the 
-wound except under the orders of a medical officer. 

Generally this is all that is necessay for the first treatment, 
and sometimes it is all that is needed for several days. The im- 
portance of the care with which this first dressing is made can not 
be too seriously insisted upon. It is better to leave a wound un- 
dressed than to dress it •carelessly or ignorantly, so that the dress- 
ing must soon be removed. 

REGIMENTAL MEDICAL SERVICE 

Very urgent treatment is given at the first aid station imme- 
diately behind the first-line trenches. The personnel here is as- 
signed by the medical officer in command. The evacuation and 
transport of the wounded to the regimental dressing stations is 
made by the regimental stretcher bearers, the musicians co- 
operating. The dressing station is established behind the reserves 
of the regiment, in a dry, sheltered place. 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 897 

Duties. — Dressings, simple treatment, and starting the hos- 
pital record. Those wounded who are able to fight are dressed 
and sent back to their units. Those able to walk are formed in 
detachments and directed to an assembling place under the com- 
mand of a wounded officer or non-commissioned officer. Those 
unable to walk are evacuated to ambulances either by the divisional 
litter bearer group or the corps litter bearer group, or by automo- 
bile sanitary sections (ambulance corps). No wounded should go 
to the rear without passing through the dressing station, the posi- 
tion of which should be well known. Special measures are taken 
if the number of wounded is much increased. The number of 
stretcher bearers is increased sufficiently to allow systematic ex- 
ploration of the terrain, and the prisoners utilized under the direc- 
tion of regimental stretcher bearers. Extend the reinforced 
divisional •stretcher bearers of the territorials and prisoners right 
up to the battalion first aid stations. 

MILITARY SURGERY 

War surgery differs materially from that which is seen in 
civil practice. The wounds in warfare are much more severe, and 
owing to the difficulties of transportation and the delays in col- 
lecting the wounded from the battle field, complications usually 
set in before surgical aid can be given. The subsequent effects ot 
early surgical procedure can rarely be gauged by the surgeon and 
it is a distinct disadvantage that in war surgery there can be little 
continuity of treatment. In modern warfare, the opposing armies 
being sheltered in trenches and there being relatively little hand- 
to-hand fighting, the wounds are principally those caused by pro- 
jectiles, either in the form of bullets, shells or grenades. As an 
evolution of trench warfare various methods of inflicting wounds 
and injuring the attacking forces have been devised; and bayonet 
wounds, while still comparatively uncommon, are frequently the 
result of encounters between scouting parties and in trench raids. 

Projectiles may be classified as from hand weapons, from 
artillery and from grenades, bombs and mines: 

Projectiles from Hand Weapons. — Under this heading are 
included rifles, revolvers and machine guns. Most of the bullets 
are uniform in construction and consist essentially of* a central 
core of hardened lead surrounded by a casing of nickel, cupro- 
nickel, steel, copper or German silver. Frequently the jacket com- 
pletely surrounds the lead core, while in many bullets the base of 
the lead is not covered. The French bullet D and others are made 
entirely of copper composition. The shape of the majority of the 
bullets now used in cylindro-ogival rather than cylindro-conical, 



898 MILITARY TRAINING 

the former possessing a greater initial velocity and offering less 
wind resistance and, consequently, having a greater range. The 
bullet S of the German Mauser is a cylindro-ogival projectile of 
hardened lead in a soft steel envelope covered with German silver; 
the cylindrical part is about one-fourth of the total length, the 
ogival part (f£ inch) being very pointed. This bullet, with a caliber 
of .28 inch, and a length of 1.10 inches, weighs 154 grains. The 
Austrian Mannlicher bullet consists of a core of hard lead com- 
pressed into an envelope, with an outer casing of steel; it weighs 
244 grains, is 1% inches long, and has a diameter of .31 inch. It is 
of cylindro-conical truncated form, rounded and not pointed. The 
Turkish bullet is essentially the same as the German bullet S. The 
French bullet D consists of solid copper composition with casing, 
is bi-ogival, very sharp in front and truncated at the base. Its 
caliber is .31 inch, length 1.53 inches, and weight 197 grains. The 
Russian bullet is ogival-shaped, with a blunt end, having a casing 
of German silver over a core of hard lead. The caliber is .30 inch, 
length 1.2 inches, weight 211 grains. The Belgian bullet is 
ogival with a blunt end, the central core being of hard lead covered 
with German silver. Its caliber is .30 inch, length 1.18 inches, and 
weight 213 grains. The English bullet is of cylindro-ogival shape 
with a central core of hard lead covered with German silver casing. 
Its caliber is .30 inch, length 1.2 inches, and weight 215 grains. The 
United States Army bullet has a pointed rather than an ogival head. 
It is 1.095 inches in length, .3085 inch in diameter, weighs 150 
grains, and is composed of a lead core surrounded by a jacket of 
cupro-nickel. The velocity of translation is 2,700 feet at the muzzle, 
and the velocity of rotation is 3,270 turns per second as it leaves 
the rifle. When firing standing, the point-blank range is 2,155.8 
feet. Some ballistical knowledge is requisite in order to understand 
the effects which bullets have on the tissues. When a bullet leaves 
the rifle, three motions (translation, rotation and oscillation) are 
imparted to it. The remaining velocity (the speed of the bullet at 
various distances) decreases with the distance, owing to the weight 
of the bullet and to the resistance of the air. The remaining speed 
is in inverse ratio to the square of the diameter of the bullet and 
in direct proportion to its length and weight. The power of bul- 
lets to inflict damage is the resultant between two forces — the 
weight of the projectile and its velocity. The penetrative force of 
a bullet depends upon its power at the time of impact, and also 
upon the amount of resistance which it meets. For bullets of the 
same speed, the resistance opposed by tissue to penetration is in 
inverse ratio to the square of the diameter. When a bullet enters 
the tissues it may either enter in the same shape as when it left 
the rifle, or, owing to a ricochet, it may become deformed before 
striking. Wounds caused by ricochet and deformed bullets are 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 899 

more serious than those made by bullets striking direct. The 
destructive effect of the bullet may be increased by filing off the 
point, by cutting grooves across the tip, or by reversing the bullet 
in the casing. This gives rise to the " mushrooming " effect when 
the bullet meets with resistance, and is extremely multilating. 

Projectiles from Artillery. — These projectiles consist of high 
explosive shells, and shrapnel. High explosive shells are cylinders 
of iron and steel with conical heads. They have thick walls, and 
the hollow cores are filled with explosive charges which are ex- 
ploded by means of time fuses. The casings are ruptured and 
fragmented, and each individual fragment as well as the fuse be- 
comes in itself a projectile capable of inflicting serious and lace- 
rated wounds. Stones, bricks, timbers, etc., from buildings, 
trenches, dug-outs, etc., set in motion by the force of the explo- 
sion from shell fire, form secondary projectiles which also cause 
wounds of great severity. Shrapnel consist of cylinders of steel 
containing a varying number of round lead bullets about half an 
inch in diameter. The bursting charges are in the bases, and are 
exploded by means of time fuses in the heads. Shrapnel have 
approximately an initial velocity of 1,700 feet per second. At the 
time of bursting, the lead balls are driven out in the form of a 
cone at an additional velocity of 300 feet per second. In addition 
to the high explosive shells and shrapnel, other shells containing 
poisonous gases have been devised. These shells are projected by 
artillery, and on bursting liberate the contained gases. They are 
used to precede attacks on trenches, or may be sent behind the 
lines into billets and rest camps. These gas shells are classed as 
tear shells and poison-gas shells. The gas contained in the tear 
shells has an irritating effect on the eyes and causes a temporary 
blindness associated with excessive lacrymation. The poison-gas 
shells are extremely dangerous as regards life, some of them caus- 
ing instantaneous death when the fumes are inhaled. 

Projectiles from Grenades, Bombs and Mines. — Grenades 
were formerly used by soldiers, known as grenadiers, who were 
trained in the art of throwing them. Their use was discontinued 
during the seventeenth century and was not revived until the Boer 
war, when dynamite bombs were employed. The modern grenade 
became extensively used during the Russo-Japanese war. Grenades 
are all essentially the same, differing only in the manner of their 
projection, and are classified as hand grenades and rifle grenades. 
Several standard types of hand grenades are in common use, and 
various kinds are extemporized from the material at hand, such 
as jam jars, etc., which are filled with a conglomerate mass of metal 
and a bursting charge. The oyster grenade, egg bomb and Mills 
bomb are well known forms of bombs and grenades. Rifle grenades 
are essentially small high-explosive shells, differing only from the 



900 MILITARY TRAINING 

other forms in that they have a long rod extending from the head 
of the grenade and fitting the barrel of the rifle. These grenades 
are projected by means of a small charge of powder in the rifle. 
Bombs are much larger than grenades, and are used either in the 
form of high explosive or incendiary bombs which are dropped 
from aeroplanes and which are used for the bombardment of 
towns, supply depots, ammunition dumps and railroad stations. 
Various types are also used in the trenches and are fired from 
trench mortars or catapults. Mines may be either marine or ter- 
restial. The latter consist of charges of high explosive buried in 
the ground and exploded by means of an electric spark, the earth 
and rocks thrown up by the explosion forming the projectiles. 
The nature of gunshot wounds depends upon the projectile 
causing the injury, the tissues traversed by the missile, whether 
soft tissues alone or soft tissues and bone are involved, the shape, 
size and velocity of the missile, the manner in which it strikes, and 
the amount of resistance which it encounters. Bullets fired from 
a proximal range, and striking point on, cause only a small punc- 
ture in the skin; in passing through the integument they separate 
the tissues without causing a marked degree of trauma, and it is 
in such wounds as these that are found the most advantageous 
conditions for healing without evidence of infection. Such bullets 
carry in with them very little foreign matter, and cause the so- 
called aseptic or clean bullet wounds. Bullets which become disin- 
tegrated either just before striking the tissues, or while passing 
through, besides causing a great amount of injury, also carry into 
the wound a large quantity of foreign matter, such as contami- 
nated earth and clothing. Fragments of bone detached by a bullet 
act as supplementary projectiles, as they are propelled outward and 
tend to"intensify the action. The wounds from shrapnel bullets are 
generally penetrative and seldom perforating, but the amount of 
damage inflicted on the tissues is relatively small unless blood- 
vessels, viscera or bone be involved. With high explosive shells, 
owing to its fragmentation of the shell-case and to the size and 
shape of the individual pieces, the severity of the wound or wounds 
depends altogether upon the size of the projectile inflicting the 
injury. Wounds from shell fragments may be simple or multiple 
depending upon the proximity of the bursting shell. Owing to the 
irregular nature of the larger fragments, there is much tearing 
away of tissues, together with some extravasation of blood, and 
often large masses of extraneous matter are carried into the wound 
where they produce pus-forming organisms. Wounds from 
grenades present generally the same appearance as do wounds 
from smaller shell fragments and have varying degrees or severity 
depending upon the proximity at which the grenades exploded 
and the force with which the projectiles were driven into the 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 901 

tissues. Projectiles from grenades lose their velocity very rapidly, 
and it is only at close quarters that they inflict much damage. In 
wounds of this type large areas of tissue are infected and filled with 
fragments of the container and also of the contents. 

In military surgery wounds are classified as perforating or 
seton, non-perforating or penetrating, lacerated and contused, and 
gutter wounds. Perforating wounds may be caused by bullets, 
shrapnel, and shell or grenade fragments. If the bullet becomes 
slightly deflected before striking the wound of entrance varies 
considerably in size and shape, and the edge becomes very ragged 
and more inverted, while the amount of contusion to the surround- 
ing tissues is greater. The wound of exit in this case also presents 
an entirely different appearance, being a large, ragged lacerated 
wound in which may be seen the torn ends of muscles, tendons, and 
fascia, there being a large loss of cutaneous and subcutaneous 
tissues. Non-perforating or penetrating wounds of the soft parts 
may be caused by bullets fired at long range or by bullets which 
have had their velocities reduced by contact with some obstruction 
which has deformed or disintegrated them. They are also caused 
by shrapnel bullets and by the smaller shell and grenade fragments. 
The nature of the wound depends upon the type of projectile caus- 
ing it. A typical non-perforating or penetrating wound consists 
essentially of an aperture of varying size in the skin, extending 
down through the aponeurotic fascia and muscles and forming a 
cul-de-sac at the bottom of which is the projectile which has caused 
the injury. Lacerated and contused wounds are usually caused by 
bullets which have deviated from their true axis, and by shell and 
grenade fragments. The edges of the wound are torn and lacerated, 
as are also the deeper structures such as the fascia and muscles. 
Gutter wounds, classified as superficial and deep, are usually 
caused by shell fragments or shrapnel bullets, but may be caused 
by rifle bullets striking the tissues superficially, becoming deflected 
and ploughing deep furrows or evading through the tissues. 

Bleeding from bullet and shell wounds is generally not severe 
in cases which are able to be sent to the rear. If a main vessel be 
injured, the resulting hemorrhage is usually fatal before it can be 
controlled. Hemorrhages are classified as primary and secondary. 
Primary hemorrhage is that occurring in freshly traumatised tissues 
and where vessels of various sizes may be severed. It may be 
severe and fatal or moderate and easily controlled. As to second- 
ary hemorrhage, in all suppurating wounds, especially in deep 
wounds which are liable to form pockets, it must be remembered 
that at any time during the process of healing there may be a 
severe hemorrhage due to the sloughing of the walls of blood- 
vessels which may have been traumatised by the original missile 
causing the wound. 



902 MILITARY TRAINING 

The question of drainage is most important, its object being 
to prevent the accumulation of pus and necrotic tissues. If these 
cannot rapidly escape and are permitted to accumulate, the process 
becomes more extensive owing to the tissues being burrowed into 
and eaten away by the tryptic ferments which are present in con- 
junction with the pyogenic organisms. 

At the front wounds are treated antiseptically, applying pro- 
tective dressings and giving a phrophylactic injection of anti- 
tetanic serum. With large wounds the patients are etherised, 
necrotic and devitalised tissues removed and the wound swabbed 
with carbolic, iodine or picric acid, easily accessible foreign bodies 
being removed and blood-vessels ligated in case of hemorrhage. 
At the casualty clearing stations more extensive treatment is re- 
sorted to consisting in the excision and suturing of the wounds and 
the placing in position of Carrel's tubes, or treatment by means of 
various antiseptics. More extensive operations are reserved for the 
base hospitals, where possible a bacteriological examination should 
be made of every infected case to determine the type of the organ- 
isms which are causing the infection and the course of treatment to 
be followed. Treatment of infected wounds resolves itself into 
the principles of efficient drainage, dressings, antiseptics, salines, 
baths, compresses, foments, etc. Wounds should be dressed daily 
and strict aseptic rules must be followed. Instruments only should 
be allowed to touch the wound and the dressings used. The skin 
adjoining the wound should be carefully cleansed and fresh strips 
of vaseline gauze applied. All necrotic detritus and wound secre- 
tions should be gently wiped away with cotton pledgets saturated 
in Dakin's solution. In extensive wounds of the legs or arms where 
there has been a disturbance of the circulation and a consequent 
devitalization of the parts, a rapid amputation should be done 
immediately, preferably by the circular method, and the wound 
left wide open and treated by the Carrel-Dakin method. 

Surgery and bacteriology have demonstrated that wound in- 
fection is due to the presence of pyogenic bacteria. Consequently 
if all such bacteria are kept from the wound, infection cannot result. 
This requires careful sterilization: metal instruments by boiling, 
fabrics by steaming, the hands of the surgeon by soap, water, and 
disinfectants, and by the use of rubber gloves, and the skin of the 
patient by application of tincture of iodine. All this requires ex- 
tensive apparatus, which it is difficult to provide in the vicinity of 
the battlefield. Consequently it is the task of war surgery to bring 
the patient as quickly as possible to a place where these things are 
assembled. The most advanced sanitary formation where serious 
operations can be undertaken is the field hospital. Further treat- 
ment is given in the base and other hospitals at home. In more 
advanced formations only the most urgent operations, such as the 



1 

PERSONAL HYGIENE 903 

stopping of hemorrhages and the opening of the windpipe in case 
of suffocation, can be undertaken. 

Often the victim, as a result of nerve-shock accompanying 
the wound, followed by severe blood loss, long exposure, and un- 
comfortable transportation, arrives at the hospital in a condition 
which renders even necessary operations impossible. Modern 
surgery attacks these conditions by saline injections, heart stimu- 
lants, and blood transfusion. The latter is particularly valuable, 
but depends on the availability of someone willing to furnish the 
blood. 

Although the sole cause of the wound infection is the pres- 
ence of bacteria, the latter does not always cause infection, if the 
body is strong and if the number of bacteria does not exceed a 
certain maximum of numbers or virulence. War surgery has taken 
advantage of this fact. Rifle and shrapnel bullets which strike the 
victim directly do not carry many bacteria, and unless a bone is 
struck the healing of the wound is not difficult. The only care of 
the surgeon is to prevent secondary infection. For this purpose 
tincture of iodine is applied to the vicinity of the wound, and the 
latter is bound with sterile material as the bandage carried on 
the person by the soldier. Splints or plaster of paris are also 
applied to insure rest. Recovery generally follows in one or two 
weeks. In the case of wounds produced by grenade or mine frag- 
ments or by bullets which ricochet, circumstances are different. 
The wounds are larger and more irregular, the tissues are macerated, 
generally bones are splintered, and, since the missiles have usually 
thrown up earth or come in contact with it, and much clothing has 
been driven into the wound, there are many bacteria introduced. 
If such wounds are bound up at once, inflammation results, which 
may result in necessity of amputation of a member or even death. 
This fact was not realized at the beginning of the European war, 
but was demonstrated in the first few months. Now the patient is 
anesthetized as soon as possible, the wound is opened up, rinsed, 
irrigated, dressed with disinfecting gauze, for example, iodoform 
gauze; drainage tubes are inserted to accommodate the flow of the 
wound secretions; bandages are changed daily. By this method 
" gas infection " is combatted. 

Joint wounds require special treatment, both because such 
localities favor the multiplication of bacteria and because of the 
danger of stiffening. The former condition is combatted by inci- 
sions and drainage, and if necessary by removal of the joint. The 
latter requires the closing of the wound, the practice of movements, 
and sometimes operative mobilizing of the joint. 

If a wound infection cannot be conquered, amputation of the 
member must follow. This is relatively seldom undertaken, and 
then as a last resort. After the amputation, steps are taken to pre- 



904 MILITARY TRAINING 

pare the stump to carry an artificial limb. The latter have been 
so well constructed that in many cases the patient is enabled to 
take up his calling unimpeded. Wooden legs have been so de- 
veloped as to enable even the patient who has lost his thigh to 
proceed without difficulty over plowed land. Artificial hands are 
now provided which can be manipulated voluntarily by the muscles 
in the stump. 

A much feared wound infection of earlier wars was tetanus. 
This infection may occur in small wounds, which show no inflam- 
mation, and which heal over before symptoms of tetanus appear. 
The disease manifests itself in muscular paralysis which ends in 
painful death. The infection has almost disappeared in the case 
of battle casualties, because the injection of antitetanus serums is 
now required in the case of every wounded patient. In the few 
cases in which tetanus appears, it can generally be cured. 

Bone fractures are common results of wounds. The surgeon 
has two tasks: to restore function and to restore anatomical form. 
There are two general methods: one by the use of splints and 
plaster of paris and the other by means of weights attached to 
the injured member. In the case of large wounds the former 
method is used, commencing with the setting of the bone under 
anesthesia. Unless infection is present, bandages are changed 
frequently to permit movement and massage to restore mobility. 
The second method is used where applicable, especially in case of a 
broken leg. The best success is obtained by attaching the weights 
by means of nails to the bone. In any case, orthopedic methods 
are employed after the bone has knit until the use of the injured 
member has been as fully as possible restored. If the bone has knit 
in a bad position, the defect can be later remedied by resetting, or 
by cutting into the bone in its sound part and applying the nail 
extension method. 

A result of the position war has been an increase in the num- 
ber of skull wounds. The greater number of these is instantly 
fatal. Nevertheless a number of cases, even where the brain has 
been pierced, reach the surgeon. The first danger is infection. 
Prompt operation to remove foreign bodies is therefore necessary. 
The operation also prevents protrusion of the brain. Even after 
healing there is danger of brain abscess, which requires a new 
operation. If the wound is in the vicinity of the brain centers 
which control the voluntary muscles, convulsions with loss of con- 
sciousness, like epilepsy, may later result. This is relieved by re- 
moval of the body which produces the pressure, and sometimes by 
transplanting tissues from other parts of the body. Holes in the 
skull are now covered with living bone. 

The great danger of breast wounds is excessive loss of blood; 
if the wound is large there is danger of suffocation. Prompt clos- 



PERSONAL HYGIENE 905 

ing of the wound is necessary. If the bleeding of the lung does 
not stop automatically, the surgeon uses the pressure difference 
method, bares the lung surfaces, and sews up the wound. The next 
danger is an inflammation of the pleura, necessitating removal of 
part or all of a rib to permit the matter to drain off. 

Abdominal wounds generally result in death unless treated 
within a few hours. The first danger is excessive loss of blood; the 
second is peritonitis due to the escape into the abdominal cavity of 
the contents of the intestines. Rapid and comfortable transporta- 
tion, well provided hospitals near the front, and skillful surgeons 
are necessary. The intestines must be sewed up, or removed in 
part. In case of a bladder wound the bladder must be sewed up; 
in case of a kidney wound, it may be necessary to remove a kidney. 

The damage caused by the cutting of the spinal cord cannot 
be remedied; if, however, a wound produces pressure on the cord, 
function can be restored by removal of the pressure. 

If an artery is cut, death from loss of blood often results. 
Sometimes, however, the blood clots. To prevent renewal of the 
bleeding, the artery must be sewed up. There is also danger of 
aneurism through swelling of the arterial wall or infiltration of 
blood in the surrounding tissue. An aneurism may cause pressure 
on the nerves, and may burst. It must therefore be removed. This 
operation is a very delicate one, as it may result in bleeding to 
death. If possible the artery is sewed up; if the gap is large, pieces 
of blood vessel are transplanted. 

In case of cutting of a nerve, function in the muscle affected 
is seldom automatically restored. The nerve must generally be 
sewed, and this does not always result in restoration of function, 
and then only after a long time. In some cases it is necessary to 
graft the separated ends onto a sound nerve. In some cases func- 
tion is disturbed because a scar causes pressure on. a nerve. The 
pressure is generally easily removed. 

If a bullet is imbedded in the body, it need.be- removed only 
if it presses on a nerve, lies against the wall of a large blood vessel, 
is imbedded in a joint, produces inflammation, or causes pain. Re- 
moval is aided by the Roentgen process, which may be applied 
throughout the operation. Magnetic substances may be extracted 
by strong electromagnets. 

In wars previous to the introduction of small caliber and 
high velocity projectiles, wounds of the larger joints were most 
serious. At the present time, owing to the lesser damaging power 
of the modern rifle bullet and with the full knowledge of asepsis, 
such wounds present a much smaller proportion of fatal results 
than'may be recorded with the old types of armament. The treat- 
ment of all gunshot injuries involving joints is of great importance, 
not only as regards the immediate effec\s upon the patient, but 



906 MILITARY, TRAINING 

also the ultimate functional result. In all joint injuries the after 
treatment is a most important factor, as it largely determines the 
amount of restoration of function. 

In modern warfare, with its many phases, numerous condi- 
tions attributable to a disturbance of the central nervous system are 
in daily evidence. Such manifestations, termed "traumatic neu- 
rosis," are apparently due to a cumulative effect from exposure to 
concussion from high explosive shells, and also from the strain and 
nervous excitement preceding and during the attack. The condi- 
tion manifests itself in numerous ways. Many cases have been 
reported where there is a marked paraplegia or a total loss of 
memory. 

REPORT OF SICK AND WOUNDED 

The report of sick and wounded comprises, (1) the report 
sheet, which provides for general information and numerical tabula- 
tions concerning the command and the civilians therewith; (2) the 
nominal check list for a chronological list of cases registered; (3) 
the report cards for details of the several cases. 

Subject to exceptions, this report is required monthly from 
every military post and separate command which is attended by a 
medical officer or civilian physician. It is rendered separately for 
regular and volunteer troops, that of regulars to embrace all data 
pertaining to civilians. It is forwarded before the fifth day of the 
next succeeding month as follows: From a general hospital or 
other independent post or command direct to the Surgeon General, 
unless otherwise ordered by him; from a transoceanic Army trans- 
port to the medical superintendent of the transport service at the 
transport's home port, for transmittal to the Surgeon General; and 
from any other organization or hospital to the department surgeon 
for like transmittal. 

(a) When a hospital is closed or a command is discontinued 
a report covering the unreported period of service, giving the 
beginning and the end thereof, is in like manner forwarded within 
five days thereafter. 

(b) If there has been no case on sick report, either remain- 
ing from last report or admitted during the month, the report sheet 
is nevertheless forwarded. It gives the name and strength of the 
command, etc., with such remarks as may be deemed of interest to 
the department surgeon or the Surgeon General. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE CONSTRUCTION, SOLUTION AND CRITIQUE 
OF A FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 

The troop leader acquires facility in the solution of fire 
problems by means of map problems, terrain exercises, prelimi- 
nary exercises without ball ammunition and problems with ball 
ammunition. The solution of fire problems under assumed battle 
conditions requires a trained military mind, a knowledge of minor 
tactics, and a proficiency in musketry. 

Estimate of the Situation. — An estimate of the situation 
involves a careful consideration, from the commander's viewpoint, 
of all the circumstances affecting the particular problem. In 
making this estimate he considers his mission as set forth in the 
orders or instructions under which he is acting, or as deduced by 
him from his knowledge of the situation, all available information 
of the enemy (strength, position, movements, probable intentions, 
etc.), conditions affecting his own command (strength, position, 
supporting troops, etc.), and the terrain in so far as it affects the 
particular military situation. He then compares the various plans 
of action open to him and decides upon the one that will best en- 
able him to accomplish his mission. 

The target and adjacent foreground should be given as 
thorough a study prior to opening fire as the time element and 
accomplishment of the mission will permit, and it should be kept 
under constant observation during the entire action. All available 
field glasses should constantly sweep the front for observation of 
fire effect and to observe the enemy's change of position so that 
the leader will be ready to meet the enemy's detachments with 
fire from whatever quarter of the foreground they may appear. 

Determination of Ranges. — Before a decision can be ren- 
dered as to the method of adjustment to be employed (sight set- 
ting to be ordered, or the use of battle or leaf sight, or the em- 
ployment of combined sights), consideration must be given to the 
method for obtaining the range or ranges, whether they be ob- 
tained by estimation by the eye, taken from a map, determined 
from an instrument or by ranging fire, or actually measured. 

Relative Importance of Targets. — The estimate in this con- 
nection embodies two factors — the selection of the enemy targets 



908 MILITARY TRAINING 

that should be fired upon and the determination of the size of the 
units that will be ordered to fire on the selected targets. 

Strength of Firing Line. — The number of rifles to be placed 
in the firing line must be sufficient to accomplish the mission. 
The determination of this strength must be the result of sound 
judgment exercised by the leader on the ground after a careful 
analysis of the mission and the means to be employed to accom- 
plish it. 

Location of Fire Positions. — The nature of the problem and 
the character of the terrain are the governing features in selecting 
fire positions. In defensive, outpost, or rear guard actions it is 
evident that great attention can be given not only to the selection 
of main and auxiliary fire positions, but to the consideration of 
advance positions for firing, and to the preparation of carefully 
chosen positions in rear of the main one. In the attack it may or 
may not be possible to select more than one firing position at the 
commencement of the fire fight. However, if it is practicable, it 
should be done. 

Classes of Firing. — The character of fire (collective or in- 
dividual) and one of the various classes must be selected. The 
object to be attained will determine the use of volleys, fire at will, 
or clip fire. The visibility factor of the target may require indirect 
fire by use of an auxiliary aiming point, the uncertainty of the 
correctness of the range may demand ranging fire (individual, col- 
lective, and selected shots), etc. 

Rate of Fire. — The rate of fire depends upon the purpose 
of the action, the character of the target, and the available ammu- 
nition. The rate is affected by many factors, as training, range, 
size and visibility of target, position of firer, degree of surround- 
ing excitement, etc. 

Time of Opening Fire. — The time of opening fire is a factor 
of prime importance and may or may not be left to the discretion 
of the troop leader with which the problem deals. In any case, 
fire should not be opened until the director's fire estimate has 
determined upon the target, sight setting, class and rate of fire, and 
under no circumstances until the troops are ready to fire. 

Formations in Advancing Under Fire. — The best is the one 
that will best aid in gaining fire superiority and defeating the 
enemy with the least loss of men, time, and control. 

Ammunition Supply. — This detail of the estimate for com- 
pany and troop officers is usually simply a consideration and an 
appreciation of the amount issued to the individual and how it 
can best be utilized in fulfilling the assigned mission. For field 
officers it embodies the question of maintaining the supply and 
that of issue to troops. 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 909 

THE FIRE ORDER 

The announcement of the sight setting may or may not co- 
incide with the range estimate. 

Designation of Targets. — It is necessary here to impress 
upon one that the degree of the target's visibility determines the 
extent of definition necessary. Having this in mind, it is seen 
that the two extremes will be when the target is so obvious that 
no description whatever is required, and when it is so indistinct 
that one may be taxed to use a reference point and a combination 
of the two clocks and finger systems. The goal to be reached is an 
Unmistakable designation expressed in the simplest and most direct 
manner in terms common to all. 

Directions as to Occupation of Fire Position. — These direc- 
tions may not be necessary at all, or they may be very simple and 
covered in the order with the statement that the unit will occupy 
" this position " with its right at " that point," or several positions 
may be designated for the various units to occupy in the opening 
fire fight against their particular assigned target. In addition to 
the position from which the fire fight is commenced, the order 
may announce a second fire position in the foreground that will 
be occupied in the advance. In defensive rear-guard- and outpost 
actions it is quite evident that directions may be given for the oc- 
cupation of several fire positions. There are times when these 
directions will be unnecessary, and there are occasions when such 
directions will be so clearly related to the firing that they will 
logically form part of the fire order. 

Rate of Fire. — The rate of fire may or may not be announced 
in the order. However, as the rate of fire is so directly related to 
the vulnerable area of the target as well as to the range, it may be 
better to announce the rate desired in order to insure that the 
proper volume of fire is attained within the required time. The 
rate is increased or decreased by the commands " Faster " and 
"Slower." 

Class of Fire. — The selection of the kind of fire should result 
from the estimate and be announced in the order as " Fire at will " 
or " Clip fire." 

Time of Opening Fire. — Ordinarily this would be con- 
fined to the estimate and no expression given to it in the order. 
However, so diversified are the factors in a fire order that some 
such time announcement as " Open fire when you are ready," 
etc., may be pertinent. 

Position of Leader During Firing. — The company com- 
mander or commander of a small firing line will ordinarily be oppo- 
site the center of the rear of the line he is directing or upon that 
flank which offers the best opportunity for control of the line, 



910 MILITARY TRAINING 

observation of the enemy targets, and the fire effect. His position 
must be such that control is direct or where his will is easily and 
promptly transmitted. He must be in a position to control the 
ammunition supply. His position must not be fixed, but it must 
be known to all of his subordinates. A leader, who has decided to 
take position on the flank of his deployed line, to observe better 
the fire fight, and who feels that his subordinates should be in- 
formed as to his location, as communication might thus better be 
facilitated, should include his post in the fire order. 

Until facility is obtained in the solution of fire problems, the 
controlling factors should be taken up in some such orderly man- 
ner as shown in the foregoing. It is almost certain that a decision 
reached after consideration of the factors noted will be of more 
value and more nearly correct than if based simply on mental 
impressions. 

There will be few occasions in which all of the factors 
enumerated above will have to be thought out in the estimate and 
announced in the fire orders. In fact, the simplicity of most prob- 
lems, particularly those conducted on "A" ranges will make it 
unnecessary to give any consideration to many of them. Again, 
it must be remembered that at the moment when the fire orders 
must be issued many of the factors embraced in the estimate will ! 
have been considered, some of them in an involuntary manner. 
On some occasions the fire order may be as simple as " Fire at 
will." 

THE UMPIRE 

In order to derive the maximum benefits from an exercise, 
either with or without ball ammunition, it should be followed by 
a critique delivered on the ground immediately after the conclu- 
sion of the exercise. 

It is evident that the umpire, who delivers the critique, must 
know all the conditions influencing the result and must be able not 
only to diagnose the case but to apply remedial suggestions when- 
ever necessary. 

The umpire has general charge of the exercise, sees that 
the data required on the form is properly kept, delivers the critique, 
and renders decisions whenever necessary. The umpire should 
be assisted by two or more junior officers in all exercises involving 
companies or larger organizations. These assistants should keep 
the record of the details of the leadership and conduct of troops, 
and one, accompanied by a competent signalist, should be charged 
with making the report on the conduct of the troops as observed 
from the enemy's viewpoint, use being made of a periscope when 
ball ammunition is used. An officer should be designated to note 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 911 

the statistics required in the " Umpire's record " and to record the 
time factor. 

The time element should be taken cognizance of when the 
situation is given out; when the first firing position is reached; 
when the fire commenced and ceased at each firing position; and 
when any important order is given or when any incident worthy 
of note occurs. 

In instructional firing occasions may arise when it might be 
well to stop the fire in order to call attention to poor control, 
poor discipline, or to give any other instruction, which is always 
more readily understood and best absorbed when given at the time 
of occurrence. , 

The instructor or umpire should impress upon all that the 
fire problems during the period of instruction are not to be con- 
sidered as tests, but that the problems are constructed and solved 
for instructional purposes only. 

On some occasions in the early stages of the training, and 
particularly where opportunities for combat firing are limited, it 
may be better for the umpire to correct the sight setting an- 
nounced, if it varies more than 10 per cent, from the true range, 
than to spoil the problem by permitting the use of an incorrect 
setting. This with a view of saving ammunition and giving the 
officers and non-commissioned officers an opportunity to demon- 
strate their ability in direction and control and the men their train- 
ing in fire discipline. In the critique it could be stated what would 
have been the effect had the announced sight setting been used. 
There is no use of having the object of the exercise defeated at its 
commencement by a wild estimate of the range. 

It must be remembered, however, that after the instructional 
period is completed the fire problem with ball ammunition is the 
test of an officer or non-commissioned officer and a detachment 
in fire tactics embodying direction, control, and discipline, and in 
such cases the umpire should interfere as little as possible with 
the conduct of the action. However, he may place out of action 
at any time individuals or groups who expose themselves unduly. 

In order that the results in any complete statistical analysis 
of the firing may be of value as a study and as a comparison, after 
firing at a target the ammunition still unfired should be checked in 
order to determine the number of rounds fired on any given target. 

When a thorough analysis of the firing is to be made the 
number of rounds fired and hits made at the firing positions are 
absolutely essential in problems where the test is to determine fire 
accuracy, influence of fatigue, etc. For example, in a number of 
German tests i-t was observed, by checking the hits made at each 
halt, that the fire at 500 yards where rushes were commenced was 
58 



912 MILITARY TRAINING 

more accurate than at the closer ranges where the influence of 
fatigue overcame the training factor. 

The rate of fire in the statistical records represents a num- 
ber of shots per minute (on a target presenting to the view of 
the firer the vulnerable area of prone figures), which, if increased 
or decreased, will result in a decrease of hits per minute. The table 
rate of fire of the average shot is therefore primarily based on 
range and the vulnerable area of the prone target. In combat firing 
exercises the tactical situation requiring the maximum number of 
hits in a given time on an increased vulnerable target area is a 
factor which the umpire must consider in judging the rate of fire 

The umpire should insist that in the " setting up " of the 
exercise it include the targets simulating fire. This feature is one 
that should never be neglected, and its omission will frequently 
destroy the good points of the best-prepared firing problem. 

In rendering a decision on the assumed effect of fire of the 
enemy target, the basis must be the estimated fire efficacy of 
average shots. The class, rate, and effect of the enemy target's 
fire, assumed by the umpire, is based on the character of the 
leadership and conduct of the troops and their own apparent fire 
effect. 

For example, at the commencement of an exercise, and later 
during its progress, the troop leader may be informed as to the 
enemy-target's fire, as follows: (a) He is using "Ranging" pla 
toon volleys on your position, (b) He is opening " Fire at will " 
on you. (c) He is using "Fire faster" at a rate of about 10 shots 
per minute, (d) He has superiority of fire, (e) His fire does not 
prevent your advancing, etc. Whenever the troop leader is in- 
formed that he has not superiority of fire, he should make an 
estimate at once as to the cause or causes of his failure and give 
action immediately to his decision. 

The umpire's ruling may have been based on one or more of 
the following conditions: (a) Leader's indifference to enemy's 
fire; (b) error too great in estimation of range; (c) poor defilade or 
concealment; (d) rate not sufficiently high or too great; (e) size of 
rushing units too great; (f) lack of teamwork; (g) poor designa- 
tion of target; (h) Apportionment of target not clear; (i) fire not 
wisely distributed on the several target groups; (j) general lackjL 
of fire control or discipline, etc. In all combat fire exercises where 
the umpire is to express an opinion on the ground as to the results 
of the firing, the range and the time of firing in minutes and sec- 
onds are the essential factors in determining the proper distribu- 
tion. 

Under no circumstances should the umpire permit an argu- 
ment as to the result of his decision. This, however, does not 
forbid the correction of any apparent error in the record. It must 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 913 

be remembered that the decision of an umpire is rendered in ac- 
cordance with his best judgment, and though the decision may- 
appear wrong, the outcome in actual combat, due to the element 
of chance in war, might have been as he decided. 

THE UMPIRE'S ASSISTANT 

In order that the umpire may draw a more accurate conclu- 
" sion of the " Leadership and conduct," an assistant, accompanied 
1 by a competent signalist, should observe the troops and report on 
L their conduct from the viewpoint of the enemy. When ball am- 
munition is not used, the assistant should take a position similar 
J to and among the targets. When ball ammunition is used, the 
assistant should be provided with a periscope (or improvised one)/ 
and take a position in the pit or on one flank and on line with 
the target. 

THE UMPIRE'S RECORD 

The Umpire's Record furnishes the basis for the critique 
delivered by the umpire, on the ground, at the completion of the 
exercise, and consists of two parts. The first part covers the 
tactical phase of the exercise, fire direction, control, and discipline, 
as a result of the observation of the umpire. The second part is 
statistical in character and covers essential data from which the 
umpire draws conclusions and expresses an opinion upon the 
effectiveness of the fire as affecting the accomplishment of the 
tmission. 

The data for this record should be of such a character that 
it can be obtained quickly without reference to long formulas, 
numerous tables of factors, etc. It must, be as simple as the 
Umpire's Record in a maneuver problem, if not simpler, for the 
critique based upon this record is never carried into the " lecture 
tent," but delivered on the ground. 

PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 

Under no circumstances should an officer or man be allowed 

o participate in a fire problem wherein ball ammunition is used 

intil after he has passed through and been found proficient in a 

'horough preliminary course of training. Ammunition expended 

:c-n fire problems by organizations that have not received this pre- 

iminary training is ammunition wasted. 

The individual known distance course of target practice is 
demonstration of the thoroughness and correctness of the man's 
1 reliminary training. In a like manner any problem should be 



914 MILITARY TRAINING 

a demonstration of the perfection attained by the company in the 
preliminary training without ball ammunition as a whole in all 
that relates to fire direction, fire control, and fire discipline. 

As an illustration, the case may be cited of a class of 75 re- 
'cruits at the school of musketry, that was given a course of pre- 
liminary instruction along the lines indicated herein, after which 
the class was formed as a company under platoon and squad 
leaders selected from the class and given a firing problem involving 
the securing of the firing data, the issuance of orders, and the exe- 
cution of the orders by the men. There was absolutely no criticism 
to be made of the methods of direction, control, and discipline. 
Therefore lack of range facilities and ammunition should not be 
offered as an excuse for insufficient training in combat firing, as 
it is perfectly practicable to have an organization well trained in 
musketry without having fired a shot in a fire problem. 

However, unless such a course is supplemented by further 
exercises with ball ammunition, the organization will not know 
that it is well trained and hence will be lacking in the confidence 
that such knowledge brings. Exercises with ball ammunition are 
essential if for no other purpose than to confirm the preliminary 
training. 

The following exercises and those given heretofore are of- 
fered as suggested methods in teaching. 

These exercises are for the most part taken from those used 
at the School of Musketry, and have consequently all been tested. 
Their use should suggest other similar and more advanced exer- 
cises, and their construction should follow the same general prin- 
ciples as for fire problems with ball ammunition. 

I. Object. — Estimation of front of a definite extent at vari- 
ous ranges. 

Method. — Company commanders will be shown a line and 
informed: "Somewhere on the line a squad of men representing 
the right (left) of a hostile line will appear. You will open fire 
on this hostile line covering a front of 50 (100) yards." 

The company commander will determine and announce the 
range. He will then determine the extent of front he is directed 
to cover, and, having done so, will sight two rifles, resting on sand- 
bag rests, so that one will be directed at the right and the other 
at the left of the line which he has determined as the extent of 
front he is to cover. The aiming tripod may be used. 

In estimating fronts the musketry rule, rear sight, or finger 
system may be used. 

Standards of proficiency: Estimation of ranges, 90 per cent.; 
estimation of front, 90 per cent. 

II. Object. — Exercise in harmonizing* ranges used through- 
out a given firing line. 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 915 

Method. — The company commanders with their " range esti- 
mators," all in the prone position, will be assigned to an outlined 
position where the fire fight is to start. The battalion commander 
will be assigned a position from which he can control, through his 
company commanders, the opening of fire. On the appearance of 
the target, a hostile skirmish line, ranges will be estimated. "Time " 
50 seconds. The battalion commander will then find out the 
determined ranges by use of the signal. " What range are you 
using," and announce the harmonized range. Ranges will be sig- 
naled. When the last company commander has repeated the bat- 
talion commander's signal the exercise will be closed. 

Time. — No time allowance. The exercise will be completed 
as soon as practicable. 

III. Object. — Designation of targets. 

Method. — The company will be conducted to a place a few 
yards from a point where the target is visible. Its captain will be 
shown the target. He deploys the company, advances it to the 
position for opening fire, and gives the necessary firing data, in- 
cluding description of target, assignment of portions of it to pla- 
toons, etc. 

Platoon leaders will give the necessary firing data to their 
platoons. The men will set sights and aim at the proper target 
and sector as understood by them. 

In describing indistinct targets any method, mil rule, rear 
sight, finger, or clock systems may be used. 

The exercise is repeated for three different targets. 

IV. Object. — The use of auxiliary aiming targets. 
Methods. — An indistinct target will be selected, the flanks of 

which are marked by signal flags. The company commander is 
brought to a position from which he can observe the outlined 
target. The flags will then be ordered down, when the company 
commander points out to his range estimators and platoon leaders 
the target from the observing station, determines the range and 
gives the command for opening fire on the objective, including, 
for the purpose of instruction, the announcement of an auxiliary 
aiming target and the consequent sight setting. 

Any mechanical device may be used as an aid in this work. 

V. Object. — Accurate and quick sight setting and the use 
of combined sights. 

Method. — A well-defined target will be used at a range of 
over 1,000 yards. The company commander will be shown the tar- 
get. He then determines the range in the usual manner. The com- 
pany will be deployed facing the target and the usual firing data 
given (in this case, on account of time limit, all commands will be 
given by company commander). 



916 MILITARY TRAINING 

The company commander is in the prone position. Time is 
taken from the last word of command announcing the sight setting. 
Fifteen seconds later the command " time " will be given by the 
officer in charge of the exercise. At this command, whether sights 
are set or not, all rifles will be laid on the ground and left un- 
touched until examined. This concludes the exercise. 

VI. Object. — Teaching fire direction. Elements included: 
Use of ground, designation of target, determination of front oc- 
cupied by target, assignment of sectors to platoons, determination 
of the range, determination of kind of fire to be used, causing fire 
to be opened at proper time. 

Method. — The company is marched to a place near the point 
selected for the problem; the position selected is under cover. The 
company commander is called up and given a problem similar to 
the following situation: "The enemy, a battalion acting alone, is 
in position along a line extending east from that fence corner. 
You will deploy your company here and direct its fire on that por- 
tion of the hostile line which is occupied by a 10-squad deployed 
company and whose right rests at that fence corner." 

The captain conducts his company so as -to carry out the 
orders or directions given him, using suitable tactical formations. 

The exercise is ended immediately after fire is opened. For 
purposes of comparison and comment the following will be noted: 

(a) Time elapsing between receipt of problem and opening 
fire. 

(b) Exposure to hostile fire while securing and transmitting 
firing data and while deploying. 

(c) Clearness in description of target and its division into 
fronts. 

(d) Extent to which the captain's will, as expressed in his 
firing data, is carried out by the company. 

VII. Object. — Fire control. 

Method. — The company will be marched to an indicated 
point where a tactical situation will be presented involving the 
principles of fire control. 

For the purposes of comparison and comment the following 
will be noted: (a) The captain's general application of the prin- 
ciples of fire direction; (b) the detailed elements of fire control; 
(c) time elements. 

VIII. Object. — Fire discipline. 

.Method. — The company is marched to an indicated point 
where a tactical situation will be presented. 

For the purposes of comparison and comment the following 
will be noted: (a) Use of ground; (b) target designation; (c) de- 
termination of front of target; (d) assignment of objectives to 
platoon; (e) determination of range; (f) kind of fire used; (g) caus- 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 917 

ing fire to be opened at proper time; (h) reinforcement of firing 
line; (i) fire discipline. Ability of men in firing line to transmit 
firing data (location of target, what the target is, what portion to 
fire at, range to be used, rate of fire to be employed) to reinforce- 
ments when they arrive on the firing line, and to do this without 
any marked cessation in the rate of fire. 

For this exercise two platoons will be on the firing line, 
deployed at one-pace intervals, the other two platoons constituting 
the support; after fire has been opened, the firing line will be re- 
inforced in such a manner that the men of the support will occupy 
the intervals between the men on the firing line. Firing data 
will be transmitted from man to man. Twenty seconds later 
the original firing line will be withdrawn at the command of 
the director. The reinforcing line will then set their sight at the 
range given them and 10 seconds later, at the command of " Time," 
will aim their rifles at what they believe to be their portion of the 
target. 

The sight setting and the aiming of the rifles will then be 
verified and the probable value of the fire determined. 

IX. Object. — To apply all the principles of fire direction, 
fire control, and fire discipline covered in previous exercises, and 
in addition the use of suitable means to maintain fire superiority 
during advances of the firing line, particularly the proper distribu- 
tion of fire cover of the entire target during rushes. 

X. Object. — The application of all the principles of fire 
direction, fire control, fire discipline covered in previous exercises 
and iij addition the particular application of the various prescribed 
methods of communication. 

Method. — The company is assigned a mission requiring it to 
take up a position and to open fire on an advancing column. The 
situation will be so drawn as to bring out some of the authorized 
methods of communication. 

Company and platoon commanders will not use the voice 
when any part of their unit is firing, nor at any other time when 
their will can be expressed by a signal. 

XI. Object. — Supply of ammunition of firing line (problem 
to involve in its solution all of the principles covered in previous 
exercises). 

Method. — The battalion commander will be handed a tactical 
situation requiring a march in the presence of an active enemy 
and later an attack on this enemy's position. It will be conducted 
by means of the prescribed commands and signals, in accordance 
with the rules laid down. 

The battalion will be at war strength, accompanied by its 
combat train; machine gun company and five mounted orderlies 
attached. 



918 MILITARY TRAINING 

Combat train loaded as prescribed in Tables of Organization 
for supplies other than ammunition. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE PROBLEMS 

A fire problem is an incident or phase in the solution of 
a tactical problem and should always be so treated. 

The preparation - of a fire problem requires not only a sound 
knowledge of tactical principles and the requisite experience in 
.constructing tactical problems, but also a detailed knowledge of 
the theory of rifle fire and of targets and ranges. In the prepara- 
tion of a problem the following points should be considered: 

(a) The problem should be so constructed as to impart a 
lesson in fire tactics. 

(b) The strength of the fire unit should be determined in 
connection with the tactical lesson to be taught. 

(c) A tactical situation should be selected that will best 
illustrate the lesson to be imparted. It is believed that the fire 
problems in general should present one phase of an action. For 
example, firing on artillery, on moving bodies, opening of an at- 
tack, carrying the exercise to the second firing position. On 
extended well-equipped B ranges it will be possible to work out 
a shifting scene of action, presenting a number of new targets to 

lan advancing line, or advancing targets to a stationary line. 

(d) An estimate should be made of the sight setting that 
should be used and the rate of fire that should be employed. 

(e) The ground and the direction in which the firing will 
occur should be considered. The terrain, whenever possible, 
should be new to the commander. The securing of a great variety 
of terrain will .usually be impracticable, but there can be presented 
to the commander new situations involving the use of different 
targets at different points. 

(f) Attention should be given to the targets that will be 
employed, having special reference to those that may be available. 
The target should generally be equal to approximately the num- 
ber of men or to the front of the detachment firing. If not, it 
creates a false impression. For instance, a company of 100 rifles 
firing on a target of 20-30 yards in width, but targets greater in 
number than the firers, are sometimes used in order to determine 
whether or not the fire was confined to a particular sector or 
objective, as directed, or more frequently where the troops are on 
the defensive and the targets are simulating an attack. 

Targets should be placed in a formation corresponding to 
the phase of the action. Ordinarily the figures should be placed 
one to every yard of front. The enemy will take care to expose 



FIRE PROBLEM WITH BALL AMMUNITION 919 

himself as little as possible. It will be unusual to have a row of 
kneeling figures to fire upon at the close ranges. Close-order 
bodies in all probability would remain a target for a very short 
period of time. Artillery targets should be spaced with about 20 
yards interval. Cavalry charges might be represented by tar- 
gets appearing in succession at 800 yards, at 700, at 600, at 500, 
etc., each line disappearing from view a few moments before the 
next appears. 

(g) The amount of ammunition necessary to bring about the 
result desired should be the result of calculation. The number of 
cartridges issued should be enough to disable theoretically a se- 
lected percentage of the targets. If 3,000 rounds are required to 
disable about one-third of the targets and 1,500 rounds are issued, 
then only about 15 per cent, of the figures can be expected to be 
hit. This failure would rest on the problem maker and not on the 
troops. 

(h) Notation should be made of the time element for the 
particular unit involved and its bearing upon a time schedule for 
organization which may follow in the solution of the same 
problem. 

(i) The time element, in connection with the duration of 
fire, must be determined by first deciding on the rate of fire to be 
used at that range, consideration being given to the tactical re- 
quirements and to the vulnerable area of the target. For example, 
if a proper rate be eight per minute, then the number of cartridges 
to be given to each man, divided by eight, will give the number 
of minutes firing. This calculation forms the basis for the time 
element and is better than a pure guess, even though a liberal 
allowance be made for the difference between practical and theo- 
retical time. 

(j) To insure fresh situations for each commander, every 
effort must be made to keep those next to fire from receiving 
information about the problem. 

(k) The question of pits to be constructed and the necessary 
details to carry out successfully the plans adopted should be 
given weight and all possible economy made of men and material. 

(1) The problem should be tested to determine if it can be 
solved in a manner that would prevent the desired lesson from 
being taught. 

FORM 

The situation should present a simple logical scheme. This 
gives an opportunity to judge of the tactics employed and while 
the fire feature of the problem must receive proper consideration 
it is to be remembered that no effect should be expected with an 



920 MILITARY TRAINING 

organization conducted tactically in such a manner that it could 
not reach the firing position. 

MISSION 

It should be definite, and logically emanate from a simply- 
represented situation. 

The requirement ordinarily might include: (a) An estimate 
of the situation; (b) an order based on this estimate; (c) the 
execution of this order. 

In map problems, terrain exercises, etc., (a) and (b) usually 
will be oral or written, while (c) may include such features of the 
execution as do not include firing. 

When ammunition is used (a) would be mental, (b) would be 
given by word of mouth or by signal, and (c) would be carried 
out in its entirety. 

THE UMPIRE'S REFERENCE TABLES 

The considerations influencing the effect of fire are numer- 
ous, and while some of them can be clearly shown in terms of hits 
made or figures struck, there are many which must be based en- 
tirely on observation and opinion. However, so soon as the prin- 
cipal factors are known, from a consideration of the record of any 
firing, a trained umpire can at once express an intelligent decision 
as to the probable result of the action. What is wanted is a prompt 
decision from the best obtainable judgment as to the efficacy of the 
fire and the solution of the fire problem. 

In order to add force to the decision, it is sometimes advis- 
able to make a comparison with average shots. In order that this 
comparison may not involve " complicated calculations " various 
tables have been compiled in order that the percentage of figures 
struck may be taken from the table at a glance and without com- 
putation. The compiled table represents the result expected from 
average shots firing at a correct maximum rate and distributing 
their fire perfectly while using the correct sight setting. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

TRENCH WARFARE, TRENCH RAIDS AND THE! 
SERVICE OF THE TRENCHES \/ 

When the advanced positions of opposing armies are close to 
each other there ensues a series of conflicts which have been 
designated by the term " Trench warfare." In sieges the forces in 
closest contact are the advanced parallel, saps,?and mining galleries 
on the side of the attacker and the intrenched position and coun- 
termines of the defender; in extended intrenched t fronts the forces 
in closest contact are in the firing trenches, saps, and mines and 
countermines of the two sides. 

The methods of conflict in trench warfare are practically the 
same as in former wars, with modifications due to the advances 
in science. Hand grenades, bombs, obstacles, etc., were used at 
Sebastopol, Port Arthur, and at Verdun in 1916. 

The essential difference between capture of intrenched places 
and victory over extended intrenched fronts lies in the fact that 
the garrison only of the fortress must be subdued while the nation 
back of an extended intrenched front must be subdued. While 
the garrison of a fortress still retains numbers, food, ammunition, 
and morale it may be possible to capture local strong points, but 
the garrison will not surrender as long as its power of resistance is 
not broken; other strong points to the rear will be occupied .and 
the resistance continued. Similarly, while the nation still retains 
numbers, food, ammunition, and morale it may be possible to cap- 
ture local strong points, 2. id force the abandonment of an ex- 
tended intrenched line, but the nation will not cease making war 
until its physical or moral power of resistance is broken: other 
extended intrenched lines to the rear will be occupied and the 
resistance continued. 

The main objects of trench warfare are to capture local 
strong points and to break down the resistance of the enemy. The 
following general principles may be laid down as fundamental. 

(a) "Advance in the open is impossible against enemy fire 
superiority. 

(b) Advance by open sap work is difficult against enemy 
artillery fire and almost impossible if the enemy has artillery fire 
superiority. 



922 MILITARY TRAINING 

(c) Advance by mining is effective if the enemy has ar- 
tillery fire superiority. 

(d) An assault against an alert enemy must be preceded 
by an effective fire of artillery explosive shells to destroy some- 
what the enemy trenches and obstacles. 

(e) An artillery curtain of fire must be maintained beyond 
captured enemy trenches in order to assist the successful attack- 
ers in defending the captured trenches against counter attack. 

Mobile Army. — The situation on the west front in Europe 
illustrated the effect of having masses of trained men facing each 
other on a relatively short line. From the North Sea to the bound- 
ary of Switzerland the battle line extended over a distance of 430 
miles. The opposing armies had each constructed triple lines 
of trenches, often supplemented in the rear by a double line of 
underground shelters where the troops in reserve could rest. Miles 
upon miles of passageways, saps, galleries, and zigzags afforded 
means of communication between the trenches. To dig these field 
fortifications, the allies and Germans are said to have removed 
about two and one-half times the excavation made at Panama. At 
a number of points the hostile lines were less than 100 yards apart, 
and grenades of all types were used in great quantities. There 
were no flanks to turn, the lines were heavily covered by obstacles, 
and each side having reserves upon reserves, sapping and mining 
was freely resorted to in order to gain ground. The opinion that 
continuous defensive lines are to be avoided since they lead to a 
dispersion of forces, resulting in general weakness, must be some- 
what modified when enormous numbers of troops are available. 
Instead of a series of defensive positions with intervals, we find 
the opponents in two fortified continuous lines. 

ACCESSORIES OF TRENCH WARFARE 

The observation of the enemy is of first importance in trench 
warfare. It should give complete knowledge of all the elements 
of the hostile line and prompt information of any movement of 
the enemy. It is effected by observation from the ground and 
observation by aircraft. 

Observation from the ground is divided into three echelons: 

(1) Observation in front of the firing line from small posts 
and listening posts. (2) Observation on the firing line by senti- 
nels and lookouts. (3) Observation in rear of the firing line, 
by artillery observers, sentinels, and lookouts of the shelters. 

Observation in front of the firing line is effected by small 
posts or listening posts of from 1 to 8 men placed in riflemen's 
pits, shot holes, organized shell craters, or in short, semicircular 



TRENCH WARFARE 923 

elements of trench, connected with the firing line by sap or 
low-mine gallery. Their protection is assured by their invisi- 
bility. The retreat of the observers is protected by a system of 
branch galleries whose entrance into the main gallery can be 
closed rapidly, or by a barbed-wire protection placed over the sap. 
The lookouts in small posts are placed in very short trenches, 
which are provided with loopholes. Protection at short range 
against grenades is secured by a network of wire. 

Observation on the firing line is effected by lookout posts 
organized preferably at the salients where the view is more ex- 
tended. These posts give a view over the enemy's firing line; they 
are provided with periscopes, range finders, and large scale maps. 
They should be concealed by all practicable means; observation 
is carried out under good conditions only when it is done without 
the knowledge of the enemy. The posts should preferably be con- 
structed on the right of a traverse, and in an excavation in front 
of the trench wall. 

The observation posts, even of the infantry, are not neces- 
sarily in the firing line or in the listening posts. Often in rear, 
points will be found which will give an excellent view, and will 
not attract the enemy's attention. The term " observatory " is 
often employed for this kind of observation post. The observa- 
tories generally have a more extended view than the lookout post; 
they are protected and have means of communication such as tele- 
phone, heliograph, messenger, carrier pigeon, wireless, etc. They 
may belong to the infantry, the artillery, or higher commands. The 
observatory may be occupied by the commander himself or by an 
observer who represents him. In any case the observatory is near 
the command post. It must have a low parapet, be defiladed from 
view, and proof against large projectiles. 

The location of the lookout posts and observatories must be 
determined in accordance with a complete plan for each sup- 
porting point or sector of defense. No part of the hostile front 
should be free from observation and the parts of the front favor- 
able for the attack of the enemy should be specially watched. An 
observatory should be located near the command posts of the com- 
manders of strong points, supporting points, and sectors. Those 
of the last two must have extended views over the whole of the 
terrain. 

Lines of Information. — During any bombardment the main- 
tenance of lines of information becomes very difficult, but it must 
be accomplished by all possible methods, such as: (a) Installing 
telephones under strong shelters, (b) Using lead-covered cable, 
buried 6 feet deep, especially for the lines connecting the regi- 
mental, brigade, division, and corps headquarters. (c) Placing 
rockets in all shelters and observatories where officers or non- 



924 MILITARY TRAINING 

commissioned officers are posted, (d) Preparing posts for visual 
signaling, safe from bombardment and defiladed from view of the 
enemy. These posts are constructed in shelters similar to those 
for searchlights and are provided with horizontal loopholes with 
openings to the flank or rear. 

The problem of the telephone is one of the most important 
and has yet to be satisfactorily worked out. The allowance of ap- 
paratus must be greatly increased and systematic organization of 
men and material is urgently demanded. All persons along the 
line, passers-by, guards and the like must have an interest in 
maintaining the lines and keeping clear of the wire. Every non- 
commissioned officer should have a few staples or long hooks 
in his pockets so as to place a fallen wire temporarily out of reach 
of passing troops. Artillery wires should be placed on one side 
of the trench and infantry wires on the other; they must be high 
enough to clear men passing at night, loaded and weary, and at 
trench crossings they must be carefully protected. Constant super- 
vision and repair of the lines is necessary. Lines with too many 
phones in series should be avoided. Multiply the centrals and re- 
duce the phones on the same lines to three or four. 

Battle-field Illumination is a necessity wherever night at- 
tacks may be expected. Portable searchlights, both animal and 
motor drawn, in units up to 36 inches, have become an accepted 
part of every army. In addition, though, to these powerful lights, 
trenches must be supplied with storage battery or gas reflector 
lights, star bombs, rockets, and flares, arranged so that they can be 
put into action instantaneously when an enemy approaches. The 
entire foreground and obstacles must be illuminated, leaving the 
defenders in shadow. If a light is used too close to the de- 
fenders' parapet, they themselves are illuminated and the light 
becomes a source of danger. Flares, etc., are furnished in all 
sizes. Some burn as much as 20 minutes and light up an area of 
100 yards radius. Some are thrown out to the front, as is a hand 
grenade; others are fired as rockets from shotguns or small mor- 
tars, and others are fastened in a tree or hidden in a pit well to 
the front. These latter are set off by trip wires stretched close to 
the ground, so that an approaching enemy will catch his foot in 
them. The best illuminant would seem to be one that could be 
fired well to the front from a small mortar and would then hang 
suspended from an open parachute above the enemy for a long 
time. These should not be used in unfavorable winds. If no 
other flares can be had, bonfires can be laid and held ready for 
lighting by a quick match made of flash powder. 

Searchlights are the most effective for battle-field illumina- 
tion. The smaller ones, about 12 inches, are oxyacetylene or in- 
candescent electric and have a range of 300 to 1,000 yards. The 



TRENCH WARFARE 925 

larger ones 24 to 36 inches are of the electric-arc type and have 
ranges of 2,000 to 5,000 yards. They can also be used for signal- 
ing. They are placed in shelters similar to those for machine 
guns, located so as to flank the line of fire. 

Details of Trench Warfare. — The long-continued proximity 
of opposing trenches has led to scientific development in: 1. The 
use of trench bombs and hand grenades. 2. The use of asphyxi- 
ating gases to conceal the advance and to destroy the enemy in his 
trenches. 3. The use of fire, both offensively and defensively. 4. 
The extensive use of mining and countermining. 



GRENADES AND BOMBS 

All grenades at the present time are provided with time 
fuses which cause explosion a certain number of seconds after 
they are lighted. Grenades for defensive action must be dis- 
tinguished from grenades for offensive action. In combat at close 
quarters in open terrain, and particularly during an assault, of- 
fensive grenades may be used without exposing the grenadier to 
danger from the fragments. The danger zone of these grenades 
is limited, extending not more than 8 to 10 yards beyond the 
bursting point. Defensive grenades burst in a shower of deadly 
fragments and are effectual at a distance of more than 110 yards 
from the point of explosion. They should never be thrown from 
a position unprotected from fragments which might fly back. 

Grenades are thrown either by hand or rifle, the latter being 
thrown with the aid of a " discharger," a special device fitted to 
the rifle. Finally, there are suffocating, smoke producing, and in- 
cendiary grenades, for special uses. 

Primers in use are the metal primer and automatic primer, 
model 1916 B. The second is intended to supersede the first. 

The metal primer is a percussion primer. After removing 
the safety cap strike the grenade on the heel of the boot, rifle 
stock, or other hard object. This brings the primer into contact 
with the striker, thus igniting the slow match which in turn fires 
the detonator and causes the explosion. The safety cap prevents 
accidental puncture of the primer case before actual and intended 
use of the grenade. 

The automatic primer acts on a different principle. Two 
fuses are simultaneously struck by a percussion spring, in form of 
a small pincer, which is released by moving the bolt. This bolt is 
automatically moved by raising the lever, which is held in safety 
position by the pin (with ring) and, after the pin is withdrawn, by 
the hand holding lever and grenade. 



926 MILITARY TRAINING 

PRECAUTIONS IN REGARD TO UNEXPLODED 
GRENADES 

Every unexploded grenade is a source of danger and should 
be regarded as a shell which has been primed, but not exploded. 
Therefore none should be left on the terrain. If proper precau- 
tions are taken and the grenade fuse has ignited properly, there 
can be no danger in picking up and throwing unexploded grenades. 
If troops are required to take a position where there are any un- 
exploded grenades, these should be removed as soon as possible. 
One man, with the aid of a branch or stick, removes the grenades, 
while the rest of the personnel remain under cover. As a rule, 
failure to explode is due to nonignition of the fuse or the detona- 
tor; sometimes to an error in assembling the primer; and more 
rarely to failure of the percussion caps (or igniters) to operate. If 
the percussion bolt groove is not obstructed by mud, one can easily 
see if the fuses have operated, as the groove will be blackened. 
Such grenades are no more dangerous to handle than the ordinary 
grenade. 

If, on the other hand, the sides and bottom of the groove 
are white and shiny, the fuses have not operated, and the percus- 
sion spring, being in contact with the fuses, might ignite at any 
shock. In fact, by striking an unexploded dummy grenade vio- 
lently, on any hard surface, the primer can be destroyed without 
striking the pin. This is due to the small mass of the striker. In 
any case, unless the operation of the fuses is quite evident, it is 
best to remove the grenade singly and by hand, without taking the 
eyes off them, so that they may, should they become ignited, be 
thrown away without delay. Unexploded grenades are piled to- 
gether and fired by a petard. They may be used to advantage to 
charge a fougasse. 

It is forbidden to unscrew the primer cap of a loaded gren- 
ade unless it is done with a special tool designed to protect the op- 
erator from the explosion. 

TRENCH RAIDS 

Grenades are freely used in trench raids which are executed 
(a) by small groups of selected men, who have confidence in one 
another and are specially trained in handling grenades, or (b) by 
a selected unit, sometimes reinforced by additional officers or non- 
commissioned officers, leaving the unreliable element behind. 

The object of trench raids may be to throw grenades into an 
occupied portion of a hostile trench, to attack the head of a sap, 



TRENCH WARFARE 92/ 

to seize and hold an excavation, or to capture an outpost or small 
trench in order to obtain prisoners. The success of operations of 
this kind depends chiefly upon the preparations which have been 
made beforehand in the way of careful reconnaisances and by re- 
hearsing in rear all phases of the operation under conditions as 
nearly like the real ones as possible. 

Preparations for Trench Raids. — Meticulous care should be 
exercised in preparing for trench raids. The special preparations 
which an officer who is to conduct a trench raid should make are 
as follows: 

1. To make and have made all necessary reconnaissances 
(of the ground, of the obstacles, hostile trenches, etc.). The ter- 
rain should be studied with the object of selecting the routes of 
approach and of finding cover for grenade throwers within reach 
of the hostile position. The organization of the enemy's position 
may be studied from photographs taken by aviators. 

2. To select the best conditions for the operation (weather, 
hours, etc.). 

3. To assign to each group or squad of grenadiers a defi- 
nite task. 

4. To arrange the best possible system for keeping up the 
supply of ammunition and grenades. 

5. To acquaint the infantry and artillery units which are to 
support the operation thoroughly with his plans for executing it. 

The officer who commands the trench raid should personally 
direct the units performing the main task. One of his subordinates 
should be specially detailed to supervise the replenishment of gren- 
ades. 

Execution of Trench Raids. — The troops making the trench 
raid approach the hostile trench silently; if preparation has been 
made by artillery fire the approach should be rapid. When they 
reach the points selected for crossing the obstacles (which are sup- 
posed to have been destroyed) a volley of grenades is thrown into 
the hostile trench; as soon as they burst the grenadiers rush the 
trench. 

Similar tasks are performed by two units, which, on reaching 
the hostile trench, proceed to mop it up, one going to the right and 
the other to the left. Every care should be taken to avoid being 
caught under a discharge of hostile grenades; a position a few 
yards in rear of the trench which has been attacked may have been 
prepared for this purpose by the enemy. Sometimes it is better 
to select a very dark night or very bad weather for the raid. An 
understanding should exist between the groups of grenadier^ and 
the garrison of the trenches from which they start. A few rifle 
shots fired under conditions agreed on beforehand warn the raiders 
that an illuminating shell is to be fired. The raiders lie down and 



928 MILITARY TRAINING 

take advantage of the light by examining the ground in their front. 
As soon as the light dies out they make a rush and then halt, if 
necessary, for another illuminating shell. During the mopping up 
of the trench the throwers' assistants provide for security in ac- 
cordance with instructions given them before the start. 

Supply of Grenades. — Keeping up the supply of grenades 
should be a constant source of care to all commanders. The most 
careful provisions should be made to prevent the grenadiers being 
short of ammunition, and these provisions should be established on 
the basis that for every two grenades sent up from the rear only 
one arrives at its destination. 

RIFLE GRENADES 

Rifle grenades when efficiently handled may demoralize the 
enemy and inflict upon him greater losses than are caused by the 
artillery bombardment. The hostile trenches should be minutely 
studied and the points at which the enemy may be taken at a dis- 
advantage should be reconnoitered (sentinels' posts, the entrances 
of bombproof s, crossings of approach trenches, etc.). The rifles, 
on their supports, should be directed continuously on these points, 
in order to be able to fire a grenade at the least indication of move- 
ment. The fire of rifle grenades upon selected localities is kept up 
night and day. 

In spite of the fact that the enemy is seldom seen, that his 
first line is thin, and that he is sheltered in bombproofs, it is pos- 
sible to cause him considerable losses by keeping up a continuous 
hail of rifle grenades on well-chosen localities. 



VIVEN BESSIERES GRENADES 

The Viven Bessieres rifle grenade is a part of the infantry 
equipment. All of the men should be trained in its use. The num- 
ber of grenade tubes issued is limited by their weight and the limi- 
tations of ammunition supply. This grenade has the advantage 
that it is not very cumbersome and that it is fired by means of the 
ordinary ball cartridge. 

Employment on the Defensive. — Fire for effect on the de- 
fensive by this grenade is employed to inflict constant losses upon 
the enemy, to demoralize him, to hinder his trench work. The bar- 
rage defensive fire is used to repulse attacks. The 16 grenade tubes 
of a company can fire 150 grenades per minute, and can make, at 
a distance of from 90 to 165 yards, an impassable barrier. It is 
often a good plan to group the grenade firers of the company in 
groups of from 2 to 4, commanded by a non-commissioned officer. 



TRENCH WARFARE 929 

Fire for effect is based on knowledge of the routine in the 
enemy's trenches. An especially well-organized observation serv- 
ice is indispensable. By a combination of observation, study of 
photographs taken by aviators, study of the map, and information 
from all sources, the targets and the hours for firing which will 
give the best results may be arrived at. 

Employment on the Offensive. — The Viven Bessieres gre- 
nade is used on the offensive to extend the radius of action of the 
hand grenades, in reaching an enemy under cover at a greater 
distance. In many local combats, where it is not practicable to 
obtain artillery support, it takes the place of this support by ac- 
curately bombarding the strong points of the hostile line. It 
isolates hostile groups attacked with hand grenades, cutting off 
their retreat, and preventing reinforcements from reaching them. 
It is very effective in repulsing hostile counter attacks. In any 
situation, but especially on the offensive, it is better to concen- 
trate the fire of these grenades. 

D. R. GRENADE 

In comparison with the Viven Bessieres grenade, the D. R. 
grenade or shell has twice the range and much greater power; but 
it is a more cumbersome projectile, and its supply requires more 
men for the same number of grenades. So it can not replace the 
Viven Bessieres grenade in offensive action, but it is useful in con- 
solidating the occupation of a position. 

In defense the D. R. grenade can supplement the artillery 
support; it is useful in harassing the enemy and for quick concen- 
trations when an assembly is ordered. 

In the attack it can strengthen a line which has been taken 
and can replace artillery in the preparation of an attack against a 
nucleus of resistance which has been isolated or left behind in the 
progress of an attack. It supplements or creates alone the de- 
structive effects of field artillery fire. It is well adapted to the 
preparation and support of trench raids, to the isolation and cap- 
ture of small objectives, to covering the retirement- of attacking 
troops when they have accomplished their mission, etc. 

POSITIONS FOR RIFLE GRENADE GROUPS 

Barrage fire is made by combining the use of rifle grenades 
and hand grenades for the purpose of repulsing hostile attacks. 
This kind of fire is important when our communication with the 
rear has been broken or when the proximity of hostile trenches 
renders artillery barrage fire ineffective. 



930 MILITARY TRAINING 

LOW POWER WEAPONS (TRENCH MORTARS) 

These weapons have a range from 55 to 330 yards. They are 
effective especially against the personnel of the enemy on account 
of their curved fire, which the rifle can not achieve. Their chief 
use is in defense; however, the new weapons are light enough to ac- 
company an offensive and can be brought into action quickly in a 
newly taken position. The best effects are obtained from oblique 
fire and when the effects can be observed easily. 

Positions are prepared for them both in the vicinity of the 
advanced trench and near the trenches of the supports, and the 
same pieces are ranged from one or the other of these positions 
according to the results which are desired. 

Fighting in the Communicating Trenches. — Pneumatic mor- 
tars and D. R. grenades are advantageously employed in impeding 
at considerable distances the enemy's supply of grenades and in 
blocking his lines of retreat. 

Additional positions are prepared for them further in the 
rear, so placed as to enable them to fire on our most important 
communicating trenches and upon portions of our first line which 
are most open to attack by the enemy. If the mortars are placed 
in the rifle trenches they should be separated from the positions 
of the riflemen by traverses. The utility of trench mortars con- 
sists: 

In Demolitions. — They are effective only in destroying small 
advanced works, such as listening posts and small earthworks in 
process of construction. For this purpose the fire should be de- 
livered rapidly. One hundred and fifty to 200 small shells can de- 
molish a listening post and about 16 yards of the trench leading to 
it. 

In Offensive Fire.Action. — They are used during the artillery 
fire preparation for the attack against portions of the hostile line 
which .appear to be neglected by our artillery and high-power mor- 
tars. After the attack has been launched they a # re used against 
parts of the enemy's line which our infantry cannot reach and 
which must be prevented from taking in flank portions of our line 
which have advanced. 

In Defense. — When the enemy is evidently preparing to at- 
tack, the trench mortars which can not assist in repulsing the at- 
tack should not be left in exposed positions near the first line. 
They should be taken to the positions which have been prepared 
for them in rear, where they can bombard the trenches and ap- 
proaches which the enemy may occupy. 

In Causing Losses to the Enemy. — During lulls in the fight- 
ing rapid fire should be opened unexpectedly in order to harass the 
enemy during the heat of the day, during a rainstorm, on dark or 



TRENCH WARFARE 931 

still nights, when the enemy is changing reliefs, at the hours for 
meals, etc. Fire for this purpose may be combined with that of 
rifle grenades, whose functions are very similar to those of trench 
mortars. 

37-CALIBER (1.5-INCH) GUNS 

The tactical characteristics of the 37 gun are: Its mobility 
and the lightness of its ammunition permit it to accompany infan- 
try in all phases of the combat. It can be hidden easily, can be 
dug into the ground with little labor, and can be used for masked 
fire. It can be laid easily. It is very accurate. It can hit individual 
targets up to 1,300 yards, and has an effective range up to 1,600 
yards. It is a rapid firer, and, for short periods, can be fired as 
t fast as 20 rounds per minute. Its percussion-explosive shell is used 
iagainst personnel and materiel, and its steel shell is used against 
screens and shields. Its effectiveness is similar to that of a gren- 
ade, but its shell can pierce, before bursting, two or three thick- 
nesses of sandbags, a wooden barrier, or a steel shield. Its fire has 
very little effect upon earthworks. It can, by direct fire, destroy 
Ihostile machine guns which show themselves. Its fire is very ef- 
fective against troops upon which it can bring an enfilading fire. 

In Offensive Action. — The 37 guns are generally under the 
orders of the battalion commanders, but in some cases they are 
'kept at the disposal of the regimental commander. They are used 
for preparing and supporting attacks, for crushing hostile resist- 
ance during an assault, and for assisting in consolidating the occu- 
pation of a captured position. 1 

For the purpose of preparing and suporting an attack the 
37 gun must be placed, before the attack is started, in a position 
from which it .can fire effectively to destroy the positions of ma- 
chine guns which disclose themselves at the last moment, to fire 
upon positions which menace the flank of the attacking line, or to 
fire on the second or third lines of the enemy. In order to avoid 
'having them destroyed prematurely by hostile artillery fire it is 
better to keep them out of the action till the last moment. 

Use During the Assault. — During the assault the 37 guns are 
brought forward as soon as they can no longer fire effectively 
From their first positions or when the infantry need their assist- 
ance in crushing a hostile resistance. This change of position 
should be provided for in the order for the attack. On account 
of their vulnerability the 37 guns should never accompany the first 
waves of the attack; they should follow the reserve of the battalion 
Dr of the regiment. They are used in destroying machine gun po- 
sitions and in sweeping hostile trenches and approaches which can 
De fired on from enfilading positions. They should not be used at 



932 MILITARY TRAINING 

very short ranges when it can be avoided. They should use masked 
fire as far as possible. 

Occupation of the Captured Position. — In consolidating a 
captured position the employment of the 37 guns is similar to that 
of machine guns. They are placed so as to be able to fire on posi- 
tions from which it is thought that the enemy will launch a counter 
attack; positions for oblique fire are looked for. It is always advis- 
able to provide a number of masked positions to avoid being 
spotted by the hostile artillery. 

In Defense. — Attempts are constantly made to shell hostile 
firing positions and observation points reported by our informa- 
tion service. A number of positions should be prepared along the 
line assigned to the battalion and in rear of it. During the violent 
bombardment preceding a hostile attack the 37 guns should not be 
kept in the first line. By putting them in action near the line of 
supports, or a little in rear of that line, they can assist in making 
a barrage, especially by enfilading fire. They should fire on por- 
tions of our front where our artillery barrage is uncertain (on ac- 
count of natural obstacles, dead angles, etc.). 

Finally, the 37 gun is well adapted to masked fire; it can reg- 
ister on important approaches, trench crossings, etc. But the range 
should be checked at each shot, for, although it is a very accurate 
weapon, its range will change considerably during the course of 
one continuous firing if the atmospheric conditions change. 

TRENCH WEAPONS 

Trench artillery includes low-power weapons served by in- 1 
f antry detachments, known as sapper-bombardiers, and high-power 
weapons served by the artillery. The principal low-power weap-j 
ons in service are the pneumatic howitzers of 2.362 inches caliber 
and the D. R. bombard. The pneumatic howitzers include the 
Brandt howitzer, models 1915 and 1916 and the Dormoy-Chateau 
howitzer. 

It is especially necessary to bear in mind that the platform 
is the vital part of a battery; badly installed, it quickly becomes un- 
serviceable. Every chief of platoon should give his assistance to 
the organization and solidifying of the emplacements constructed 
in his neghborhood. There are never too many emplacements 
prepared in advance with a view to securing to these batteries the 
mobility necessary to escaping reprisals and frustrating the enemy. 

Pneumatic (2.362 inches Caliber, Brandt) Howitzer, Model 
1915. — This compressed-air howitzer is composed of a tube of 60 
millimeters (2.362 inches) interior diameter, the annular reservoir; 
and the movable breechblock. On the part carrying the breech- 
block hinge are two threaded orifices for the coupling of air-sup- 






TRENCH WARFARE 



933 



ply tubes and also a safety plug. Feeding is accomplished by air 
pumps or by tanks of compressed air. By using tanks, a rapidity 
of fire of eighteen shots per minute can be attained. 

The personnel consists of one chief of piece and observer, 
one gunner and one loader. The action is simple: Give the eleva- 
tion and connect the howitzer to the pumps or tanks; take the pro- 
jectile, wipe it, set the fuse, load, close the breechblock; introduce 




BRANDT HOWITZER, TYPE 1915. 



the air until the pressure gauge on the feed tube indicates the de- 
sired pressure; discharge the piece by working the sear with the 
finger. 

Variation in range is obtained by changing the elevation 
(angle of fire) and the air pressure in conformity with a table that 
is added to the equipment. The pressure varies from 4.4 to 33 
pounds; the angles employed are 20°, 30°, 42°, and 60°; the angle 
42° is most used. The accuracy is good. Bracketing is accom- 
plished by changes of 2.2 to 4.4 pounds of air pressure. In enfil- 
ade fire one can almost at once get on a trench 1 yard wide up to 
range of 160 yards. Accuracy decreases normally with the range 
and very rapidly from 219 to 1,094 yards. The safety valve func- 

.tions at a pressure of 33 pounds. 

c Light Brandt Howitzer, Model 1916. — Same discharge tube 

iand same annular reservoir, as the preceding, but with fixed 

{breechblock and loading at the muzzle. 

The piece fires at a fixed angle (42°) from an aluminum sup- 
port to which it is rigidly attached. The entire weight is 35.2 

I pounds, and it is easily transportable in an attack. 

( Aside from loadng at the muzzle, the manipulation of the 

;piece is the same as for the model 1915 firing at a constant angle. 

-Assure yourself that the projectile has fallen to the bottom of 
the bore. Do not push it, if it has to be pushed, until you have 



934 MILITARY TRAINING 

put the pressure gauge at 0°. A graduated sector and a clamp 
screw assure the horizontal direction of the piece. The breech- 
block can be unscrewed for the purpose of extracting a projectile 
of improper caliber that cannot be pushed to its proper seat. 

Dormoy-Chateau Pneumatic Howitzer, Model 1916. — This 
light howitzer weighing 33 pounds has about the same character- 
istics as the preceding. It is a muzzle-loader and fires at a fixed 
angle with variable pressure. It is fired by pump or tank. The 
original feature of this engine is that the gas check is at the muz- 
zle; the air compressed in the reservoir by the pumps is forced into 
the discharge tube both in front and in rear of the projectile. When 
the desired pressure is attained, the gas check is unbolted by means 
of a lanyard; the pressure in front of the projectile at once falls, 
and the latter is expelled by the mass of expanding air behind it. 
The pneumatic howitzers of 60 millimeters (2.362 inches) caliber 
fire the two following projectiles: 

Projectile, Type A, Model 1915. — Cast-iron shell interiorly 
prepared for fragmentation, weighing 2 pounds, 1 ounce, 221 grains, 
of which 4 ounces, 102 grains is explosive; length, 8.26 inches; fish 
shape, rear feathering of four sheet-iron guide wings. Percussion 
fuse functioning by inertia; security assured by a pin traversing 
the fuse, and that must be removed before firing. In addition, the 
fuse is protected by a cap that can not be removed, but that can 
be given a quarter turn after having removed the pin, in order to 
mask the holes in the fuse through which this pin passed. 

Projectile, Type B, Model 1916. — This projectile is shorter 
and lighter than type A, but has a greater range. Its safety is in- 
sured by the fact that the firing pin does not project far enough 
to reach the primer. A wire is wound around the shank of the fir- 
ing pin like a thread around the spindle, and when the ring is 
jerked the firing pin turns and advances in a screw hole in the 
cap of the fuse and thus acquires the projection necessary to be- 
come active. 

D. R. Bombard. — This engine is composed of a metallic base 
on which are disposed 4 gun barrels, with a breech casing. These 
barrels are truncated to 15^4 inches, or thereabouts, from the be- 
ginning of the chamber and close hermetically. On each one are 
brazed two mandrels for the projection of the D. R. grenade. Fir- 
ing is accomplished by means of a lanyard that simultaneously pulls 
the four triggers; eight D. R. grenades are thus projected at once. 

PROTECTION AGAINST ASPHYXIATING GASES 

In the zone fixed by the commanding officer, a zone which, 
may extend to several miles from the trenches, every one should al- 
ways carry the mask M..2 or TNH. Its use is taught by means of 



TRENCH WARFARE 935 

frequent drills and the following principles should be remembered: 

1. The individual apparatus is the only real preventative. 
Its efficacy lasts several hours, after which it should be replaced. 
2. No individual apparatus is efficacious if it has not been per- 
fectly adjusted beforehand, if it is not hermetically sealed. 3. No 
apparatus is efficacious if it is not ready to be put in place quickly 
when the need arises. One should verify by alarms that there 
has been no relaxation in precaution, and that the protections pre- 
pared beforehand work quickly and properly. 4. All wetting of 
masks is expressly forbidden. 5. During a gas attack never al- 
low the masks to be removed prematurely. 6. Keep a careful 
watch at all times for particular manifestations on the part of the 
enemy indicating a gas attack (metallic noises, small ballons, etc.). 
When the wind is favorable redouble the attention and be ready 
for instant action. 

The main body should be notified of any sign of unusual ac- 
tivity on the part of the enemy. 

Mask M. 2 or TNH. — This presents the advantage of having 
only a single apparatus to put on to protect both the eyes and the 
lungs. It is made in one regular size, adjustable to the majority 
of heads, and two extra sizes for heads of abnormal conformation. 
The translucent substance does not stand washing. In the model 
with two separate eyepieces the translucent plate is protected by 
a glass plate, the inner face of which sometimes becomes covered 
with moisture; if it is known beforehand that the mask must be 
worn for some time, the glass plates should be removed before us- 
ing, after making sure that the seating of the plate that remains is 
sufficient to properly seal it. Every mask with a cracked plate 
should be replaced. The men should be warned against touching 
the translucent plates, which are fragile, especially after having 
been dampened by respiration. 

Draeger Apparatus. — An apparatus composed of a bottle of 
oxygen, a respiratory sac, a cartridge of potassium to absorb the 
carbonic acid expelled from the lungs, and a flexible tube with a 
rubber mouthpiece (two bottles and two cartridges for renewal). 
Breathing is done through the mouth, the nose being closed by a 
clip. It is serviceable for a half hour if the initial pressure of the 
bottle of oxygen is 330 pounds. It is forbidden to exhaust it pre- 
maturely under the pretext of testing it, or even to uncork prema- 
turely the bottle. The Draeger apparatus is suitable for the equip- 
ment of life savers having received a special training. 

Eyepieces and Antimoisture Chalk. — Rubber spectacle?, hol- 
lowed out and forming a mask or pneumatic spectacles, are the 
habitual complement of the Draeger apparatus. Antimoisture 
chalk is employed on ordinary glass plates; it is useless on those 
of antimoisture glass (recognizable by being mounted in alumi- 



936 'MILITARY TRAINING 

num ring having serrated edges). To clean the translucent plates 
rub lightly the part turned toward the eye with the chalk, spread 
it with the finger, rub with a dry cloth, removing all signs of the 
chalk, until the surface becomes bright again. 

Tissot Apparatus. — The Tissot apparatus is a filtering appa- 
ratus and not one producing oxygen; it is a more perfect mask 
than the M. 2, and has no similarity to the Dfaeger, which it can 
not take the place of, and which alone makes it possible to breathe 
in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen. The Tissot mask is effica- 
cious for some dozens of hours, if it has been properly taken 
care of. It is an apparatus of the sector, to be used in command 
posts, in support positions, in machine gun shelters, in observation 
and signal posts; it is suitable for everyone required to remain for 
a long time in a noxious atmosphere not deprived of oxygen. 

Atomizers. — Apparatuses for collective protection. They 
are delicate and do not work unless held properly and manipulated 
by men who have been exercised in their use. They will not neu- 
tralize a wave of gas, but serve during the attack and in a closed 
shelter to keep the canvas of the shelter wet or to absorb the gas 
which has filtered through the cracks; after the attack they serve 
to purify the air in the shelter and even in the trenches. 

It must be remembered that gas always has the tendency to 
sink, and that it is there (in hollows and low ground) that it must 
be fought. 

Protection of Shelters. — To protect a shelter, prepare in ad- 
vance a panel of canvas made waterproof (parrafin, linseed oil, 
pint) or impregnated with hyposulfite, by -which the entrance may 
quickly be hermetically closed. Put up as soon as possible a sec- 
ond canvas from 20 inches to 1 yard from the first. Keep damp- 
ened by the atomizer, worked from the interior. If nothing better 
is at hand, use the men's blankets. 

Special Methods. — The collective methods which follow give 
only relative protection; Fire barrier: The burning of dry ma- 
terial giving a line of high and hot flames and little smoke may, 
under favorable circumstances, lift the wave of gas when it arrives 
at the trench. If possible, two barriers close together should be 
prepared, one on the parapet and the other on the reverse slope. 
Volatile oil is more suitable than petroleum or other oily combus- 
tibles. Isolated fires: These can protect fairly well particular 
points, such as the entrance to a shelter. They are valuable for 
purifying the air in the trench and shelter after the passage of 
the wave of gas. Black-powder bombs or shells, explosive shells, 
machine gun fire, throwing of incendiary grenades, etc., have no 
effect on a wave of gas. 

Protection Against Carbon Dioxide. — Gas from the enemy 
is not the only danger; carbon dioxide, produced by our own car- 



TRENCH WARFARE 937 

tridges, is another in closed casemates. A single cartridge pro- 
duces almost a quart of carbon dioxide. The gas escaping from the 
mechanism of a machine gun varies from one-sixth to one-tenth of 
the gas produced; the air in a shelter, 20 square meters (215 square 
feet), thus becomes poisoned after 250 to 300 shots, if the escape of 
- gas takes place in the interior of the shelter. 

The employment of a flash concealer also conserves gas in a 
shelter. It is necessary therefore to arrange the machine gun in 
such manner that the orifice for the escape of gas is outside the 
shelter or to assure a good ventilation of the shelter. It must also 
be remembered that the mask M. 2 jand Tissot mask furnish no 
protection against carbon dioxide. They should never be employed 
as means of rescue following shell explosions or in a mine cham- 
ber; recourse must be had to the Draeger to penetrate into places 
devoid of oxygen or saturated with carbon dioxide. 



INFANTRY IN THE TRENCHES 



Infantry in the trenches is usually in a position in readiness 

, for combat, a situation which is sometimes prolonged for several 

: m6nths and permits of thorough organization. 

During very short crises, it is attacked in its trenches or it 

. moves out to attack. 

The Plan of Defense. — The commander of troops in a posi- 
tion in readiness must study in advance the various missions that 
may eventually be given him, to keep himself informed as to the sit- 
uation, and to reconnoiter or cause to be reconnoitered the terrain 
involved. In this way he will be ready, when the moment comes, 
to enter into action with his troops without loss of time and under 
the best of conditions. This regulation contains in brief form the 
duties of the officers of a company detailed for the defense of a 
strong point or sector. 

Every commander of a unit, large or small, must establish a 
plan of defense with a view to fighting superior forces on the 
ground which has been intrusted to him. It is based upon knowl- 
edge of the hostile line and of the terrain from which result: The 

.determination of the probable points of attack; the choice of the 
principal points of resistance (active elements or sectors) and the 
strength of the force that will occupy them; the preparation of 
counter attacks; and the organization of approaches, food supply, 
evacuations, and communications. 

A paragraph of the plan of defense is called plan of observa- 
tion and prescribes the observation from the ground. The plan 
of defense should embody the following principles; 



938 MILITARY TRAINING 

1. The defense in depth is made by stopping the enemy at 
successive points skillfully selected in advance and prepared for 
resistance. 

2. Every element of trench, every isle of resistance (barri- 
cades, organized trench crossings, small works, and the like) 
must have a commander responsible for its defense and mainten- 
ance. 

3. Troops detailed to the defense of a portion of the terrain 
must never abandon it, no matter what happens. It is necessary 
to remove from the minds of the troops every ambiguity on this 
subject; the existence of stronger lines of defense in rear of the 
trench occupied, the echeloning of the company into advanced ele- 
ments (squads, half platoons) and main body placed farther to the 
rear, never implies for these advanced elements the authority for 
falling back on the main body, even if they consider their situation 
critical. All resistance must be prolonged on the ground, in the 
position where the troops have been placed; resistance ceases only 
when one is placed hors de combat or has received from his supe- 
rior commander a formal and authentic order (preferably in writ- 
ing) to go and occupy another position. Every order arriving ver- 
bally by an uncertain route must be considered null and void (to 
be particularly mistrusted are orders for a retreat passing anony- 
mously along the firing line). The "conduct to be observed in case 
of attack" is given to the smallest elements, and must always be 
very clear on this subject. 

4. All ground lost is recovered by an immediate counter at- 
tack delivered by troops reserved for that purpose. In a strong 
point (company), one or more support platoons may have the mis- 
sion of local counter attacks in certain contingencies announced in 
the plan of defense of the supporting point. The company occupy- 
ing a part of the line has no reserve. The counter attacks are espe- 
cially provided for and launched by the battalion commander, who 
has at his disposal for this purpose the reserves of the strong 
point (companies, half companies, or platoons). The plan of de- 
fense of the strong points covers the principal contingencies of the 
penetration of the hostile line in front of the battalion and provides 
the proper counter attack for each case. Each company or platoon 
receives copies of the part of the plan that concerns it. 

Reconnaissance of the Strong Point. — When a company is to 
go into trenches the reconnaissance must be made in daytime by 
the captain and the commander or a non-commissioned officer of 
each platoon. It is sufficient to leave in rear an officer or non- 
commissioned officer to lead the company during the night to the 
beginning of the trenches. In addition, the reconnoitering party 
includes the communicating file of the captain and four guides (one 
per platoon). The four guides return to the rear to meet the com- 



TRENCH WARFARE 939 

pany at the place and hour agreed upon, while the rest of the re- 
connoitering party remains in the trenches to familiarize them- 
selves with the plan of defense and the terrain. This personnel 
may be reduced when the company is to be the battalion reserve in 
the strong point. 

Plan of Defense of the Strong Point.— The four platoon 
commanders assembled at the command post of the captain, take 
note of the plan of defense of the strong point and the explanations 
of the captain of the company relieved. The captain then distrib- 
utes the four platoons among the different elements of the strong 
point. He prescribes the groupings of the grenadiers and automa- 
tic-rifle sections that it may be necessary to make up in addition 
to the usual sections, in accordance with the provisions of the plan 
of defense. Each platoon commander, accompanied by his com- 
municating file and his guide, then takes post near the platoon 
commander of the platoon that he relieves. The relieving captain 
is not at all obliged to pattern his dispositions and instructions 
after those of his predecessor, unless these dispositions have been 
ordered by superior authority. However, to facilitate relief by 
night, always a delicate operation, it is recommended the relief be 
made platoon by platoon and even squad by squad, and those mod- 
ifications which the captain may wish to make in the interior dis- 
tribution of the forces in his strong point be postponed until day- 
light. 

Plan of Defense and Instructions for Each Platoon. — Each 
platoon commander inspects quickly the elements of trenches and 
the shelters which his platoon is to occupy, and also the command 
post. He then sends back his communicating file to the captain 
and his guide to the head of the company, after having indicated 
to the latter the distribution of the squads. The guide returns by 
the approach trench (a signpost indicates if movement in only one 
direction is permitted), takes note en route of the necessary ref- 
erence points, signposts, and the like. The platoon commander ob- 
tains from the platoon commander whom he relieves the extract of 
the plan of defense that concerns the trench or trenches occu- 
pied by the platoon and has the terrain pointed out to him in detail. 
This extract of the plan of defense shows: For the platoons in the 
first line, the precise role of each of the elements of trench or isles 
'of resistance of which the defense is intrusted to the platoon (for 
example, to cover with fire such and such part of the terrain in 
front, to flank such and such a neighboring element, and so on); 
for the reinforcement platoons, the combat stations in case of 
alarm, the role of reinforcing or counter attack to play in the con- 
tingencies covered by the plan of defense of the strong point. 

The task given to a platoon occupying a part of a line, 
either in trenches or in combat, is very simple: The difficult part 



940 MILITARY TRAINING 

is to communicate it to subordinates with such precision and clear- 
ness that at the critical moment no one will allow himself to be 
turned aside from his role by the obstacles, foreseen or unforeseen, 
that are sure to arise. To do exactly what has been ordered, to 
carry out to the letter what has been recognized as necessary in 
defense, as in all other operations of a platoon, is the whole secret 
of success. 

TACTICAL MEMORANDUM FOR THE CHIEF OF 
PLATOON 

When the platoon commander has thoroughly grasped the 
particular role of his platoon in the whole plan of defense, he easily 
deduces from it all the measures of tactical detail which will be his 
constant occupation during his sojourn in the trenches. He re- 
ceives from his predecessor all the information which may be 
summed up in the following memorandum, which also applies to 
every chief of a trench or small work: 

1; Extract from the Plan of Defense. — Role of the trench 
in the entire position; detailed sketch of its organization; role of 
the adjacent platoons; communications with them and with the 
captain. 

2. Defense. — Organization of the defense of the trench 
(firing positions, fields of fire, flanking arrangements, positions 
for machine guns and automatic rifles, positions for grenadiers, po- 
sitions for trench weapons, and points exposed to fire; positions, 
strength, and capacity of shelters; arrangements for protection 
against gas; nearest dressing stations). 

Accessory defenses. Obstructed passages through the wire 
entanglements. 

Information concerning the enemy; sketches of the hostile 
trench; summary of the results of observation, reference points. 

Dangerous points; projectiles received; menaces of mining 
operations; unexploded projectiles. 

3. Guards. — Lookout posts; instructions of particular look- 
outs; listening posts; patrols in front of the accessory defenses; 
rounds. 

4. Materiel. — Niches for cartridges and grenades; fuses; 
condition of grenades and fuses; shields; periscopes; tools for earth 
work or demolition; various materials that the captain has been 
able to install permanently; appliances for defense against gas; 
nearest water supply. 

5. Works in Progress or Ordered. — Trenches to maintain 
in rear. 

6. Location of the Latrines. — Holes for garbage; state of 
cleanliness or lack of cleanliness of the trench. 



TRENCH WARFARE 941 

In order to facilitate the transmission of instructions, each 
chief of a trench must make note of the preceding information and 
pass it on in writing to his successor. 

Distribution of the Platoon Between the Firing Trench and 
the Support Trench. — As the occupancy of a strong point by the 
same company may last several days, it is necessary to define 
clearly for each fraction (and in each fraction for each man) the 
alternations of rest and duty, rather than to let all the men stay 
in the trenches in a situation that is neither rest nor combat. The 
principle is to keep in the firing trench only the men strictly neces- 
sary for watching, ordinary fighting, and work (strength varying 
from one-third to one-sixth of the company). The other men are 
in the cover trench or the support trench at rest or occupied in 
other work. 

According to circumstances, the captain causes the platoons 
of the company to take the duty in the front line in rotation, or, 
better, gives to two or three of them a definite frontage, disposing 
them in depth, and keeping one or two platoons grouped in the 
support trench as a reinforcement. The platoon commander then 
organizes his service by causing squads or men to alternate on 
the firing line (lookouts, grenadiers, riflemen, and so on). 

The only absolute rule is that every trench of the firing line 
must have at all times a responsible chief present in the trench 
(sergeant of the guard) and that a strict discipline must reign 
among the men who are there at their posts of combat. 

They must be relieved often enough to enable their attention 
to be continuous, and care must be taken that they are not kept 
in the firing trench when their turn has come for relaxation or 
sleep. 

For the same purpose the captain details by roster an officer 
of the guard (platoon commander) charged with watching the 
whole front of the strong point. 

Organization of the Guard and the Harassing Fire. — The 
guard of the trenches is intended not only to prevent the enemy 
from rushing them, but also to observe continually the details of 
his defensive organization, and to take advantage of his slightest 
movement to inflict losses. 

Choice and Training of Lookouts. — All the men of the com- 
pany can fill the role of sentinel alongside of a bombproof, but all 
men are not capable of observing. Some men are more apt than 
others; aptitude is developed by exercise. The training of good 
observers is a most important task. It is necessary that the observ- 
ers shall not only know how to see without being seen, but that 
they shall also have tenacity and patience in observation. Each 
platoon should have at least six observers, who should be good 
shots and have good eyesight. In combat in open country two 



942 MILITARY TRAINING 

accompany and assist the platoon commander, one of whom ob- 
serves constantly the signals of the communicating file of the pla- 
toon, who marches at the side of the captain. The other four may 
serve as scouts. In the trenches they alternate in serving as 
lookouts. The communicating agents of the captain and of the 
battalion commander serve them as observers. They divide up the 
terrain to be watched, observing the movements of the enemy and 
those of their own troops, and the signals. In every unit the chief 
indicates without delay to his superiors (and to the artillery) the 
points which afford a good view over the surrounding country. 

Requirement of Harassing Fire. — The harassing fire must be. 
the constant care of every platoon commander of all troops to keep 
up the continual fear of retaliation. The war of the trenches is 
neither a relaxation nor guard duty; it is a phase of the battle. It 
is necessary that each hostile company shall go back from the 
trenches with a loss of at least 20 men. It is necessary that the ad- 
versary shall feel in front of him a vigilant hatred, and know that 
we wish no rest before his defeat. 

Lookouts. — The lookouts always keep their rifles in their 
hands; they are forbidden to sit down. They must remain con- 
tinually at their posts, even during violent bombardments. They 
receive general instructions for the following cases: Attack by 
surprise or preceded by a bombardment; attack preceded by a dis- 
charge of gas; arrival of bombs. They receive, in addition, certain 
special instructions for each post. 

Sector Lookouts. — Some men, called sector lookouts, watch 
a clearly defined part of the hostile defenses. It is advisable to 
establish the sectors slightly oblique, so as to protect the lookout 
from shots from the front when he has to fire. The sectors over- 
lap slightly. The sector lookouts observe either through a loop- 
hole placed obliquely in the parapet or with a periscope. Equally 
good for a general view of the hostile trenches is a small mirror 
fixed on the end of a stick. The officer of the guard is informed 
by signal of the least change in the appearance of the hostile line 
(accessory defenses, earth moved, and so on) and of every indica- 
tion of preparation for an attack. The written instructions for 
each lookout post are completed, if possible, by a panoramic sketch, 
with reference points. 

Lookouts for Observation Points. — Other lookouts keep 
special watch on points to which attention has been drawn by pre- 
ceding observations and upon which it may be hoped to place a 
successful rifle shot. They endeavor to remain unseen and to ob- | 
serve through a very narrow and concealed loophole. Patient, at- 
tentive observation always ends in furnishing valuable information 
as to the regime of the opposing troops (hours of relief, of food 
supply, and the like). The dust raised by a shot, the smoke of a 



TRENCH WARFARE 943 

cigarette, may reveal a loophole habitually occupied; it should then 
be watched with a field glass and an attempt made to lay upon it a 
rifle supported on a rest or an automatic rifle. Earth being thrown 
up discloses a fatigue party at work, a shelter under construction. 
A slight elevation or some smoke betrays the location of shelters. 
The study of the general plan and of aerial photographs may make 
it possible to locate on the ground the trench crossings and the im- 
portant approaches upon which it will be well to fire with the 
trench weapons during the hours when these elements are thought 
to be occupied. When the enemy bombards our lines curiosity will 
cause his men to look through their loopholes to see the effect 
produced; it is the moment to get at them. All other methods are 
good for drawing them out — cries, mannikins, pretended fires, pla- 
cards, and the like. Effort should be made to discover his machine 
guns, flanking pieces, mine throwers, observation points, and so on, 
to interpret ingeniously the slightest abnormal object or indication 
that appears in front. It is indispensable to have this information 
in case of attack on our part and also to keep up the daily wear and 
tear of the enemy. 

Listening Posts or Advanced Posts. — These serve to watch 
the accessory defenses when they are of great depth, or to flank 
the front of the trenches. The trench connecting them with the 
firing trench should be arranged so that it can be obstructed or 
barricaded instantly by the sentinel, who retires after giving the 
alarm. In addition, it should be placed without a dead angle under 
the fire of a loophole in the trench, oriented especially for this pur- 
pose. Listening posts should not be misused, as they are rather 
easy objectives for surprise attacks and they rob the firing line 
of places for several loopholes. When they are opposite to hostile 
advanced posts, they may be organized for a triple group of grena- 
diers. 

Lookouts of the Support and Reserve Trenches. — Lookouts 
are placed near the command posts of the support and reserve 
trenches to observe the whole terrain and repeat the various sig- 
nals from the firing trenches. 

Patrols. — The guard is reinforced at night by patrols whose 
field of action and strength depend on the proximity of the enemy. 
They are armed with shotguns, pistols, and offensive grenades. 
They are detailed by the captain or the battalion commander. 
Their strength is sufficient to enable them to bring in wounded 
men and prisoners, and, if necessary, to establish a line of commu- 
nication back to the point of departure. They always have a defi- 
nite mission: to go and reconnoiter such a point, to prepare an 
ambuscade at such a place, to remain there and listen a certain 
fixed time, and so on. The success of a patrol depends on the 
choice of the commander — on his will and audacity. His men pro- 
60 



944 MILITARY TRAINING 

tect and escort him, but it is he who must go and see. It is nec- 
essary to fix the hour and the point where they shall pass out of 
the lines (through a concealed passage prepared in the wire en- 
tanglements or by way of a listening post), their itinerary, the 
point and the probable hour of their return within the lines. All 
this information should be given at the proper time to the ser- 
geants of the guard and to the neighboring companies, in order to 
avoid mistakes. The lookouts are notified that the patrol may be I 
obliged to withdraw by an unexpected route. The chief of the 
patrol must have a luminous compass. He distributes his men at 
variable distances, depending on the darkness of the night, so as 
not to lose them; he assures himself before starting that their equip- 
ment will make no noise; he tells them the mission and how to con- 
duct themselves; he arranges with them a few very simple signals. 

Organization of Defensive Fire. — Although in the normal 
case only the active segments of the line of fire will be occupied, 
the platoon commander must arrange for the occupation of the 
entire line and for firing either through the loopholes or over the 
parapet. Some of the traverses should be loopholed for the interior 
flanking of the trench. Means of obstruction should be prepared. 
These at the ends of the trenches should be especially defended. 
A loophole should always be examined to determine: That it is 
not obstructed; that it is well oriented; that it sweeps the ground 
thoroughly; that it is suited to the height of the man. After several 
cleanings of a trench the loopholes are often found to be too 
high above the bottom; they must be made over or benches must 
be used. The loopholes should be assigned to the men in advance 
and the men should be placed in the shelter in regular order so 
that in case of alarm the man sleeping nearest to the exit of the 
shelter will run to the farthest loophole. 

Organization of Communications. — Communication between 
the captain and the chief of platoon is maintained by messengers 
(communication agents) or by square signal flags. The company 
has two signal lanterns that serve to parallel the telephone lines 
to the battalion commander or to a neighboring company. Every 
telephone line should be paralleled by a system of visual signals, 
provided for in the plan of defense, and should be operated at 
least once a day as a test (for example, to send one of the regular 
daily reports). Note should be made of information sent by adja- 
cent stations. The fact that mechanical means of transmission 
have failed under given circumstances will not be understood to 
excuse a commander for remaining in ignorance of important 
changes occurring in the situation of his command or for not hav- 
ing exercised the necessary personal control over the progress of 
events. 



TRENCH WARFARE 945 

Organization of Work. — The platoons are charged with the 
duty of maintenance of the trenches, parallels, and approaches that 
they occupy, the constant improvement of their accessory defenses, 
and the new works required in their terrain (principally shelters). 
The captain also assigns to the platoons the maintenance of the 
trenches in rear and the general fatigue work of the strong point, 
utilizing especially the platoons in support. The role of a platoon 
commander is to divide the whole task among working groups of 
small strength, each under a chief. This chief is made responsible 
for a well-defined task entirely possible of execution. The pla- 
toon commander shows him by day what he will have to do at 
night, has him place all the necessary marks so that he can find 
his way in the darkness, and sees that the chief of the group has 
the necessary wooden measuring rods for verifying at all times 
the dimensions to be followed. The platoon commander suggests 
to the captain new works which he considers useful for improving 
the flanking arrangements or the communications. 

Communication with the Adjacent Platoons. — Finally, with a 
view to developing cohesion, it is made the duty of the platoon 
commander to be in communication and to maintain frequent and 
personal relations with the chiefs of the adjacent subdivisions, with 
the trench artillery, the sappers and miners working in the strong 
point, and so on; he should visit the observation points giving a 
view over his terrain and over the terrain of the units alongside of 
him. In order that he may be able to devote the greater part of 
his time to these occupations of a tactical nature, he requires his 
subordinates to familiarize themselves very promptly with all the 
details of the service of the trench and makes them responsible 
for it. 

DETAILED SERVICE OF THE TRENCH 

Upon the arrival of the platoon, each squad takes its place; 
the lookouts, the listening posts, the non-commissioned officer of 
the guard take up their duties as prescribed for the night. 

The platoon commanders and the company commander who 
are being relieved do not withdraw till they have completely trans- 
ferred their duties and have received notice from their successors 
that they are no longer needed. Their successors then become re- 
sponsible, and make report to their immediate chiefs that the re- 
lief is accomplished. In case of attack during the relief the com- 
mand continues to be exercised by the chiefs of the units that are 
being relieved. 

Leaving the Trenches. — Have the men get ready before the 
time of relief. See that the portable tools and the camp equipment 
are carried away. Leave in the trenches the grenades and the car- 



946 MILITARY TRAINING 

tridges in excess of regular individual equipment. Inspect the 
trench to make sure that nothing is overlooked. Leave the trench, 
the shelters, and the latrines in the highest state of cleanliness. 

Faults Noted During the Execution of Reliefs. — In their 
haste to leave, the officers and non-commissioned officers of the 
subdivisions relieved transmit only incomplete instructions. The 
incoming officers and non-commissioned officers confine them- 
selves to replacing the sentinels and housing the men in the 
shelters; they do only what is indispensable. The information 
transmitted is very vague, and frequently consists merely of a 
statement of the signs of more or less extensive activity on the 
part of the enemy. Consequently the new occupants, poorly in- 
formed and oriented, are for some time at the mercy of an attack, 
and it happens occasionally that they fire on other portions of our 
line. 

Service by Day and by Night. — The duties should be known 
by all in advance. The forces to be placed on duty by day and by 
night are fixed by the captain, who is responsible for the preser- 
vation of the strong point. 

By Day: The service requires a certain number of lookouts 
per platoon; in addition there may be detailed by platoon or from 
the company a picket subdivision, which remains in one place, 
without taking part in distant fatigue or other work. 

By Night: The necessary men are placed in line in the inter- 
vals between the lookouts to assure the protection of each trench. 
Frequently the listening posts are occupied only at night. Night 
and day there is a sergeant of the guard in each trench and an offi- 
cer of the guard (chief of platoon) for the company as a whole. 

Employment of Time. — The chief of platoon regulates the 
employment of the men who are not on duty. He requires them 
to rest in the shelters or details them for the different pieces of 
work that he orders or that are prescribed for him. He should 
know at all times who is asleep, who is on guard, and who is at 
work. 

Rounds and Patrols. — Rounds have for their object the con- 
trol of the service of the company as a whole. They are made by 
officers and non-commissioned officers (especially those of the pla- 
toons in support). The captain prescribes the number of rounds 
which the patrols shall make and fixes the hours of departure. He 
receives a report at the termination of each round. Patrols may 
also be ordered by the captain. 

Alarms. — Frequent calls to arms must be made to make sure 
that every man goes quickly to his place and knows what to do 
when he gets there. This is the best method of detecting faulty 
arrangements. A daily call to arms is made before daybreak. It is 
followed by a roll call. Gas alarms are also made. 



TRENCH WARFARE 947 

Uniforms, etc. — The helmet is invariably worn; the gas mask 
must always be kept within easy reach of the hand; the men must 
be completely equipped; the intrenching tool is attached to the 
waist belt at all times. Haversacks, pouches, canteens, blankets, 
etc., are arranged in orderly fashion in the dugouts. 

Rifles. — In the firing trenches the men always keep their 
rifles in their hands, even during meals. In the other trenches 
small-arm racks may be constructed at the doors or inside of the 
dugouts. If a man leaves the immediate vicinity of his dugout he 
takes his rifle with him. No one should ever be found in the com- 
municating trenches without his rifle. At night every man sleeps 
with his rifle at his side. With the exception of those fixed in 
frames, rifles should never be left in the loopholes. The former 
are withdrawn whenever a bombardment is anticipted. The rifles 
are covered with a sleeve of cloth tied on with a string. Introducing 
a plug of any kind — paper, cloth, wood, or grease — into the muzzle 
of a rifle is prohibited. To avoid accidents and weakening the main- 
springs, rifles are habitually kept unloaded. The magazines are 
always kept charged, usually with only four cartridges,, so as to 
avoid weakening the spring. 

Cartridges. — The recesses for ammunition should be kept 
dry, and their location should be known to everybody. Only a few 
packages are opened beforehand. Sticking the points of the car- 
tridges in the ground is absolutely prohibited. The empty car- 
tridge boxes are collected by each platoon and sent to the com- 
pany property depot. 

Hand Grenades and Rockets. — Grenades and rockets are 
kept, if possible, in zinc lined chests, well protected from the action 
of the weather. Very small recesses, capable of holding a few gren- 
ades, are constructed here and there along the trench, behind bar- 
ricades, and in the dugouts. 

It is well to put ammunition and grenades in sand bags con- 
taining an invariable number. This division allows a man already 
loaded to carry one of these sacks. The carriers, by tying two 
or four together, can make a pack which they can carry on their 
shoulders or back. This system is equally convenient for the re- 
plenishment of munitions and the supplies to the firing line in com- 
bat. At night, the lookout places the sack of grenades at his side, 
rolling up its edges. In the morning he places it in a niche, the 
danger of surprise having passed. 

Property Depots. — As a rule there is only one depot of ma- 
terial per company (near the company command post). But, to 
prevent waste, the commanders of platoons, or trenches, may form 
a small depot for the collection of intrenching tools and other 
trench material furnished them, and which are not in actual use. 



948 MILITARY TRAINING 

A depot for a company should contain at least 500 grenades, placed 
in sand bags. 

Prevention of Waste. — All carelessness leading to waste must 
be suppressed severely, and the men must be made to comprehend 
that the sum of many individual negligences will attain a figure 
for which no system of production at the bases can compensate. 
Munitions left out in the rain deteriorate or are lost in the mud 
or in unnoticed holes. Bayonets and unserviceable rifles have been 
used by the supports, haversacks have been used as sand bags, 
etc. All surplus material, all scrap metal, fragments of leather, 
etc., should be collected by each section and sent to the company 
depot. Fatigue parties are sent to all abandoned communicating 
trenches to bring in any property that may have been left there. 
Any man who, in the course of fatigue or special duty, finds tools, 
munitions, or abandoned property of any description, should carry 
the same to his officers. Reserve rations should never be eaten 
without orders, or as a result of laziness. Waste in all of its forms 
must be severely repressed. It is a proof of indolence and indisci- 
pline. 

Messing. — At the prescribed hour, after observing the ene- 
my's artillery, the usual fatigue party from each company leaves 
the trench under the command of the non-commissioned officer in 
charge (supply sergeant) assisted by a corporal. The responsible 
officer sends back by them such property as can not be used, the 
empty ammunition boxes, the arms of the killed and wounded, 
which they turn in to the supply officer. Food is distributed at the 
station of the rolling kitchen which accompanies the supply ser- 
geant, who is left by the company with the supply train to draw 
rations and to attend to their careful preparation. After the food 
has been served out, the fatigue party returns in a formed body, 
headed by the corporal and followed by the sergeant in charge, 
who is required to bring up the rear. The sergeant in charge re- 
ports to the captain the return of the detail, and its dispersal to 
the several platoons. The platoon commander makes every effort 
to reheat the soup and coffee (using charcoal, faggots, etc.). He in- 
spects the mess kits, and should bear in mind that if, in spite of all 
difficulties, he succeeds in making the meals in the trenches agree- 
able, he is exercising a most salutary moral influence upon his men. 

INFANTRY ATTACKED IN ITS TRENCHES 

The trenches may have to repel a surprise attack or an at- 
tack preceded by a violent bombardment. Either may be prepared 
by an emission of gas or by the fire of aspyxiating shells. 

Surprise Attacks. — Surprise attacks, either by night or day,' 
have no hope of success unless the duties of the lookouts have 



TRENCH WARFARE 949 

been poorly performed, or the men have not been sufficiently exer- 
cised in responding to alarms, or the accessory or flanking defenses 
are insufficient. The enemy will then take advantage of the con- 
fusion to which even good troops are liable when they are too con- 
fident that nothing is going to happen. 

The preventive is to keep the troops in the trenches always 
in the atmosphere of combat by causing them to actively wage a 
harassing warfare. If the enemy is constantly annoyed and de- 
prived of his rest he gets a clear idea of what is to be expected 
from intact trenches. 

Attacks After Bombardments. — The attack most often mani- 
fests itself in a bombardment of extraordinary violence, directed 
on all of the fronts and communications of the first line and even of 
the second. Before each assault a heavy concentration of fire is 
directed on the first objectives assigned to the infantry and a bar- 
rage fire in rear of the objectives. At the end of some hours, or 
even of one, two, or three days, the enemy judges that the accessory 
defenses have been destroyed, the trenches leveled, and that 
the defenders left in the few dugouts that remain intact are com- 
pletely demoralized. He then "lifts" his fire, at the same time main- 
taining the barrage, his infantry suddenly emerges from his 
trenches "following the projectiles at a run," and assaults our line. 
To defend his battered trench, deprived of a portion of its 
defenders, is an extremely hazardous task, the difficulties of which 
one must not be afraid to point out beforehand. 

But from numerous examples of defenses that have been 
victoriously conducted, in spite of the concentration of the most 
formidable resources, it can be proven that it is possible for brave 
defenders, though few in number, to man their ruined trenches and 
hurl back the enemy at the moment of assault. 

All that the most powerful artillery has ever been able to ac- 
complish is to diminish the material resources and the morale of 
the defenders; it can not completely destroy them. The capacity 
for resistance which lives in warrior souis remains superior to ma- 
terial effects, no matter what they be. Every soldier should endure 
the bombardment with stoicism, and repeat to himself that if he 
escapes its perils, he is certain, with the assistance of his remaining 
comrades and the machine guns that are still serviceable, to mow 
down the hostile waves of assault provided he occupies, in time, 
his post, or the shell craters which have replaced it. 

The Importance of Lookouts. — Everything depends on the 
vigilance of the sentinels. They must give the alarm the moment 
the assaulting lines leave their trenches and see to it that the egress 
of the men from the dugouts, rifles loaded and hand Grenades ready 
for use, takes place before the enemy can reach our lines. It is a ques- 
tion of seconds, not of minutes. Concerning this, the following rules : 



950 MILITARY TRAINING 

1. Each shelter should have a sentinel in its immediate vi- 
cinity who can be seen and heard from the door. 

2. The post of the sentinel, which is constructed at the 
same time as the dugout, should be protected in the strongest pos- 
sible manner. 

3. The sentinel, who is kept constantly in view by a man of 
his relief, posted in the doorway of the dugout should be relieved 
as often as is necessary. (This post is dangerous, and all the men 
in the dugout should take their turn at it.) 

In addition to the sentinel, a large periscope should be in- 
stalled, if possible, and manipulated from the interior of the dug- 
out. The periscope alone, however, would be insufficient. No con- 
fidence is to be placed on signals, bells, or any sort of wire device 
to reach from a sentinel some distance away. 

These rules apply to dugouts and machine gun emplacements, 
and all the more imperatively since the safety of the trenches 
rests mainly on its flanking defenses. 

Maintenance of Communication, During Bombardment, Be- 
tween the Platoons of the Firing Line, the Captain, and the Bat- 
talion Commander. — The telephone can not be relied upon. Its 
wires are almost certain to be cut. Signaling with lamp apparatus 
is uncertain on account of the complete disorganization of the 
firing line and the thick cloud of dust that hangs over it. It may 
perhaps be established after the assault with lanterns which have 
been carefully kept under cover until that moment; but this method 
can not be depended upon to give warning of the attack. 

The courier, or rather a pair of couriers, is the only means 
of communication that is almost certain. But it is an expensive 
method, and it is slow. It should be kept as a last resort in critical 
moments. The courier is the only method by which the hasty 
sketch can be sent, which clears up the situation, and the arrival 
of which is awaited with so much impatience by the commander 
of the echelon in rear. 

Rockets constitute the best means of instantaneous commu- 
nication. They should be placed beforehand in every dugout, but 
it is always difficult to make them function in the firing line, the 
imminence of the assault not allowing sufficient time for the pur- 
pose. At all events each sentinel should be supplied with two or 
three rockets calling for the barrage, a rocket firer should be in- 
stalled alongside of his observation station, and he should be in- 
structed to fire the rockets as soon as he sees the assaulting line 
emerge from the hostile trenches. 

The best solution is to have the command post of the cap- 
tain on the line of supports and that of the battalion commander 
on the line of the reserve trenches supplied with intrenched obser- 
vation stations carefully located, and from which the sentinels can 



TRENCH WARFARE 951 

see the launching of the assault as soon as the sentinels of the fir- 
ing line do. 

Reinforcement of the Firing Line. — At the moment of the 
assault the captain can immediately throw in his supporting pla- 
toon, or platoons, to the assistance of the firing line, a movement 
that must be studied and prescribed beforehand to the minutest 
detail, but which would have been very dangerous of execution 
during the bombardment and before the enemy " lifted " his fire. 

The commander of the supporting platoon does not alway3 
wait for the captain's order before acting. If he learns from any 
other source than the captain that the first line is in danger, he 
reinforces as has been prescribed, it being assumed that communi- 
cation with the captain is impossible at that critical moment. 

The case also occurs sometimes that the captain's observation 
station sees nothing and it is the battalion commander who first 
detects the hostile wave. He sends one or two of his platoons, 
which have been prepared to advance for such a contingency, to 
reinforce the platoons that are sustaining the shock. These pla- 
toons advance quickly to the firing line or replace the company 
supports sent forward by the captain, if he has already thrown 
them in. 

Employment of Barrage Fire. — It is not sufficient for the 
defenders of the first line to man the trenches and meet the first 
waves of the assault with rifle fire. The artillery must also be no- 
tified that the time has come to open a violent barrage fire behind 
the leading assailants. The object of this barrage fire is to isolate 
them, to prevent all reinforcement or replenishment of ammunition, 
and even deprive them of the possibility of retreat. Thus isolated, 
they are at our mercy, even though they have pierced the firing 
line and have penetrated into the support trenches. Such a success 
will involve them in one or more of the compartments of the posi- 
tion where they will be subjected to frontal and flanking fire and 
be open to counter attacks. 

All officers should explain to their men, not only theoreti- 
cally, but by practical demonstration on the ground which they 
occupy, the principles of the barrage and of the division of the po- 
sition into compartments. They must demonstrate to them that 
they must never yield to the uncomfortable impression that is ex- 
perienced when one feels that an enemy that has penetrated the 
position to his right or left has gotten in rear of him, for he him- 
self is also on the flank or in rear of the organizations that have 
effected penetration. Their local success has only drawn them 
into a "pocket of fire" which will certainly close upon them if our 
people do not yield to discouragement. The tenacity of a few hand- 
fuls of men, even if surrounded in their intrenchments, will insure 
the victory. 



952 



MILITARY TRAINING 

















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TRENCH WARFARE 95,1 

Barrage fire is called for from any observation station hav- 
ing knowledge that the enemy is making an assault, by telephone, 
if it still exists; "r not, then by rockets. The successive linea 
should repeat the rockets sent up in front of them, and continue 
to do so until the barrage has been opened. 

In default of other information the captain and the battalion 
commander call for the barrage and throw in their reinforcements 
the moment they see that the enemy has " lifted " his artillery 
fire, and that rifle fire has been opened from the first line. 

If the bombardment has been localized on one or two sup« 
porting points, the adjacent ones, which are able to do so, ob- 
serve the assault, and, as their telephones are probably working, 
they notify the artillery concerned. Such observations and lateral 
communications are invaluable should direct methods fail. 

Carrier Pigeons, which have proved to be uninfluenced by 
the severest bombardments, may also be employed. As the pigeon 
will fly to the central loft, the message should state precisely what 
group of artillery must be called upon to immediately furnish the 
barrage, and on what portion of the front it is needed. 

Counter Attacks. — Counter attacks are attended with great- 
er success and less loss the sooner they are launched. They should 
[ take the enemy by surprise, and before he has recovered his breath 
s and regained formation. They should be made upon the initiative 
- of the local commanders, as the transmission of orders and in- 
telligence have become, by that time, most precarious. 

This is why the plan for the defense of a given "area of re- 
sistance " should foresee all rational possibilities of attack, and 
-take precautions to designate under each hypothesis: The coun- 
ter attack, or attacks, to be made; the fractions that will make 
;it (section, platoon); the rout each platoon will follow, and its 
final objective; the prearranged signal for launching the counter 
| attack. 

Counter attacks should be like the two jaws of a trap, which 
close automatically, the instant the trigger is touched. 

Direction of Counter Attacks. — Counter attacks may be de- 
livered toward the front. Such is the case of a platoon advancing 
] to reinforce a platoon of the firing line, and finding the enemy 
I ilready in the trenches. 

The most successful counter attacks are those delivered 
umultaneously against both flanks of the hostile wave, and abreast 
)f the first line of resistance. The advance is made with hand 
rrenades along the trenches of the ftring line, and those of the 
iupports and reserves; and in the. communicating trenches the 
.nemy is attacked in rear, his retreat is cut off, and those tha^ 
lave penetrated the line are surrounded. 



954 MILITARY TRAINING 

Reconstruction of Destroyed Trenches. — After a hostile at- 
tack has failed, it must be remembered that another attempt will 
probably follow in a short time. Work upon the destroyed para- 
pet must be begun immediately. Sand bags and trench shields 
permit of hasty provisional reconstruction. 

Menace of Mines. — Wherever the presence of a hostile mine 
chamber is suspected (sounds heard for a considerable period, 
and then suddenly ceasing) plans must be made to occupy the 
crater before the enemy does. 

Fatigue Details Surprised by an Attack. — Isolated soldiers 
and working details, or fatigue details employed in the service of 
supply, which are surprised by an attack at a distance from the units 
to which they belong, automatically place themselves under the 
command of the chief of the nearest unit. He either incorporates 
them in his own unit or sends them to their own commands, with 
a written order and under charge of a non-commissioned officer. 

Fractions Surprised in Their Shelters. — Dugouts permit an 
intense bombardment to be endured, but have the inconvenience 
that they retard the egress of the garrison. It must be remem- 
bered that the enemy may possibly be encountered at the door- 
ways at the moment the men start to occupy the parapets. In each 
dugout there should be a small stock of hand grenades, by the use 
of which space may be opened about the entrances, and the gar- 
rison can debouch in force. Every man should determine not to 
permit himself to be killed or asphyxiated by the intruders, nor 
to be frightened by those of the enemy that have already crossed 
the trench, as there are others that will take care of them, but to 
exterminate those that are in the trench and man the parapet and 
open fire on the second and third hostile waves. To insure egress 
from the cave shelters a traverse blockhouse should be constructed 
of reinforced concrete. This forms a sort of caponier, communi- 
cating with the dugouts, and which has their entrances under its 
fire. The ground to the rear should be sloped, and the accessory 
defenses should offer exits to the enemy who have entered the 
trench, in using which they will inevitably be shot. 

Tenacity of the Defenders.— The defenders should, above all 
things, determine to fight to a finish, and not to give up the strug- 
gle because it appears that their neighbors are getting the worst 
of it, for besides these neighbors there are others who are hold- 
ing on, and who will come to their rescue. A fight must never 
be judged by what is seen in the immediate vicinity; one must 
have confidence in one's battalion and regiment. 

Not an inch of ground should be voluntarily yielded, no 
matter what the circumstances. A body of troops, even though 
surrounded, should resist to the last man, without falling back. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

LIAISON OR MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICA- 
TION BETWEEN UNITS AND SIGNALING 

The mental activity of the commander should be constantly 
concentrated on the search for information, for in order to com- 
mand intelligently it is necessary to be informed. The commander, 
therefore, should post himself where he can best observe the 
entire extent of the front occupied by his troops. Moreover, when 
an officer receives information it is his duty to transmit it without 
delay to his immediate superior and, if possible to his neighbors. 

The procuring of information often necessitates great sac- 
rifice. Such sacrifices are a dead loss if the information is not 
forwarded to the superior commander, arrives too late, is mutilated, 
or illegible. 

TRANSMISSION OF ORDERS AND MESSAGES 

In issuing orders the regular channels should be used; no 
intermediate authority being omitted except in urgent cases. I*n 
such case the officer who gives the order informs the intermediate 
authority, and he who receives the order reports the fact without 
delay to his immediate superior. The authority who sends, in an 
exceptional case, a verbal order or message requires the person 
who is to carry it to repeat the order or message word for word. 
On his arrival at destination the bearer of a message or order de- 
livers the envelope to the addressee or his deputy. He waits for a 
receipt or a reply, and never leaves without orders or permission. 
On his return he reports to the person who sent him. If no reply 
has been returned by him, he limits himself to the formula: "Order 
delivered." 

Any dispatch bearer who is wounded appeals to the nearest 
organization, and it is the duty of the commanding officer of the 
organization to. send forward the message without delay. Im- 
portant orders are carried by officers who are conversant with the 
situation and have been informed as to the subject matter of the 
message. These orders may be sent in duplicate by different routes. 
Officers charged with such a mission must be prepared to destroy 
their messages if necessary. The commanding officer of any com- 



956 MILITARY TRAINING 

mand of cavalry or of any command having horses is required to 
furnish a good horse if the condition of the messenger's mount does 
not permit him to complete his mission in time for it to be of use. 
While employed on such mission an officer should strive to obtain 
personally all the information possible in order that he may be able 
to report the same to his own superior and to the officer to whom 
he is sent. If, while on his way to deliver the message, the situation 
to which it refers has changed, the officer, nevertheless, delivers 
the message with which he has been entrusted. He adds the neces- 
sary explanations as to the result desired by the commander at" 
the moment he left him. If the order is one requiring imme- 
diate execution, he waits until after the execution has been begun 
in order that he may report the action taken. 

Every subordinate who receives an order in the absence of 
his immediate commander forwards it to the latter as directed by 
him. He notes the contents of the message, unless it is marked 
" personal." On his own initiative he takes the steps necessary 
under the circumstances and reports his action to his superior. 

Officers commanding the organizations composing the out- 
posts or the advance guard, or those occupying the first line 
trenches, are authorized to examine all information passing them 
from the front. Its further transmission must be delayed as little 
as possible. 

Intercommunication Between Organizations. — This, in order 
to obtain unity of effort, and especially the close co-operation of 
the infantry and artillery, has for its object the freest possible cir- 
culation of information between the commanders of organizations 
forming a part of the same command. 

For the commanders of the smaller units intercommunication 
(liaison) may be symbolized by a cross, its four branches signify- 
ing connection with the fractions in front, connection with the 
commanders in rear, and connection with the adjacent units on the 
right and left. For these it comprises terrestrial (as opposed to 
aerial) reconnaissance as a means of information, and, as mediums 
of transmission, the telephone, visual signaling, connecting files, and 
carrier pigeons. The manner in which these means are employed 
must always be the subject of a general plan set forth in a special 
paragraph in the plan of operation or the plan of defense, or added 
thereto as an appendix. It does not obviate the necessity for fre- 
quent and personal contact with neighboring troops. 

The fact that mechanical means of transmission have failed 
in a given instance does not relieve a commander from the respon- 
sibility for ignorance of important changes in the situation of his 
own command or of the adjacent commands, or for failure to 
exercise the necessary personal influence on the course of events. 

A small unit will establish and maintain communication by 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 957 

different methods, according to whether it is in first line, in sup- 
port, or in reserve. The officer in command must make each par- 
ticular case the subject of special consideration and decision. In 
first line: Lateral communication is the most important. In sup- 
port: The mission is nearly always assigned beforehand and gen- 
erally consists in reinforcing a unit placed in front. It is necessary, 
therefore, to understand the situation of the latter, to know its 
location, the routes leading to it, and all the other things that must 
be known to enable the support to replace it without loss of time. 
In reserve: The unit may be called upon to act in any direction. 
The troops may be resting, but the mind of their commander should 
be exceedingly alert. He must foresee every possible eventuality, 
and determine beforehand the steps necessary to maintain com- 
munication in each of them. It is especially important to carefully 
reconnoiter the roads and communications in all directions. 



METHODS OF OBTAINING INFORMATION 

Terrestrial Reconnaissance. — For combat the commander of 
every unit (company, platoon) selects an observation station which 
will enable him to see as far as possible everything that occurs 
within the limits of action of his command. If necessary, he in- 
sures continuity of observation by employing observers among 
whom he divides up the duty in such fashion that observation is 
continuous, both as to time and ground covered. Six observers to 
a platoon should be previously trained to this duty. 

In general their duties consist in following the progress of 
the fight (movement of friendly or enemy troops, activities of both 
artilleries), watching for signals from the advance elements, and 
in repeating or transmitting them according to instructions. 

The command post should be established near the observa- 
tion station. The selection of the observation station must precede 
that of the command post. While in a position of readiness in the 
trenches observation is conducted as in combat. 

Aerial Reconnaissance. — The aeroplane and the balloon serve 
as means of information (observation, photographs), also as 
mediums of transmission. Among the missions they may be 
charged with and which are of interest to the infantry are: 

(a) Aeroplanes Attached to the Infantry. — One to each divi- 
sion. Mission to keep informed as to the march of the advance 
elements and the reserves. To observe the signals of the firing line 
and the command posts, and to transmit them to the divisional 
command post. To inform the divisional commander of everything 
that occurs in the vicinity of the firing line and in rear of it. 



958 MILITARY TRAINING 

(b) Command Aeroplanes. — One to each army corps. It 
observes the general progress of the combat and all that occurs on 
the side of the enemy. 

(c) Messenger Aeroplanes. — Mission. Transmission of all 
Orders and useful information from the commanders of the larger 
tactical units (by weighted messages with sketches prepared be- 
forehand, or photographs, prearranged signals, etc.) to the gen- 
erals and colonels. 

(d) Divisional Balloons. — Observation of artillery fire, loca- 
tion of the firing line, transmission of signals. During an attack 
they operate distinctively as infantry balloons. 

(e) Command Balloons. — The same as for command aero- 
planes. 

METHODS OF AERIAL COMMUNICATION (LIAISON) 

The aeroplane attached to infantry, or the infantry balloon, 
or both, are communicated with by the infantry by means of sig- 
nals made (1) by the firing line, (2) by the command stations of 
the battalion, regiment, brigade, or division. 

1. By the Firing Line. — The firing line indicates its loca- 
tion by: 

(a) Bengal Lights. — This is the most certain method. The 
lights are so placed as to be easily visible to the aeroplane or bal- 
loon, but not to the enemy. 

(b) By Position Marking Panels. — Upon call upon the aero- 
plane the panels should be opened and closed several times to show 
that they are not abandoned panels or accidental white spots on 
the ground, and are then left exposed until the aeroplane has 
answered " understood " (a flare of three lights shown simultane- 
ously) ; in any case not longer than 15 minutes. 

(c) In the absence of Bengal lights or panels, the firing line 
must, in order to make its position known, resort to every possible 
expedient, such as searchlight signaling ( — . — . — . — .), the wav- 
ing of handkerchiefs, the showing of overcoat linings, flashes from 
pocket mirrors, etc. 

The position of the line is indicated either upon a line agreed 
upon beforehand (one of the objectives assigned); or, upon demand 
of the aeroplane (sound signal, followed by a flare of six simultane- 
ous lights) ; or, upon the initiative of the company commanders 
when the advance of their commands has been stopped; or when, 
after a retirement, they have taken up — dug themselves in. In the 
latter case it is preferable to use Bengal lights, either alone or in 
connection with the panels, to more easily attract the attention of 
the aeroplane. 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 959 

Burning Bengal lights or displaying panels elsewhere than 
on the firing line is prohibited. 

2. The battalion, regimental, brigade, and division command 
stations indicate their locations by identification panels. In addi- 
tion each command station is indicated by a code symbol, a group 
of several letters or figures. 

The command posts communicate with the aeroplane by 
conventional signals; by searchlights (6 or 9 inch diameter); by 
shutter panels. 

They communicate with balloons by means of portabfe 
searchlights, the communication being always preceded by the 
code symbol of the command station. 

The balloon replies by means of portable searchlights, or 
by Morse code signals made with the flexible cylinder, a device by 
which a black surface of 3^4 f ee t high can be made to appear and 
disappear instantaneously along its mooring cable. He first sig- 
nals the code symbol of the command station with which he wishes 
to communicate. As a rule his replies are limited to " understood " 
or " repeat." 

Identification panels are displayed at the sound signal of the 
aeroplane or upon the initiative of the command post. They are 
removed as soon as the aeroplane signals " understood " (three 
stars). The panel of a battalion has an area of 4 square yards. 

AEROPLANES ATTACHED TO INFANTRY 

These fly at a lesser altitude than the other aeroplanes, and 
do not rise above 1,500 yards. They are given distinctive perma- 
nent marks (bands of color, luminous planes), and in addition may 
be recognized by a distinctive flare. 

" I am the aeroplane of the first infantry division," 1 flare of 
1 light. 

" I am the aeroplane of the second infantry division," 1 flare 
of 2 simultaneous lights. 

These signals are made two or three times, at several minutes 
interval before any other signals are made. The appearance, char- 
acteristics, and signals of any aeroplane should be known to all of 
the men of the tactical unit to which it is attached. On the other 
hand, the air service must be in constant readiness to assist the 
infantry by noting precisely its positions and needs and trans- 
mitting the information, immediately to the higher command or to 
the artillery. 

In certain cases it may be necessary to drop to a compara- 
tively low altitude above the lines; but only in case of necessity 
must the machine be risked at an altitude of less than 1,000 yards. 



960 MILITARY TRAINING 

The aeroplane, in communicating with the infantry, uses only 
a limited number of signals, which are always preceded by a sound 
signal, followed by the flare giving the identity of the aeroplane. 

It must be remembered that every aeroplane that burns 
white lights is an infantry aeroplane and that its rockets are fired 
as signals to the advance infantry elements. To prevent their being 
mistaken for those fired from the ground rockets should not be 
fired from aeroplanes at an altitude of less than 300 yards. 

The aviator notes the position of the firing line and of the 
command stations which signal to him, as above described. In 
addition, he can perceive conventional signals, signals by search- 
light, or by shutter panels. 

He transmits information received in this manner as follows: 

Urgent information, especially that relating to artillery fire, 
to the command stations of the division, brigade, or artillery group, 
by wireless. 

Other information to be transmitted to the command stations 
of the division or army corps by weighted letter. Most complete 
information is given in these weighted letters, the position of the 
firing line being accurately marked on a sketch previously prepared. 

INFANTRY DIVISIONAL BALLOON 

It is identified by several streamers displayed at its rear, and 
at night by an inclined plane, illuminated at regular intervals. Its 
identity should be known to everybody. The aeronaut communi- 
cates by telephone with a station on the ground, from which the 
messages are transmitted to division headquarters. 

INFORMATION COMPRISED IN OPERATION ORDERS 

Infantry finds in its operation orders: The time when the 
aeroplane or balloon will be in readiness to observe. The method 
of tracing the position of the firing line agreed upon for the re- 
quired operation. The conditions of time and place under which 
signals are to be made. Supplementary conventional signals. The 
conditions under which observation will terminate. 

MEANS OF TRANSMISSION 

The means ©f transmission are as follows: 1. Telephone; 
2. Signal rockets; 3. Signal flares of 25 and 35; 4. Flash lanterns; 
5. Searchlights of 6 and 9-inch diameter; 6. Signal flags; 7. Identi- 
fication panels, shutter panels, position-marking panels; 8. Messen- 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 961 

gers; 9. Carrier pigeons; and 10. Wireless telegraph, which func- 
tions readily from the aeroplanes to the artillery observation sta- 
tion, but not conversely. None of these methods are absolutely 
certain. 

In order to insure the successful operation of each of them 
as if it were the only one available, preparation should be made for 
the simultaneous use of all of the means of communication at 
hand. As nothing can be improvised during combat, and as the 
troops will then use only the methods that have become familiar 
to them through actual practice, all the prescribed means of trans- 
mission must be practiced daily, if only under the form of drill. 

Thus an officer at whose station a telephone has been in- 
stalled must expect to have his line cut, and must establish com- 
munication with his battalion commander by visual signaling and 
runners. 



OFFICER CHARGED WITH THE DUTY OF INTER- 
COMMUNICATION 

The regimental telephone officer is the chief of communica- 
tions of every description. In each battalion, the battalion com- 
mander assigns a non-commissioned officer to this duty. 

A telephone party is composed of one sergeant, five op- 
erators, two telephones, one switchboard with four switches, and 
\% miles of light cable. In a regiment of three battalions there is 
a telephone officer, eight workmen, a reserve of four telephones, 
two switchboards and 14 kilometers (87 miles) of cable. 

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST SURPRISE OF COMMUNICA- 
TIONS 

All telephonic liaisons in zones less than 2,200 yards from the 
enemy are of double wire; that is to say, with metallic return; this 
rule is absolute. Furthermore, it is absolutely prohibited in the first 
line to allude by telephone to any event or situation that might be 
of use to the enemy, such as hours of attack, reliefs, number of 
regiment, neighboring regiments, brigades, etc. In general people 
telephone entirely too much during periods of inaction. It is 
necessary to impose, and to impose on oneself, the use of messages 
instead of conversations. The officer who sends a message is 
more brief, weighs his words more carefully, and avoids imprudent 
remarks. Furthermore, he keeps a copy of his message. Questions 
of " priority " must be clearly regulated. 



962 MILITARY TRAINING 

PRECAUTIONS TO ASSURE THE MAINTENANCE OF 
COMMUNICATIONS 

Telephonic connections (liaisons) are of vital importance to 
the units of the first line. Everyone, whatever his position, should 
work diligently to maintain them. It is therefore strictly the duty 
of anyone who observes a broken line to repair it, or at least to 
inform immediately the nearest emergency telephone repair party. 
Fatigue parties, reliefs, and patrols circulating at night should give 
the lines the most careful attention; carry the weapon slung, 
pointed down. Trench crossing should be made with great care. 
The best method is to pass the line under the trench in a wooden 
conduit, using leaded cable for this passage. If the crossing is 
above the trench, see that the wire is well stretched. String it 
alongside a pole. 

To repair a line, it is sufficient to scrape the insulation from 
the wire at both ends of the cable, knot them together, then isolate 
the splice from the ground by means of a rag, a piece of paper or 
wood, or bit of cardboard. As soon as possible this splice should 
be covered with tarred tape, which will insulate it completely. 

TAGGING AND ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF LINES 

A means of identifying lines circulating in the same trench 
is very important. Care should be taken never to string lines over 
those already placed (duplication). Furthermore, every 50 yards 
of each line should have a tag firmly attached to it indicating the 
orjgin and end of the line. Every unused line should be recoiled 
the very day it ceases to be of use. 

FIELD GLASSES AND PERISCOPES 

Field glasses of the highest power are not the most advan- 
tageous, for unless considerable dimensions are given the object 
glass, thus rendering the instrument cumbersome, this enlargement 
is always obtained at the expense of field of view and clearness. If 
two field glasses have object glasses of the same diameter and one 
magnifies twice as much as the other, its clearness will be only 
one-fourth that of the weaker glass. A magnifying power of 6 or 
7 diameters, a field of 100 to 130 miles, with corresponding clear- 
ness, gives, for the prismatic field glass, the best balance between 
the conflicting qualities. 

Periscopes are ordinarily composed of two mirrors, or two 
reflecting prisms whose faces are parallel to each other and inclined 
at an angle of 45° to the tubular mount. 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 963 

PERSONNEL EMPLOYED IN INTERCOMMUNICATION 

The designation liaison agent should be reserved for officers 
(occasionally sergeants) who are competent to estimate a situation, 
deliver instructions, and gather information. A custom has grown 
up of referring to the agents of transmission as liaison agents. 
Agents of transmission are non-commissioned officers or privates 
who are charged solely with writing out the orders and carrying 
them to their destination, and who are employed only on simple 
tasks. In a company they are generally the cyclist, the drummers, 
and trumpeters. 

RUNNERS 

In addition to the above mentioned, in every platoon several 
men who are faithful and physically active should be trained merely 
for carrying messages. Communication by runners, especially by 
double runners, is the method giving the most certain results dur- 
ing violent bombardment. 

The distance between two relays of runners varies between 
150 to 300 yards. Each chain of runners is commanded by an 
officer, assisted, if necessary, by several non-commissioned officers 
distributed among the relays. 

In order that communication by signalers, agents of trans- 
mission or runners, may function efficiently during an attack it is 
necessary that they, under the supervision of officers, be made 
acquainted with the ground before hand. If they are to avoid 
getting lost when they quit their habitual routes they must know 
not only the trench network, but the open ground as well. This 
study of the terrain must be made from large scale maps and from 
the ground itself. It is also necessary that the command posts, 
down to include those of captains, be easily found by liaison agents 
from other units (routes being clearly indicated by large and sub- 
stantial sign boards or by an orderly in the main communication 
trench if the command post is somewhat out of the way). Com- 
mand posts should be marked on the map and given a number, a 
name, or a distinctive letter that can not be easily mistaken. 

VISUAL SIGNALING 

Visual signaling should be the subject of a plan studied by all 
organizations so that each station should be familiar with the 
i probable locations of its correspondents and with their distin- 
guishing marks. As a general principle communication should 
be insured from front to rear. However, communication is never 



964 MILITARY TRAINING 

certain unless the receiving station can acknowledge receipt, and 
signals made toward the front run the risk of attracting hostile 
fire. It will be prudent to confine them to a few short messages 
or replace them by signal flares signifying " understood " or 
" repeat." 

The darker the background, the more visible is the flame of 
the apparatus. Establish your station in front of a hedge or a belt 
of timber. Avoid such backgrounds as the sky, a white wall, or 
cleared ground. Avoid the vicinity of rivers, as bodies of water 
give reflections. Do not expose the mirror to the sun's rays, as 
by reflection it gives the illusion of a fixed light and so prevents 
the reading of signals. Look for shade; protect the apparatus with 
a shield. In observing use a field glass having a wide field of 
vision and only moderate magnifying power (6 or 8 power). 
Whenever possible two signalers are assigned to each apparatus, 
one to manipulate the instrument and the other to keep the ray 
exactly on the receiving apparatus. 

SIGNALS BY ROCKETS 

The following precautions should be observed: Select com- 
binations that are easily distinguished from one another; reserve 
the most conspicuous for the most important signals. Limit the 
code to several phrases; before using it, publish it sufficiently in 
advance to permit everybody to become acquainted with it. In 
accordance with the situation, let it be understood definitely who 
will have the right to fire rockets (majors and captains and, ex- 
ceptionally, chiefs of platoons); needless alarms and expenditure of 
rockets will thus be avoided. Provide for the repetition of sig- 
nals by relays and make certain that the artillery has registered 
these relays and is causing their observation stations to watch them 
closely. All officers and non-commissioned officers, and the great- 
est number possible of the privates, should know the conventional 
signals. If a failure in memory is feared, record them in your note- 
book, making use of hieroglyphics that will be incomprehensible 
to the enemy if the notebook should fall into his hands. Make fre- 
quent checks to see that you have the latest code. 

CARRIER PIGEONS 

Pigeons have carried messages across sheets of poisonous 
gas and during the most violent bombardments. Great confidence 
may be placed in them, but they should be reserved for important 
cases. Pigeons do not fly well at night unless they have been 
specially trained to it. 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 965 

A station consists of 2 assistant pigeon trainers; 1 basket of 
4 pigeons, with the necessary supplies; 3 baskets, designated A, 
B, and C, are assigned by the central loft to each station. The 
basket containing the relief is sent to the station in the evening 
or at night, every two or three days. The pigeons which are 
relieved are released separately with practice dispatches. The 
officer commanding the unit concerned may retain both baskets 
if the circumstances require it. 

Messages are written in triplicate in a message notebook. 
One copy is kept as a stub, the other two are attached to pigeons 
which are released at an interval of several minutes. If there is 
danger of running out of pigeons, only one copy is sent and the 
other is inclosed with the next message, for the purpose of con- 
firmation. Each pigeon can carry on each leg an aluminum dispatch 
tube, which makes it possible to send both a message and a sketch. 

To release it, the pigeon is placed on the ground some little 
distance from the post, with its head in the direction of the central 
pigeon loft, and is then driven into the air. While at the post, 
every attention should be paid to the hygiene of the pigeons, but 
none at all to their comfort. They should be made to consider 
their stay at the stations as a penance and to desire ardently to re- 
turn to the loft, where abundance and dainties are awaiting them. 
Their being fed by anyone other than the trainers must therefore be 
strictly prohibited. 

INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE SIGNALS— RULES OF 

SERVICE 

Troops make use of two classes of signals: Signals in inter- 
national Morse alphabet and conventional signals, generally com- 
posed of letters of the international Morse alphabet. 

Alphabetic signals may be sent by searchlights or flash 
lanterns; semaphore signals, with or without flags, shutter panels. 

Conventional signals may be made by flash lanterns; search- 
lights; semaphore signals, with or without flags; fireworks or 
targets. 

By reason of the number of visual signals that can be sent 
simultaneously, it is necessary to assign a signal to each station 
which will identify the authority sending the communication. 

Identification Signals Are Assigned from Division Head- 
quarters. — Each consists of one letter and one numeral. Care must 
be taken to eliminate letters which might be confused with con- 
ventional abbreviations. 

Preparation of Messages. — They should be as brief as possi- 
ble. Each letter saved reduces the chance of error. 



966 MILITARY TRAINING 

Transmission. — As a rule, two men are necessary at each 
signal station. At the sending station one man reads the message, 
letter by letter, and the other operates the apparatus or flags. At 
the receiving station one man reads the message, letter by letter, 
and dictates them to his assistant. 

Signals for communicating with aeroplanes and balloons 
are classified as signals made by the aeroplane, signals made by 
the balloon, and signals made by the infantry to the aeroplane or 
balloon. 

SIGNALS MADE BY THE AEROPLANE 



Signals made with white lights are always addressed to the 
infantry. 

The aeroplane burns a flare of one or two lights, which is 
repeated two or three times at several minutes intervals. This is 
his identification signal and signifies: "I am the aeroplane of the 
first infantry division." " I am the aeroplane of the second in- 
fantry division." 

Immediately after he asks "Where are you?" by burning a 
flare of six lights. When he has observed the identification panels 
and the position-marking panels which have been displayed in 
response to his call, he signals "understood" by a flare of three 
lights. 

Signals by wireless are addressed to the command stations 
equipped with receiving antennae. The aeroplane sends its identi- 
fication signal, followed by a message which has been reduced to 
writing, making use either of the lists of abbreviations, or of the 
signals contained in the table of conventional signals, or of addi- 
tional conventional signals published in operation orders. 

Dropping Weighted Messages. — The aeroplane which is 
about to drop a message calls up the command station by a sound 
signal agreed upon in advance; the command station shows its 
identification panel at the most favorable point in the vicinity for 
the fall of the message. The aeroplane then spirals down to 300 
yards and drops the message. The command station acknowledges 
the receipt by the signal, " message received." 

SIGNALS MADE BY BALLOONS 

The balloon sends the identification signal of the station 
which it is calling and then signals: 

Understood (SN) ••• — • . . . — . 
or Repeat (?) ..——.. ••__•• 

by means of the flexible cylinder. 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 967 

SIGNALS MADE BY THE INFANTRY TO THE AERO- 
PLANE OR BALLOON 

By searchlight or shutter panel, trying the table of conven- 
tional signals, to which should be added: 

"lam here " (firing line) • — . — • — •_•_•«•_• 

" Understood " or " Message received ":... — . ..... 

By Bengal lights: The firing line burns 1 or 2 lights per 
platoon. 

By position marking panel: One or two per squad. Bengal 
lights and panels may be combined. 

By identification panels and rectangular panels, so combined 
as to indicate: "I am here" (battalion, regiment, brigade, divi- 
sion). 

Requests for artillery fire: "We are about to advance; 
increase your elevation." " Artillery is firing too short." " Send 
ammunition forward." " Understood " or " Messages received." 

It also gives the means of signaling the numerals from 1 to 9; 
and consequently any prearranged message can be sent. 



ARTILLERY LIAISON AGENTS ATTACHED TO THE 
INFANTRY 

Artillery can act efficiently only if it is in close communica- 
tion with the infantry which it is supporting. 

Such communication is established: (a) By a constant under- 
standing between the officers of the infantry and artillery. Their 
command stations should be established in close proximity to each 
other whenever possible, (b) By artillery liaison agents attached 
to the infantry. 

The necessity for officers of field and heavy artillery (chiefs 
of groups and commanders of concentrations) maintaining fre- 
quent personal contact with the commanders of the infantry units 
(corps, battalions) with which they are co-operating, can not be 
insisted upon too strongly. 

Liaison and Observation Detachments. — In the execution of 
an attack, each group of artillery charged with the direct support 
of an infantry unit (regiment or brigade) attaches to the head- 
quarters of that unit an officer, liaison officer, who has under his 
orders a liaison and observation detachment. 

This detachment consists of: Non-comrnissioned observers;- 
non-commissioned officers and privates as scouts and liaison 
agents; telephonists and signalers with the necessary apparatus 
(telephones, apparatus for light signaling, flags). 



968 MILITARY TRAINING 

His mission consists of keeping his commanding officer in- 
formed as to the situation and needs of the infantry and trans- 
mitting the requests of the infantry to the batteries in such form 
that it can be made use of; and of keeping the infantry commander 
to whom he is attached informed as to the amount of assistance he 
can expect from the batteries. As far as practicable he attaches 
a non-commissioned observer to each battalion commander of the 
first line. 

By utilizing his own means of communication, he maintains 
connection with the commander of his own group, on the one 
hand, and on the other with the. advanced observers attached to 
the battalion commanders of the first line. 

He should give special attention to the constant, efficient 
operation of intercommunication among all of these several ele- 
ments. 

It must be thoroughly understood that the establishment 
of communication by the artillery does not forbid the infantry 
from also establishing, by its own means of communication, con- 
nection with the artillery which supports it. The advantage of a 
double channel of communication is thus insured. 

In defensive combat and during stationary periods com- 
munication between the artillery and the infantry are maintained 
in the manner set forth above. The object sought is always the 
same — to insure to the infantry the efficient support of the artillery 
at the necessary moment. The relative importance of the different 
methods of communication employed will vary with the situation, 
and they may be reduced in number during a stationary period. 

ARM AND WHISTLE SIGNALS 

To the general subject of signaling may be added signals 
with the arm, hand or whistle, which are made when necessary to 
replace oral commands. 

FLAGS, LANTERNS AND BRASSARDS 

Army corps: Tricolor flags without tassels; white or tri- 
colored lantern; tricolored brassard with the insignia of forked 
lightning and number of the corps. 

Infantry division: First division of each army corps, red 
flag with one vertical white stripe ; # second division of each army 
corp, red flag with two vertical white stripes; for an independent 
division the white stripe is horizontal; red lantern; red brassard 
with grenade and number. 



MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATION 969 

Infantry brigade: No flag; blue lantern; blue brassard with 
grenade and number. 

Infantry ammunition column: Yellow flag and lantern. 

Artillery ammunition column: Blue flag and lantern. 

Ambulances: Two flags, one tricolor, and the other blue 
with a red cross; two superposed lights, white and red. 

Quarantine hospitals: Yellow flag. 

The headquarter flags of generals of artillery are blue and 
red. Of generals of cavalry, blue and white. 

Distinctive brassards. Artillery, crossed cannon, cavalry, 
a star; engineers, helmet and cuirass. 

Distinctive Colors of Battalions and Companies. — First, blue; 
second, red; third, yellow; fourth, green. Units not connected with 
the battalions, khaki. Liaison agents, blue brassards with dark 
blue L. 

LIAISON DURING THE ADVANCE 

An advance is destined to be halted and is at the mercy of 
counter attacks if it is abandoned by its artillery. The artillery 
never abandons the infantry if it knows where they are and on 
what points they should fire to support or defend them. 

Liaison with the Commanding Officer. — The problem of in- 
forming the commanding officer of the points reached by the ad- 
vance elements is one of the most difficult encountered. The 
company and battalion commanders should take every means to 
solve it. Their chances of safety and of victory depend on it. 
Successive changes of position of the command posts must be 
arranged for, they must be improved by the pioneers, telephone 
lines leading to them must be laid, and marks or directions indi- 
cating to any strange orderly where to find the command post 
must be placed. A well-drilled personnel for transmission of mes- 
sages (signalers, liaison agents, runners), especially conversant with 
the operations about to take place, must be arranged for. Every 
means of transmission must be carefully organized and arrange- 
ments must be made for the replacement of carriers of special 
materiel in case they should fall, etc. 

The means of communication, which have been explained 
are: The telephone, rockets and signal cartridges, sound signals, 
searchlights and panels with shutters, pigeons, runners, and, finally, 
signal by Bengal lights, panels, or searchlights to the aeroplanes 
and balloons, and transmitted by them to the corps commander. 

It must be remembered that, in the employment of the latter 
neans, the aeroplane rockets always apply to the infantry. One 
mould learn to recognize an aeroplane or balloon belonging to 
lis division. 



970 MILITARY TRAINING 

It should be remembered that the commander is impatiently- 
waiting for information, and that he can not take action until he 
knows what is going on in front. Never neglect any opportunity 
for communication; employ several different methods simultane- 
ously. Before demanding artillery fire or making signals with the 
object of tracing the contour of the advance line, a company should 
always make sure that there is no friendly element in advance of 
them. In the confusion of battle, reinforcements and troops mak- 
ing a counter attack, being poorly supplied with information and 
sustaining losses, often think they have arrived on the first line 
before they have reached it. This will result in bitter mistakes, 
as they will either open fire or will demand barrage fire in front 
of them. 

Liaison with Neighboring Units. — This liaison is regulated in 
the last paragraph of the plan of the battalion commander. It is 
particularly important when the neighboring unit is a different 
regiment. There is always an instinctive tendency in each unit to 
close in toward the center, and this takes place even when the ob- 
jectives have been carefully pointed out in order to avoid it. Con- 
sequently, it is a good plan to have a half platoon, a platoon, or 
even more march on the flank of the battalion, abreast the com- 
panies of the second line, and charged with keeping contact with 
the adjacent battalion or regiment. The platoon commander keeps 
his command in small columns, observes carefully how the action 
is going, and extends or deploys abreast of the first line if an * 
appreciable gap has occurred between the two battalions with 
which he is charged to maintain contact. 

Personnel Grouped Around the Battalion and Company Com- 
manders. — The division of the company into combat sections and 
soldiers not included in these sections, the extension given to cer- 
tain specialties (signalers, pioneers, etc.) have resulted in bringing 
together around the captain or the battalion commander a certain 
number of men who get in the way at the post of the commander 
and in the battle if they have not been assigned a place or duty 
while waiting until they are needed. This personnel, which may 
be called captain's group or battalion commander's group, should 
under all circumstances stand, move, and maneuver as a small 
supplementary section, under the command of the quartermaster 
corporal for the company and the battalion sergeant major for the 
battalion. They should always be arranged in the same order, in 
order that their presence can be instantly verified, their replacement 
assured, and they can be found when they are needed. In battle 
they are not allowed to collect around the commander; they are 
kept in formation similar to the other fractions of the company, 
and are required to march in their assigned place and to leave it 
only when called. 



APPENDIX 



IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF MILITARY 

TERMS APPEARING IN THE TEXT 

OF THIS WORK 



APPENDIX 

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF MILITARY TERMS 
APPEARING IN THE TEXT OF THIS WORK* 



Accidental Objectives. — Objectives dependent upon the military 
operations which have for their object the destruction or dis- 
integration of the enemy's forces. The position of the enemy 
determines their location. 

Active Sectors. — Elements generally made up of a small collection 
of trenches and barricades, and receive as a garrison a complete 
unit, from a squad to a platoon, having special orders to fit 
their location. 

Advance Cavalry. — That part of the advance guard cavalry pre- 
ceding the support. It reconnoiters far enough to the front 
and flanks to guard the column against surprise by artillery 
fire, and to enable timely information to be sent to the advance 
guard commander. 

Advance Section. — The area of the service of the line of communi- 
cation within which are situated the advance depots of ammu- 
nition, supplies, animals, and material from which issues are 
made to divisional trains. 

Aerial Mine. — A type of grenade, weighing as much as 200 pounds, 
used to beat down the enemy's defenses, destroying his sand- 
bags and revetments, and cutting away wire entanglements 
and other obstacles. A smaller variety is known as the winged 
torpedo. 

Aerial Reconnaissance. — A reconnaissance from a height above 
ground which is effected by captive balloons, free balloons, 
man-lifting kites, aeroplanes and dirigible balloons. 

Agents of Transmission. — Non-commissioned officers or privates 
who are charged solely with writing out the orders and carry- 
ing them to their destination, and who are employed only on 
simple tasks. In a company they are generally the cyclist, the 
drummers and trumpeters. Agents of transmission are fre- 
quently referred to as liaison agents. 

* Taken principally from FARROW'S DICTIONARY OF MILITARY 
TERMS. 



APPENDIX 973 

Alignment. — A straight line upon which several elements are 
formed, or are to be formed; or the dressing of several ele- 
ments on the same line. 

Alumino-thermics. — A science largely applied to meet military re- 
quirements based on the discovery that by producing in a 
suitable manner the chemical combination of oxygen and 
aluminium, a temperature may be created equal to that of the 
electric arc light. 

Ammunition Column. — A column attached to the advance section 
of the line of communications, which includes such ammunition 
as may be required depending upon the character of operations 
reasonably probable. 

Ammunition Train. — The train including all vehicles, animals and 
personnel employed in transporting the divisional artillery and 
infantry ammunition reserve, or in bringing up the same from 
the refilling point to the combat trains of organizations. 

Ardois Signals. — A system of signaling in which a set of electric 
lanterns arranged vertically on a staff, is used to send alpha- 
betical signals. The globes of the lanterns are half red and 
half white and the letters are formed by the different combina- 
tions of the two colors. 

Armored Tractor. — An armored motor car, resembling an enor- 
mous armadillo, capable of advancing over rough terrain. Its 
chief work is to locate the machine gunners and blow them out 
of their positions and thus save the advancing infantry. 

Artificial Darkness. — A temporary expedient in dissimulation. It 
may be produced by the discharge of black powder, or by 
burning damp straw or setting fire to vegetation to form a 
heavy cloud of smoke. The darkness of night may be inten- 
sified by throwing the beam of a searchlight across and some 
way in front of the object to be screened. 

Assembly Places. — Places intended to allow the assembly under 
cover, for a relatively short time, of all the supports and re- 
serves. They may be established from existing parallels, or be 
constructed entirely for that purpose by branches from the 
approach trenches. 

Assembly Positions. — When compelled to withdraw, troops that 
have been actively engaged are usually obliged to faU back 
for several miles in deployed formation before efficient re- 
organization and assembly is possible. The assembly position 
must be far enough to the rear to enable the deployed lines to 
thoroughly free themselves from all contact with the enemy. 

Azimuth Deviation. — In gunnery, the difference between the azi- 
muths from the directing point of the battery to the center of 
the target and to the point of splash at the instant the 
projectile strikes. 



974 MILITARY TRAINING 

Barrage. — A wall of shell fire thrown against an advancing enemy 
with such regularity that troops cannot pierce it. It is em- 
ployed to prevent an enemy's advance or retreat, or the bring- 
ing up of reinforcements. It is also used for the protection 
of troops advancing to the attack. 

Base. — A place where the line of communication originates, where 
magazines of stores for the forces in the field are situated and 
maintained under direct military management and control, and 
where the business of supplying these forces is located and 
organized under the military authorities; in fortification, the 
exterior side of the polygon; in ordnance, the protuberant 
rear portion of a gun between the knob of the cascabel and the 
base-ring; also the element on which the movement is regu- 
lated. 

Base-line Signal Troops.— Those troops which furnish the lines 
of information to connect commercial systems with the ad- 
vanced bases of armies in the field and which supplement or 
supplant the latter service wherever and whenever necessary. 

Bastioned Lines.— Lines laid out to make good flanking arrange- 
ments by placing the salients 250 yards apart, and making the 
perpendicular of the front equal to 1/6. Sometimes they have 
double flanks, the salients being 400 and 500 yards apart. 

Batardeau. — A strong wall of masonry, built across the outer 
ditch of a fortress, to sustain the pressure of water when one 
part of the ditch is dry and the rest wet. It is built up to an 
angle at the top and is armed with spikes, to prevent the 
enemy from crossing. 

Battalion Intelligence Section.— A section for front line observa- 
tion, variously organized, under the direct command of the 
intelligence officer and attached to battalion headquarters for 
• rations and accommodation. This section usually consists of 
about 35 of all ranks. 

Battalion Reserves.— Reserves, usually consisting of at least one 
company, used to reinforce the firing when the whole of the 
supports have been thrown into it, to reinforce the firing line 
at the moment of the assault, to cover the advance of the firing 
line, to protect the flanks from counter-attack and, if possible, 
to bring an oblique or enfilading fire to bear on that portion of 
the enemy's position which is being attacked by the firing line. 

Battery Commander Telescope.— A telescope of the general form 
of the panoramic sight, but more powerful. With its all-around 
motion in azimuth and limited motion in elevation, it is a most 
satisfactory angle-measuring instrument. 

Battle Sight.— The position of the rear sight on the service rifle j 
when the leaf is laid down. This corresponds to a range of 
547 yards. 



APPENDIX 975 

Bayonet Combat. — The last resort, either in attack or defense, is 
the bayonet. The percentage of bayonet wounds, as compared 
with bullet or shrapnel wounds is small, but a man wounded in 
bayonet combat seldom recovers. Hand grenades are much 
used in breaking up bayonet charges. 

Bearing. — In map reading, the angle a line makes with the true 
north line is a true bearing. The angle a line makes with the 
magnetic north line, is a magnetic bearing. The angle in both 
cases is measured from north by east and south. 

Beaten Zone. — The intersection of the cone of dispersion with the 
surface on which the objective of the fire stands, or the space 
on the ground in which the bullets strike, in a series of shots; 
fired by a body of soldiers with the same aiming point, and the 

i same rear sight setting. 

Belgian Pits. — In trench warfare, small shallow pits, constructed 
in a number of rows, generally seven. The spaces between the 
pits are made impassable by pointed stakes and tripwires,. 
Wire nooses also are anchored here and there. 

:Best Point of Entry. — In an approach against a fortification, the 

; blindest eye of the work, or the particular spot in its firing- 
line where its own fire is least effective over its immediate 

1 foreground, or is least well supported by cross fire from ad- 

s jacent works, or from artillery in the distance. 

iBleiazid. — A high explosive used for detonations. Its force of 

t detonation is twice as great as that of fulminate of mercury 
and it resists high temperatures. 

•Blinded Batteries. — Batteries, usually in the position of the second 

3 parallel, whose guns are protected by armored parapets and 

i bomb-proof blinds. , 

IBombing Planes. — The largest and most powerful of all flying ma- 
chines, with great ciimbing power to enable them to escape 
the fire of anti-aircraft artillery. They are escorted by squad- 
rons carrying bombs, guns and ammunition, the squadrons 
being composed of various units operating over known itin- 
eraries and in a fixed number of hours. I 

Bomb Screen. — For protection against bombs and grenades a grille 
of wire netting is erected in front of the trenches and arranged 
at such a slope that the majority of grenades passing over the 
screen will also clear the trench. This screen, of course, does 

jj) not permit the use of the bayonet, nor does it permit an easy 
offensive advance; but, this objection does not apply to com- 
munications, machine gun emplacements, etc. 

^racket. — In gunnery, a space in the direction of range, the limits 

of which are determined by firing. A target is said to be 

enclosed in a 100 yard bracket when, of two ranges differing 

from each other by 100 yards, one is over and the other is 

62 



976 MILITARY TRAINING 

short of the target; also, the cheek or side of an ordnances 
carriage. 
Brigade Reserves.— Reserves, usually consisting of at least one 
battalion, used as the general reserve if the brigade is oper- 
ating independently, and used as local reserves (when the 
brigade is operating as part of a larger force), and to take 
over the duties of the battalion reserves when these reserves 
have been absorbed in the firing line. 
Burst Interval.— In gunnery, the distance in the plane of site from 
the point of burst to the target. It is given with a minus sign 
when it is between the gun and target, and with a plus sign 
when it is beyond the target. 
Camouflage.— A blind or cover screening military movements and 
operations from the enemy air scouts, and other reconnoitermg 
parties. The most practicable and convenient cover is made 
of small foliage-bearing trees and brush. Camouflage, in its 
fullest sense, is the art of reducing the visibility of objects, 
and of deceiving as to their nature. 
Camoufleurs.— A body of ingenious men organized to devote their 
wits and energies to plans and devices intended to deceive 
the enemy observers, particularly aviators, wherever a machine 
gun or battery is set up, a trench taken and reversed, a new 
road or bridge built, movements to advanced posts to hear and, 
observe, etc. 
Center of Burst.— In gunnery, the point about which the points of 
burst of several projectiles are evenly distributed. Also known 
as burst center and mean point of burst. 
Chief of Platoon.— The head of the platoon, the strongest unit that 
can be controlled by the voice and kept in view when deployed. 
The platoon is the elementary group in battle; it engages, fires; 
and fights as a unit; it always acts as if its power was concen- 
trated under a single head— that of the chief of platoon. 
Clearance-angle.— The angle of elevation obtained when the bot- 
tom of the notch of the rear sight and the top of the front 
sight and the notch on the muzzle are in line. 
Clock-face Method.— In gunnery, a method employed to indicate 
the position of the target described in relation to a description-* 
point. In employing it, the clock-face must be imagined a 
hanging vertically, with its center directly over the descrip 
tion-point. 
Close Billets.— Billets adopted when a greater state of readiness 
is required than is possible in ordinary billets. For this reason 
tactical considerations invariably have precedence over con 
siderations of comfort, and arms and units should never be 
mixed. 



APPENDIX 977 

IClose Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type 01 reconnaissance which 
is minute in detail and extends about 30 miles into the enemy's 
territory. It is tactical and intended for the use of the local 
staff. This is area reconnaissance and deals with the details 
of the enemy's position and defenses. 

^oast Artillery Supports. — Small bodies of coast artillery or mobile 
troops assigned to the defense of the fortifications against 
attack by raiding parties; they are under the orders of the 
coast defense commanders. 

Coefficient of Wind-pressure. — In gunnery and aeronautics, the 
numerical constant in the formula expressing the pressure of 
the wind against a stationary object or of the air resistance 
to a moving object. 

Combat Practice. — In small arms firing, the prescribed firing at 
targets which simulate the appearance of an enemy under con- 
ditions approaching those found in war, and the application of 
this class of fire to tactical exercises. 

Command Post. — A shelter near the observation station of a com- 
mander. It should be located near a main approach trench and 
its location marked by sign posts, lanterns, orderlies, etc., so 
that it can be found day or night by the liaison agents who are 
strangers to the unit. 

Communication Trenches. — Those connecting fire trenches with 
the cover trenches and the cover trenches with any trenches 
(reserve) in rear where natural covered communication is 
impracticable. They are zigzagged to escape being enfiladed. 

Conduct of Fire. — Another term for fire control, or the exercise of 
a commander, over his unit or units, of that power which en- 
ables him to regulate the fire in obedience to his will. 

Cone of Dispersion. — In small arms firing, a term applied to the 
figure formed in space by the trajectories considered together 
of a series of shots fired by a body of soldiers at a common 
objective and with the same rear sight setting; also the ellipti- 
cal shaped cone made by the dispersion of shrapnel balls when 
the shrapnel bursts in the air. 

Contact Patrol Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type of reconnais- 
sance which aims (1) to keep headquarters of formations in- 
formed as to the progress of their troops during an attack, (2) 
to report on the positions of the enemy opposing the advance, 
the movements of his immediate reserves, and the state of his 
defenses, and (3) to transmit messages from the troops en- 
gaged to the headquarters of their formation. 

'Convergence Difference. — If the guns of a battery be accurately 
laid for converging fire up on a target and the panoramic 
sights be then turned upon a common aiming point, the sight 
readings will be found to vary by differences which are for all 



978 MILITARY TRAINING 



practical purposes equal from gun to gun throughout the 
battery. This common difference is called the convergence 
difference. 

Convoy Camps. — Camps in which, as a means of defense, wagons 
and loads of pack animals are utilized. The best formation is 
that of a square, the wagons being arranged axle to axle as 
closely as possible. When the loads of pack animals are used 
to form a defensive perimeter, they may be supplemented by 
abattis, sangars or trenches. - 

Counter-trenches. — Trenches made against the besiegers, which 
consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy's 
approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place 
on purpose to render them useless to the enemy if he should 
chance to come into possession of them. 

Covering Parties. — In trench raids, parties with auto rifles which 
are moved out at zero to the positions selected for them. They 
usually form lines half facing the flanks and get into shel| 
holes with the guns in the center and bombers on each side 

Covering Position. — In the transport service, a position to be oc 
cupied by an advanced detachment of troops at such distance 
from the selected landing that neither anchorage, beach, noj 
forming-up place are exposed to shell fire from the enemy's' 
land forces. 

Critique. — In the solution of combat problems, a statement giver 
by the officer in charge, explaining in detail what was correctl} 
done and what mistakes were made. 

Curtain Fire. — Another name for barrage or a zone of artillery! 
machine gun, or trench-weapon fire established for the purposi] 
of preventing the passage of troops. 

Curved Fire. — When a projectile is fired so as to just clear ai 
interposing cover, and then descend upon the object, the lin 
of fire being perpendicular or nearly so to the front of troopff 
or works to be destroyed; fire with low muzzle velocity, th 
elevation not exceeding 540 mils, usually from howitzers. 

Danger Angle. — The angle which the tangent to the trajector 
at the point of splash makes with the plane containing th I 
point of splash and parallel to the horizontal plane throug 
the muzzle of the piece in the firing position. Also calle 
Angle of Splash. 

Danger Space. — The distance in the plane of the slope considerec 
over which an object of a given height would be pierced by 
given trajectory. 

Deflection. — Generally the angle set off on the panoramic sigV 
of the directing gun. It may or may not be the same for th^ 
other guns. In direct laying, it is such as is necessary to coi 
rect for wind, drift and the movement of the target; the devij. 



APPENDIX 979 

tion of a shot or ball from its true course; sometimes written 
deflexure. 

Deflection Difference. — The common converging or diverging dif- 
ference applied to guns other than the directing gun, necessary 
to bring them to bear on their proper portion of the target. 
The deflection difference for parallel fire is always equal to 
the parallax of the aiming point. It is positive if the aiming 
point is in front and negative if in rear. 

Delaying Actions. — Actions in which the advance of the enemy is 
delayed as long as possible without imperiling the safe with- 
drawal of the delaying force; and, in which this force must 
hold its position for a time that is dependent upon conditions 
in other parts of the field or in the theater of war. 

Deployment. — An evolution by which a command extends its front; 
it may be partial, as when heads of columns form on the same 
line; or complete, as when a firing line is formed, with supports 
and reserves. 

Depth Bomb. — A bomb designed for use against submarines and 
other submerged objects. Submarines, once seen below the 
surface, are pursued and destroyed by dropping depth bombs 
from the observing aircraft. Depth bombs are also known as 
diving torpedoes. 

Diamond-hitch. — In animal transportation, the side packs are slung 
across the aparejo by the sling ropes and lashed on with the 
lash rope and cincha in the form of the diamond-hitch, the 
formation of which is accomplished by two packers, termed 

! the " near " and " off " packers. 

Didion's Formulas. — Certain equations relating to the trajectory 
of a projectile in the air, obtained by integrating the differ- 

i ential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions as 
to the law of the resistance, etc. 

Diphosgene. — A highly poisonous gas first employed by the Ger- 

ii mans for loading their green, yellow and blue cross shell. 
Diphosgene is a very dangerous weapon, causing little or no 

r lachrymation. It is commonly classed as phosgene. 
Dissimulation. — The production of targets less attractive to the 
enemy than those which would be offered by the undisguised 
works of the defender, and which are less likely to arouse the 
enemy's suspicions, while at the same time they conceal the 
true nature of the defenders' powers of offence, 
distance. — The space between elements in the direction of depth; 
it is usually measured from the tail of one element to the head 
of the element following it. 
Distributing Point. — The place where the ration sections of the 
field trains are replenished either from the supply train or the 
line of communications. 



980 MILITARY TRAINING 

Dressing Stations. — Stations established during combat by am- 
bulance companies of the sanitary train in the immediate rear 
of the line of regimental aid stations, which are the places 
where all wounded unable to walk are collected from regi- 
mental aid stations by bearers of ambulance companies. 
Echelon.— A body of troops is " in echelon " with reference to an- 
other body when it is more or less advanced and unmasks or 
uncovers the same, wholly or in part. Units so placed are 
called echelons. Sometimes used to designate the different 
elements of a tactical command. 
Effectiveness of Fire.— The effectiveness of fire under battle condi- 
tions and in combat firing exercises is dependent upon the) 
three factors; the percentage of hits made, the number of 
targets hit, and the time of execution. The ultimate effect may| 
be expresed synthetically by the number of enemies disabledi 
or targets hit in a unit of time. 
Elements.— The simplest of the distinct isles of resistance. They 
are generally made up of a smaL collection of trenches and 
barricades, and receive as a garrison a complete unit, from 
a squad to a platoon, having special orders to fit their location. 
Employment of Fire.— A general term meaning fire direction, 
which embraces the steps which enable the commander of one 
or more fire units to bring an effective fire to bear upon the 
desired target at the proper time. 
Energy of Recoil.— An expression for the work done in the recoil 
of a gun when fired. It may be reduced by decreasing the 
weight of the projectile, by decreasing the muzzle velocity, or 
by increasing the weight of the gun and carriage. 
Enfilading Battery.— A battery used for destroying the artillery 
and traverses, and silencing the fire of the defenses. Positions 
are chosen for the enfilading batteries from which the terre- 
pleins of the faces can be swept throughout. 
Enveloping Attack.— An attack whose advantages lie mainly in thd 
longer concentric line employed, which gives a greater volume 
of fire or a fire that is converging upon the enemy s position 
and which may enfilade part of the enemy's line when he i 
compelled to form a new front. - 

Equation of Defense.— An equation expressing the relation be 
tween the development of the interior crest, the remainder o 
the garrison after taking out the reserve, the number of rank: 
for the defense, and the length of the interior crest requirec n 
for the cannon in barbette, and for the outlet. 
Evacuation Points.— In the sanitary service, the places at whic 
the sick and wounded are transferred from the division to tn 
lines of communications elements. 



. 



APPENDIX 981 

xamining Post.-A small detachment, under the command of 
an officer or a non-commissioned officer, stationed at some 
convenient point to examine strangers and to receive bearers 
ot nags of truce brought in by the outguards or patrols 
Falling Ground.-When the ground beaten by bullets falls in re- 
spect of the line of sight, the depth of the beaten zone is aug- 
mented in proportion as the downward slope increases, until it 
reaches its greatest magnitude when the angle of the fall of 
r the bullets is the same as the slope of the ground 
Field Battalion.— A technical and administrative unit The head- 
quarters and supply detachment concerns itself principally with 
matters of administration and supply. Its tactical function is 
limited to the sum of the functions of the three separate com- 
panies in the battalion, as the companies have, in general 
separate spheres of action. 
?ield ^Ration.— The ration prescribed in orders by the commander 
ot the field forces. It consists of the reserve ration in whole 
I or in part supplemented by articles of food requisitioned or 
, purchased locally, or shipped from the rear, provided such sup- 
plements or substitutes correspond generally with the com- 
ponent articles or substitutive equivalents of the garrison 
ration. 

j'Hdd Telephone.-A line of telephone set up and quickly trans- 
ferred from place to place in the field of military operations 
employed for transmitting information from various points to 
the station of the general officer commanding and for the dis- 
tribution of orders emanating from said station. 

■ield Wireless.— Temporary wireless stations set up in the field 

, of military operations to facilitate the transmission of orders, 
to gain knowledge of enemy movements and to communicate 
with aircraft acting under orders of the ground officer. 

He.— Two men, the front rank man and the corresponding man in 
the rear rank. The front rank man is the file leader. A file 
without a rear rank man is a blank file. The term file applies 
also to individual men in single rank formation and to a single 
mounted man in ranks. 

'ire Control.— The exercise by a commander, over his unit or 
units, of that power which enables him to regulate the fire in 

( obedience to his will. It pertains especially to the techni- 
calities immediately involved in delivery of fire. 
ire Direction.— A general term embracing the various steps, in- 
cluding tactical disposition, which enable the commander of 
, one or more fire units to bring an effective fire to bear upon 

i the desired target at the proper time. It pertains especially to 
preparation of fire. 



982 MILITARY TRAINING 

Fire Discipline. — The training of men so that they instinctively 
carry out all orders of fire-unit commanders and in the absence 
of orders adjust their sights and fire with due regard to the 
tactical situation. 

Fire Superiority. — Superior moral or physical fire effect as com- 
pared to that of the adversary. Fire superiority is implied i^ 
the assailant can advance or force back the defender. 

Firing for Effect. — The fire delivered for the purpose of producing 
effect on the target. It usually follows immediately after afl| 
justment and is delivered with the greatest rapidity consistent 
with proper laying of the guns. 

Fixed Batteries. — The batteries containing the siege-guns and 
mortars of the heaviest caliber and longest range, placed when 
possible in enfilading positions and delivering their fire within, 
the interior slope of the face enfiladed. 

Flight Commander. — In aeronautics, an officer who commands an^ 
leads a squadron of aircraft, executing orders of the ground 
officer as far as possible, being followed by the squadron. 

Flying Corps in the Field. — In aviation an organization of varied 
magnitude and functions. Numerous separate duties are al 
lotted to it, and each separate squadron, according to its typ< 
of machine, confines itself to special tasks. 

Folding the Flag. — In lowering the flag care is taken that it does! 
not touch the ground. It is carefully folded into the shape 01 
a cocked hat. The flag is usually folded into 3 or 4 folds by 
two members of the guard under the direction of a non-com- 
missioned officer. It is then successively folded on the 
hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, the other two sides 
being equal to the width of one of the 3 or 4 folds. 

Fragmentation. — The bursting and scattering of the fragments o 
a shell, bomb or grenade in consequence of the firing and ex 
plosion of the contained explosive. Fragmentation is more «vJ 
less perfect according to the uniformity in size and the numbe.v 
of the fragments. 

Gas Attacks. — Attacks in which chlorine and other gases ane 
brought up to the trench compressed in steel cylinders. These 
are dug into the bottom of the trench and connected with pipes 
leading over the parapet. When the valves of the cylinde^v 
are opened the gas escapes with a loud, hissing noise, mixe*? 
with the air and is carried by the wind to the opposing 
trenches, spreading out in a continuous cloud as it goes. 

Gas Helmet. — A defensive mask, usually referred to as the P. H 
helmet or tube helmet, consisting of a flannelette bag whicp 
pulls over the entire head and which is chemically treated, '-fa. 
is fitted with a mouthpiece with a valve which is rubber covered 
and when in use is gripped by the teeth. Inserted in the front 



APPENDIX 983 

are glass windows for the eyes. During the passage through 
the material of the helmet, the poisonous gas is absorbed by 
the chemicals. 

jas Warfare. — The use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases in 
attacking the enemy, either by emanation or by means of shells 
and grenades. The first requires a favorable breeze of about 
five miles per hour and there must be no rain. In the shells 
and grenade method of dissemination, shells and bombs are 
used containing liquid gas, or a substance which gives off 

, irritant fumes. 

raz-vesicant. — A gas invented by the Germans, which acts after a 
few hours only. It is colorless and inodorous and destroys all 
the tissues as thoroughly as if under the action of suphuric 

I acid. 

reneral Service Code. — The international Morse code for use by 
the Army of the United States and between the Army and 
Navy of the United States. It is employed in all visual sig- 
naling apparatus using the wig-wag, radio telegraphy, and on 
cables using siphon recorders. There is but one modification 
in its use, that is, when the Ardois night system is used 
numerals are spelled out and punctuation marks are elimi- 
nated. 

Jorge Trench. — A trench having a double parapet, the front one 
serving as a parados to protect men in the trench from shots 
coming from the main line and also as a firing line to com- 
mand the interior of the lunette in case the enemy gets in 

, over the front. 

irenadier. — Originally, a soldier who carried and hurled grenades; 

I afterwards, one of a company attached to each regiment or 
battalion, taking post on the right of the line; in modern times, 
a member of a special regiment or corps. 
Ground Section. — In gunnery, the zone of dispersion. In connec- 
tion with the effective ranges of shrapnel balls it will be found 
Ithat many balls impacting near the outer limit of a ground 
section are ineffective due to lack of man-killing energy. 
iroups of Posts. — Sub-sections organized by the commander with- 
in each section of an intrenched zone. The general duties of 
the commander are the same as those for an outpost com- 
. mander. 

I tun Squads. — Soldiers grouped for the purpose of making units 
for the operation and service of guns in battle and to facilitate 
their control and movement. Their habitual formation is in 
; column. 

i lair-brash Grenade. — A racket bomb used to demoralize the 

enemy, the noise created by its explosion being very great. 

i It consists of a board about 12 inches long and 6 inches wide. 



984 MILITARY TRAINING 

cut down to the shape of a brush. On the large end of this i< 
wired or tied a slab of wet gun cotton. In the center of tk< 
slab is placed the dry primer or cone of guncotton wit! 
detonator and time fuse. 

Head Cover.- — A vertical shield of any material which protects th< 
heads of the troops from fire. In fortification, any horizonta 
cover which may be provided above the plane of fire. It ii 
advantageous only when the conditions of the foreground art 
such that the enemy cannot get close up. 

Height of Burst. — The angle in mils which a line joining gun anc 
the point of burst makes with the plane of site. The heigh - j 
of burst adopted for adjustment is 1 mil and for effect 3 mils 

High Explosive Shrapnel. — A shrapnel differing from the commor 
shrapnel only in the substitution of an active for an insert 
matrix. The matrix surrounding the balls in a common shrap 
nel is resin and mono-nitro-naphthalene; in the high explosrw 
shrapnel the matrix is tri-nitro-toluol, a high explosive. Th( 
fuse of the high explosive shrapnel, in so far as the time actior 
is regulated, is the same as the field artillery 2Usecond combi 
nation fuse. 

High-power Artillery. — Artillery composed of motor-drawn piece 
or of pieces which are moved on rails. Its task is the destruc 
tion of objectives which the other classes of artillery, eithe 
through lack of range or the inadequacy of their projectile^ 
can not damage. It has for objectives strongly fortified sup 
porting points, railway stations, centers of communication, etc 

Holding Attack. — An attack for the purpose of holding the enemj 
to his position by offensive action in one part of the field whil< 
a decisive blow in the nature of an assault or of an enveloping 
or a turning movement is struck in another quarter. 

Honig Circles. — An ingenious arrangement of signals for nigh 
flyers. The apparatus consists of two electric circles or ring; 
of incandescent lamps standing on edge a few feet from thd ( 
ground, with the smaller one placed at a distance of severa 
yards behind the larger one, which stands back of the landing 
stage. 

Identification Signals. — By reason of the number of visual signal^! 
that can be sent simultaneously, it is necessary to assigns- 
signal to each station which will identify the authority sending 
the communication. These signals are assigned from divisioi 
headquarters and each consists of one letter and one numeral 

Illuminating Grenade. — A contrivance, weighing about 14 ounces 
attached to the muzzle of the ordinary service rifle. In, 
projecting it into the air, the butt of the rifle is placed on tf?' 
ground. A firing rod releases a parachute and ignites th< 
illuminating substance — calcium carbide. 



APPENDIX 985 

Incendiary Grenade. — A form of grenade designed to scatter 
molten metal upon bursting. The most effective of the kind 
contains the ingredients necessary for making the compound 
known as thermit. 
x Independent Cavalry. — Cavalry independent of the infantry divi- 
sions advancing behind it and under the sole orders of their 
own commander, who receives his instructions direct from the 
commander-in-chief. It is the chief means of providing the 
commander-in-chief with the information which he requires in 
order to dispose the whole of his force to the best advantage 
and with the greatest hope of success. 

[ndirect Fire. — The practice of firing (usually with machine guns) 
at a target while using a different sight setting and a different 
aiming point than is offered by the objective itself. The target 
may or may not be visible to the gunner. Over-head fire, 
night firing and firing with the use of auxiliary aiming points 
are various methods of employing indirect fire. 

Cnfantry Divisional Balloon. — A signal balloon identified by several 
streamers displayed at its rear, and at night by an inclined 
plane, illuminated at regular intervals. The aeronaut com- 
municates by telephone with a station on the ground, from 
which the messages are transmitted to divisional headquarters. 

[nformation Officer. — An officer sent by the commander of a unit 
to the headquarters of the next higher command or of a neigh- 
boring command for the purpose of keeping in touch with and 
sending back prompt information of changes in the tactical 
situation. 
'[nterior Guards. — Police guards, guards of property, etc., who are 
liable to come in contact with the enemy. 

[nterval. — An open space between military units, companies, guns, 
etc.; space between elements of the same line, measured from 
flank to flank. 

fournal of Attack. — In actual siege operations, a daily record.made 
by each engineer officer on duty in the trenches, of the amount 
of work done, the time required, the means of execution, etc., 
with any observations that may seem of value. 

. fournal of Defense. — A journal in which is kept by the commander 
of a place and the chiefs of engineers and of artillery, during 
war, in order of date, without blank or interlineation, all orders 
given or received, the manner in which they are executed, their 
results, and every event and circumstance of importance in the 
progress of the defense. 

fump of a Gun. — The increased angle of departure at which a 
projectile leaves a gun, after the gun has been truly leveled at 
the target or object to be struck. 



986 MILITARY TRAINING 

Kiwi. — In the vernacular of the Royal Flying Corps, a member of 1 
the Corps who does not fly in allusion to the flightless bird of 
New Zealand called the Kiwi. Such members, officers and men," 
attend to supply and repair work. 
Knuckle Knife. — In raids and trench work, a knife about nine S 
inches long, ending in a handle that has openings for the four 
fingers to go through, thus serving as a " knuckle duster." 
Lateral Communications. — Communications between the different 
portions of an army when moving from one common base byjj 
different roads towards an enemy, so that in case of a concen- 
tration being required on any particular point, instructions and 
orders can be readily carried out. 
Lateral Deviation. — In gunnery, the distance between the plane of 
direction and the plane of splash, measured (right or left) 
from the center of the target and perpendicular to the plane of 
direction. 
Leapfrog. — A method of maintaining constant communication with 
a moving command by using two or more instruments with a 
single unit, keeping one in operation while another is moving 
past it to a position in front. Commonly used with radio sets 
and buzzer instruments. 
Liaison. — A French term signifying the connection or communica- 
tion to be established between various officers or between 
various units and officers. 
Liaison Agent. — The designation reserved for officers (occasionally 
sergeants) who are competent to estimate a situation, deliver 
instructions, and gather information. A custom has grown up 
of referring to the agents of transmission as liaison agents. 
Line. — A formation in which the different elements are abreast 
of each other; the numbered organizations of an army in con- 
tradistinction to the guard or guards; the infantry, cavalry, 
artillery, etc., in contradistinction to the staff corps and de-, 
partments; a picket line or side line; an imaginary limiting line 
in fencing; a trench or rampart; a general term applied to all 
combatant troops; a position occupied by troops, as a defensive 
line. 

Line of Circumvallation. — An exterior line of works forming an 
unbroken line of intrenchments composed of the most simple 
elementary parts, as tenailles, redans, etc., with a slight profile; 
its chief object being to prevent succors of small detachments 
from slipping into the place. 
Line of Communication. — The communication by rail, road, and 
navigable waters between the army and its base or bases in- 
clusive, together with the district through which it passes? 
within such limits as the commander-in-chief may determine. 



APPENDIX 987 

Line of Countervallation. — The line of field works constructed in 
front of the camps, and on the side next to the besieged posi- 
tion, to defend the camps, parks, and trains against any attacks 
which might be made by the besieged. 
Listening Posts. — Sheltered positions in advance of a defensive 
line for the purpose of early detection of the enemy's move- 
ments. They are connected with the main line by a com- 
municating trench or subterranean gallery. 
Living Force. — That force of a body in motion which determines 
the work of which it is capable. It is measured by the product 
of the mass and the square of the velocity. 
Local Reconnaissance. — In aviation, a type of reconnaissance which 
is a minute examination of the trenches and defenses. It is 
seldom more than 8 or 10 miles in e,xtent. Also known as 
artillery reconnaissance. 
Longitudinal Deviation. — In gunnery, the perpendicular distance 
i (over or short) of the point of splash from the vertical plane 
j passing through the center of the target and perpendicular to 

the plane of direction. 
Longitudinal Dihedral Angle. — In aeronautics, the main surface and 
tail surface of an aeroplane are said to be at a longitudinal 
dihedral angle when the projections of their neutral lift lines 
meet and produce an angle above them. 
, Longitudinal Resistance. — In gunnery, a strain or resistance pro- 
duced by the longitudinal pull or elongation caused by the 
direct thrust of the pressure in the bore on the head of the 
block, and by the displacement in longitudinal direction caused 
bjr the pressures which act normally upon the interior and ex- 
I terior of the jacket. 

Lookout Posts. — Protected positions, usually located in the first 
line trenches, at points where good views may be obtained of 
the enemy's line. They are usually constructed on the right 
side of a traverse and in an excavation in the front wall of the 
trench. 
Looping. — An aerial military maneuver, frequently termed looping 
the loop, which is seldom done because of the great danger of 
throwing the pilot out, difficulty in feeding the motor and the 
great strain on the machine. A loop is really only a combina- 
tion of a very extreme stall, and then a dive, and at no time is 
the aeroplane actually flying on its back. At the top of the 
loop the engine is shut down. 
i Map Reading. — The art of forming a clear mental picture of the 
actual features of the ground by reading the characters repre- 
senting the same on the map. To be able to do so, the scale 
and map distances of the map must be known. 



988 MILITARY TRAINING 



Maximum Angle of Incidence. — In aeronautics, the greatest angle 
at which, for a given power, surface (including detrimental 
surface), and weight, horizontal flight can be maintained. 

Mean Radial Distance. — The mean radial distance of the shots 
from the center of the group on the target. To determine it, 
find the point of mean impact, and measure the absolute dis-, 
tance of each shot from it. Divide the sum of these distances 
by the number of shots on the target. 

Meeting Engagements. — Meeting engagements are characterized 
by the necessity for hasty reconnaissance, or the almost totaf 
absence of reconnaissance; by the necessity for rapid deploy- 
ment, frequently under fire; and usually by the absence of 
trenches or other artificial cover. These conditions give 
further advantages to the offensive. The whole situation will 
usually indicate beforehand the proper general action to be 
taken on meeting the enemy. 

Meeting System of Convoys. — A system under which two sections* 
of transport, one of which is loaded and the other unloaded, 
meet at some point half way between two stages, exchange 
their vehicles or transfer their loads, and then return to their 
respective stages. 

Mess Sergeant. — The sergeant in charge of the company mess 
under the supervision of the company commander. He makes 
the purchases of supplies and provides the cooks with the 
materials necessary for the bill of fare for each meal. He sees 
that the personnel connected with the men perform their duties 
properly and that the food is properly prepared and promptly 
served at the hour designated. 

Mil. — The unit of angular measure, 1/6400 part of a circle. The 
arc which subtends a mil, at the center of a circle is, for 
practical purposes, equal to 1/1000 of the radius. The arc and 
its tangent are nearly equal for angles not greater than 330 
mils. 

Military Administrator. — An officer whose function is to transform 
. into military force so much of the resources of the State as 
the Government thinks proper, The process is continuous, and 
goes on during war as well as during peace, and renders the 
resources of the country available for employment against an 
enemy. 

Military Order. — An authoritative direction, respecting the military 
service, issued by a military commander with a view to regu- 
late the conduct of military persons, or control the movements 
or operations of individuals or organizations under his com- 
mand. 

Military Orthopedics. — A branch of the Medical Department, under 
the direction of the Director of Military Orthopedics, dealing 



APPENDIX 989 

with the wounded either lessening or curing their deformities 
or restoring them to military usefulness. 

Military Police. — Police whose duty is to enforce all police regula- 
tions in the theater of operations and in mobilization and con- 
centration camps. They protect the inhabitants of the country 
from pillage and violence and prevent excesses of all kinds; 
keep all roads clear; arrest all soldiers and civilian employes 
absent without proper authority from their organizations; 
arrest all marauders; and are charged with relieving organiza- 
tions from the care of prisoners of war and with their safe 
conduct. 

Military Railroading. — That condition of railroading which in- 
cludes the location, construction, operation, and maintenance 
of railroads in the theater of war under military auspices and 
for military purposes; that is, with a personnel consisting of 
officers, enlisted men, and civilian employees, and for the main 
purpose of facilitating the movements and supply of the army. 

Military Reconnaissance. — A survey or examination of a country 
made under the protection of an armed force. It is one of the 
most essential operations connected with the tactics of the 
field, and serves as the basis of every movement or combina- 
tion which it may be proposed to make. 

Military Surgery. — The surgical practice in armies. In its broad 
and ordinary acceptation, it embraces branches of art compre- 
hending the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital 
administration, ambulances, etc. 

Military Vocabulary. — The techincal terms applied to the organi- 
zations, weapons, equipment, formations and duties of various 
arms. It is important that the military vocabulary in each unit 
of an army should be uniform as to its various terms, espe- 
cially in regard to the indication and description of targets. 

Motor Transport. — A constant and serviceable means of transport, 
for troops and materiel. In conjunction with trailers it may be 
employed for any and all special purposes, embracing motor 
ambulances, ammunition-wagons, artillery and machine guns, 
kitchens, searchlights, and telegraphs, and cause a close union 
of the three arms of service. It greatly increases the efficiency 
of engineer troops, making possible the more rapid trans- 
portation of tools and materials, gasoline power plants, etc. 

Motor Transport Corps. — A part of the Quartermaster Corps 
under the direction of a chief who is an assistant to the Quar- 
termaster General. The functions of the Motor Transport 
Corps are the purchase and procurement of all motor pro- 
pelled vehicles except tanks, caterpillars and artillery tractors; 
the maintenance and repair of motor vehicles; the technical 



990 MILITARY TRAINING 

supervision organization and supply of motor driven vehicles; 
the maintenance of reserve vehicles and motor repair shops. 
The Motor Transport Corps has no responsibility after the 
vehicles are assigned to and placed under the control of tacti- 
cal commanders. 

Motor Trucks. — For military service, motor trucks are stand- 
ardized with interchangeability of parts. They are provided 
with special platforms and armored bodies and designed for all 
kinds of work, and used to carry anti-aircraft guns, traveling J 
machine-shops, dentist's offices, wireless stations, airplane re- 
pair depots, soup kitchens, blacksmith shops, etc. 

Mounted Scouts. — Scouts used for communication with neighbor- 
ing troops, for patrolling off the route of march, for march 
outposts, outpost patrols, combat patrols, reconnaissance ahead 
of columns, etc. Their further use is, in general, confined to 
escort and messenger duty. 

National Anthem. — The recognized musical expression of the patri- 
otic sentiment of a nation. The composition consisting of the 
words and music known as " The Star Spangled Banner " is 
designated the national anthem of the United States of 
America. When the national anthem is played, officers and 
men in uniform, but out of ranks, come to attention, bringing 
the right hand to the position of salute at the first bar of the 
music and holding it there until the music ceases. Troops 
under arms render the prescribed salute. Civilians uncover, 
holding the hat with the right hand on the left shoulder. If 
indoors and uncovered all stand at attention. 

National Salute. — A salute of 21 guns. It is also the salute to a 
national flag. The salute to the Union, commemorative of 
the Declaration of Independence, and consisting of one gun 
for each State, is fired at noon on July 4th, at every post pro- 
vided with suitable artillery. 

Natural Point-blank. — The point at which the line of sight inter- 
sects the trajectory the second time; or, more practically 
speaking, it is that point which, being aimed at, is struck by 
the projectile. 

Night Assault. — An assault undertaken in order to gain a point of 
support for further operations in daylight, to drive in an 
enemy's advanced troops, to secure an outpost position as a 
preliminary to an attack at dawn, or to surprise an ill-trained, 
ill-disciplined or semi-civilized enemy. 

Night Operations. — Movements undertaken to out-maneuver an 
enemy; to avoid observation, particularly when the enemy is 
provided with aircraft; to pass over an area of ground which 
it has been found difficult or impossible to traverse in day- 



APPENDIX 991 

light; to continue or complete an attack begun before dark; 
and to effect a tactical surprise. 

Nobel Lighter. — A lighter for hand grenades having a five-second 
fuse attached. It consists of two cardboard tubes, one fitting 
over the other. Inside the top end of the outer tube there is a 
layer of friction composition; fixed on the top end of the 
inner tube is a forked brass friction head, which is held in 
position by a safety pin fastened through both tubes. Inside 
the other end of the inner tube is a small copper band, into 
which the fuse is fitted. 

Noizet System of Fortification. — A system embracing the teaching 
of the school of Metz and having no sensible departure from 
the views and methods of Cormontaigne, excepting to intro- 
duce such modifications as would remedy some of the acknowl- 
edged defects of his method. The front planned by Noizet 
has been taken as an elementary exercise for instruction in 
the art of fortification for the cadets at the United States 
Military Academy at West Point. 

Nose Spinning. — In aeronautics, a quick way of losing height with- 
out gaining too much speed. A dangerous feature of spinning 
comes in where there is too much side fin surface in front of 
the center of gravity, as this stiffens the aeroplane, making it 
harder to get out. This maneuver requires plently of height 
for safe recovery. 

N-Square Law. — In aeronautics, an expression meaning that if, for 
example, only five machines were flying in sufficiently close 
formation to act in attack or defense simultaneously — that is 
to say, so that the enemy could not approach one without com- 
ing under fire of all — they (in formation) would be more than 
a match for any force of machines (of equal individual fighting 
value) that might attack singly up to the number of twenty- 
five. 

Observation. — Watching the effect of fire on the target with a view 
to correction or verification of sighting, either by watching for 
the dust thrown up by bullets, or the behavior of the enemy. 

Observatory. — A term often employed for observation posts which 
are protected and have means of communication such as tele- 
phone, heliograph, messenger, carrier pigeons and wireless. 
The observatory may be occupied by the commander himself 
or by an observer who represents him. In any case the ob- 
servatory should be near the command post. 

Offensive Patrols. — That class of patrols made exterior to the line 
of out-posts, with a view of gaining intelligence of the enemy's 
whereabouts. They are composed of larger bodies of men than 
defensive patrols. In aviation, these patrols go far beyond the 
lines and make invaluable reconnaissance. 



992 MILITARY TRAINING 

Ooeration Orders. — Orders which deal with all strategical and 
tactical operations and which include such information regard- 
ing supply, transport, etc., as it is necessary to publish to the 
troops. 

Optimum Angle of Incidence. — In aeronautics, the angle at which 
the lift-drift ratio is highest. In modern aeroplanes it is that 
angle of incidence possessed by the surface when the axis 
of the propeller is horizontal. 

Ordinary Billets. — Billets in which troops are lodged in houses or 
buildings at the rate of about one man to each three to four 
square yards of floor space. In agricultural districts, ordinary 
billets without subsistence can be provided at the rate of about 
ten men per inhabitant. 

Ordnance Depots.— The ordnance services on the lines of com- 
munications consist of ordnance depots, the personnel for which 
is found from one or more ordnance companies. These depots 
are distributed at the base, advanced base, and at other locali- 
ties on the lines of communications. Intermediate depots are 
also established as may be necessary. Ordnance depots con- 
tain all the necessary reserves of arms, ammunition, equipment, 
etc., exclusive of medical and veterinary stores. 

Orientation. — In artillery, the determination of the east point of 
the compass, in taking bearings. The orientation of mortars is 
frequent^ tested and the setting of the azimuth indices cor- 
rected. A drawing is said to be oriented when so placed that 
its true meridian is parallel to the true meridian of the ground. 

Outguards. — The guards which constitute the line of small detach- 
ments farthest to the front and nearest to the enemy. Their 
duty is to maintain uninterrupted observation of the ground 
in front and on the flanks; to report promptly hostile move- 
ments and other information relating to the enemy; to prevent 
unauthorized persons from crossing the line of observation; 
to drive off small parties of the enemy, and to make temporary 
resistance to larger bodies. 

Outpost Company. — A company the general function of which is 
to extend the lines of information in the direction forward of 
the brigade. Specifically, its normal function is to furnish 
telephone communication between the infantry brigade com- 
mander and his regimental commanders in combat. 

Outward Flank. — The extreme file on the right or left of a division, 
subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the 
battalion is at close or open column, and which is the farthest 
wheeling point from line into column, or from column into 
line. 

Overhead Fire. — Fire directed over the heads of troops. Its object' 
is to cover the advance of troops, to increase the fire effect on 



APPENDIX 993 

any particular portion of the enemy's lines and to cover the 
enemy communication trenches and prevent supports com- 
ing up. 

Oversea Operations. — Operations undertaken with a view to (a) 
the establishment of a base for military operations either 
against the enemy's field armies or against a coast fortress, 
(b) the establishment of a flying naval base, or (c) raids 
against shipping, communications, etc. 

Pack Transportation. — A division of animal transportation, in 
which the animal is the unit, and each can carry, on a con- 
servative estimate, 300 pounds gross or 225 pounds net load. 
The great advantage of pack transportation is its mobility, and 
ability to go over rough country where wagons are impassable. 

Panels. — Contrivances of different types used in communicating 
with avions. Their significance varies in order to preserve 
the secret. They are displayed only in the first line and are 
left spread only until the avion has signaled " understood," 
and in no case for more than 15 minutes. 

Panorama Sketch. — A sketch too extended to be viewed in its 
entirety at once, but is exhibited part at a time by being un- 
rolled and passing continuously before the spectator. Pano- 
ramic sketches are made by means of panoramic cameras 
transported by aircraft or otherwise. 

Parachute Grenade. — A percussion grenade whose body consists of 
a tin cylinder of explosive with a hemispherical head of larger 
diameter containing shrapnel bullets. A buffer cylinder passes 
through the body and projects, so as to produce the explosion 
slightly above ground. A parachute safety arrangement is 
attached to the head of the handle in order to prevent frag- 
ments flying to the rear on explosion, and also to cause the 
grenade to fall on its head. 

Patrols. — Small detachments employed for a variety of purposes, 
the name of the detachment indicating its duty, as visiting, con- 
necting, combat, exploring, reconnoitering, flanking, harrass-* 
ing, pursuing patrols, etc. 

Permissible Explosives. — Explosives based variously upon ammo- 
nium nitrate, nitroglycerin and nitrostarch. They are poorly 
adapted for demolitions, but are peculiarly suitable for mining 
operations. 

Phosgene. — A very poisonous gas first used by the Germans in 
their poison shell. The term was formerly used to designate 
a gas now known as carbonyl chloride which is formed from 
chlorine and carbon monoxide, under the influence of light. 
It is commonly used under the form of diphosgene. 

Photograph Officer. — In aviation, an officer in charge of the pho- 
tographic lorry who is responsible for the photographic ap- 



1 



994 MILITARY TRAINING 

paratus and the development of plates delivered by the observ- 
ing aviators who have been aloft. 

Picric Powders. — Powders consisting of pure picric acid, or that 
acid combined with a non-metallic base. They are non-sensi- 
tive to shock, unaffected by heat or cold, and in some forms by 
water, can be produced in a granular form or fused into solid 
shapes. Melinite, lyddite, ecrasite and shimose are of this 
class. 

Pill-box. — A slang term for a concrete and steel shelter and out- 
post defense, armed with machine guns as used by the Germans 
on the Western Front. It generally contains two main cham- 
bers and mounts from 3 to 5 machine guns in a bastion beyond 
these chambers. A stairway leads to the top which may be 
used for observation purposes. 

Plane of Site. — A plane containing the right line from the muzzle 
of the gun to the target, and a horizontal line perpendicular 
to the axis of the bore at the muzzle. It is sometimes called 
the zero plane. 

Plan of Combat. — The success of an attack depends upon the per- 
fection of its execution. This perfection must be assured by 
the plan of combat of the chief of the unit. This plan is based 
upon the mission assigned to the unit, the obstacles to be over- 
come in accomplishing this mission and the means at the 
disposal of the unit. 

Playfair Cipher. — A cipher in military usage, according to which 
system the letters of the text are enciphered in pairs, and one 
letter of a pair is represented in cipher by the same letter only 
when the other letter of the pair remains the same. This fact 
greatly increases the difficulty of solution. 

Plunging Ricochet. — The description of ricochet fire, when the 
angle of fall is comprised between 6° and 10°. In this fire, the 
ball is given a small velocity, and the curve described is short 
and high. 
'Point Blank Range. — The distance from the muzzle of the piece to 
that point in the projectile's trajectory where it cuts the pro- 
longation of the natural line of sight, a second time, the 
natural line of sight being horizontal. 

Position in Readiness. — A position for action in which troops are 
placed where it is intended to resist the advance of the enemy 
in the immediate vicinity and the knowledge of his movements 
is not sufficiently definite to decide upon a plan of action. 

Position of Deployment. — A place (preferably a large open space) 
near some landmark easily recognizable, where the whole of 
the infantry detailed for the attack can halt for a few minutes 
in order to make sure that all the units are present and can 
easily deploy for the attack. 



APPENDIX 995 

Potence. — Troops are ranged en potence by breaking a straight 
line, and throwing a certain proportion of it either forward or 
backward, from the right or left, according to the circum- 
stances, for the purpose of securing that line. An army may 
be posted en potence by means of a village, a river, or a wood. 

Practice Marches. — A part of the field training of troops having in 
view the hardening of the men and animals and the instruction 
of officers and men in duties incident to a campaign, marching, 
camping, cooking, etc., and the principles of tactics, including 
the services of information and security. 

Profiling. — An operation by the construction of field works which 
consists in erecting at proper points along the sub-crests, 
wooden profiles which give the form of the parapets at those 
points, and which guide the workmen in the construction of 
the works. 

Progressive Powder. — A gunpowder made so that it burns slowly 
until the projectile moves, and then with increasing, or pro- 
gressive rapidly, to avoid the extreme pressure caused by the 
explosion of powders in which the combustion is instantaneous. 

Protective Cavalry. — The first line of security until the opposing 
infantry columns get within striking distance of each other. It 
covers the advance of the army or group of divisions to which 
it is attached, to prevent the enemy obtaining information as 
to the disposition of the force which it is covering, and to 
allow the force tactical freedom of action. 

Protective Patrols. — Patrols detailed for the immediate protection 
of the force and to prevent the enemy's scouts and patrols from 
attempting to penetrate the screen and gain the fullest informa- 
tion as to the advancing infantry. 

Provost Guards. — Guards used in the absence of military police, 
generally in conjunction with the civil authorities at or near 
large posts or encampments, to preserve order among the sol- 
diers beyond the interior guard. 

Quadrant. — In gunnery, an instrument, generally made of brass, 
for ascertaining or adjusting the elevation of ordnance, par- 
ticularly mortars, which have no tangent scale. It is graduated 
into degrees and parts of a degree, having a movable index, 
with a spirit level and vernier attached to it. 

Quarter Guard. — A guard mounted in camp, immediately on the 
arrival of each corps on its ground. It is placed in front of 
the center of the camp, at about 80 paces from it, and is 
charged with special duties. 

Quarter-sights. — In gunnery, divisions marked on the upper quar- 
ters of the base-ring, commencing where it would be inter- 
sected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece, and tangent 



996 MILITARY TRAINING 

to the upper surface of the trunnions. These sights are used 
for giving elevation up to 3°. 

Sadian. — A unit of angular measurement. The true mil is a thou- 
sandth part of a radian, or practically 1/1570 part of a right 
angle. 

Radio Company. — A company used by the commander of a division 
for maintaining communication with adjacent columns, with 
the divisional cavalry, and in other instances where distance, 
the character of service, and the nature of the terrain prevent 
the laying of wire lines. It usually serves to connect division 
headquarters with the divisional trains and, pending the con- 
struction of semi-permanent lines, with the radio station at 
Army Corps headquarters in rear. The radio company is or- 
ganized into the necessary headquarters and company staff, 
two platoons of two pack radio sections each, and one wagon 
radio section. 

Rafale. — A variety of artillery and infantry fire which has for its 
object the production of a paralyzing, instantaneous effect pro- 
duced by suddenly delivered, very violent gusts of fire of short 
duration, separated by more or less prolonged intervals of calm. 
Rafale in French literally means " squall." 

Railhead. — A locality on the railway where ammunition and sup- 
plies are transferred to ammunition parks and supply columns. 

Rally. — The rapid grouping behind a leader of the various elements 
of a command without reference to their previous situation or 
formation. 

Range-azimuth Table. — A table of ranges and; the corresponding 
azimuths from a gun to points in the center of the main ship 
channel or channels. It is kept at the gun and used for firing 
without the use of range-finding apparatus. 

Range Deviation. — In gunnery, the difference between the range to 
the target (at the instant the projectile strikes) and the 
range to the point of splash. The range deviation to the longi- 
tudinal deviation when the lateral deviation is zero. 

Range Officer. — In coast artillery, the officer in charge of the posi- 
tion finding equipment and the range .section of the battery 
command. His station is at the battery plotting room and he is 
responsible to the battery commander for the condition of the M 
material and for the efficiency of the personnel under his 
charge; an officer charged with the police and care or a target 
range and its accessories. 

Range-takers. — Men protected by the screen of scouts in front, who 
push forward and take ranges. As the firing line advances, the 
range-takers go forward alone, to avoid attracting attention to ^ 
themselves, well out to the flanks. When using their instru 






APPENDIX 997 

merits they should do so from cover or lying down and en- 
deavor to avoid being seen by the enemy. 

Reconnoitering Patrols. — Patrols whose chief duty is to gather 
information. They habitually seek safety in concealment or 
flight, fighting only when their mission demands it. The most 
skillful patrolling is where patrols accomplish their mission 
and return without being discovered by the enemy. 

Record Practice. — In small-arms firing, a practice to afford the 
soldier an object lesson of his progress, and to obtain a record 
by means of which the .soldier may be graded in awarding in- 
signia and increased pay. 

Re-entering Place of Arms. — In fortification, an enlargement of the 
covered-way, at the re-entering angles of the counter-scarp; 
this space is formed by setting off demi-gorges of 30 yards 
(more or less) and making the spaces form angles of 100° with 
the adjoining branches of the covered way. 

Refilling Point. — The place where the empty vehicles of the supply 
train are refilled by the line of communications. It may be a 
rail, automobile, tractor, wagon, or water head, and it may be 
at or in advance of the advance supply depot of the line of 
communications. 

Regimental Dressing Stations. — The stations to which the wounded 
are evacuated and transported by the regimental stretcher 
bearers, the musicians co-operating. These stations are estab- 
lished behind the reserves of the regiments in dry and sheltered 
places. 

Relief. — The height of the interior crest of a parapet above the 
bottom of the trench; or, the length of time that men have to 
work before being relieved; or, a number of men who work or 
are on duty for a given length of time. 

Rendezvous. — A place to which the columns of the line of com- 
munication are sent where they are met by agents of the 
trains and conducted to refilling points. 

Renversement. — An aeronautic stunt by which a change of direction 
is effected without loss of height or reduction of speed. The 
pilot, flying at level, points the machine very slightly down, to 
bring his speed up to maximum, then pulls the control stick 
back, at the same time reducing motor speed, in order not to 
perform the evolution too quickly. 

Representative Fraction. — In military map reading, a fraction whose 
numerator bears to the denominator the same proportion that 
a distance on the map bears to the distance on the ground it 
represents. The numerator must always be 1, and the de- 
nominator is expressed in similar units. 

Retournment. — An aeronautic stunt similar to renversement, but 
instead of coming out in an opposite direction, the movement 



998 MILITARY TRAINING 

is continued until the original course is resumed. It is ac- 
complished by raising the elevating planes quickly and kicking 
the rudder over sharply. 

Ring-gauge. — A circular steel gauge used in inspecting shot and 
shells. They are made of two .sizes for each caliber, the larger 
being a trifle more and the smaller a trifle less in diameter than 
the true caliber of the projecticle. All shot received must pass 
through the larger gage, but are rejected if they pass through 
the smaller. 

Rolling Fire. — A discharge of musketry by soldiers in line, in quick 
.succession, and in the order in which they stand; also a fire 
where the axis of the piece is parallel or nearly so, with the 
ground or water, and the projectile rebounds over the surface 
in a succession of ricochets. 

Route Marches. — Marches used in peace to conduct a body of 
troops from one station or post to another. In time of war 
they are used for the purpose of assembling the fractions of an 
army on its base of operations of conducting troops through 
a country where there is no enemy. 

Russian Sap. — A gallery without sheathing, the top of which is cut 
in* the form of an arch. The earth is carried to the rear as in 
the case of the deep sap. Ventilation holes are arranged here 
and there permitting the location of the arched roof in relation 
to the surface of the earth as the work progresses. 

Sabotage. — Wanton destruction of property to embarrass or injure 
an enemy; such as the smashing of machinery, flooding of 
mines, burning of wheat and grain, destroying fruit and provi- 
sions, dynamiting reservoirs and aqueducts, tieing up rail- 
roads, etc. 

Salient. — In fortification, that which points outward from the in- 
terior of any work. For example, the central angle of a 
bastion, pointing toward the enemy, is a salient angle. Also, 
in map reading, a projection from the side of a hill or mountain, 
running out and down from the main feature. 

Salvo. — Concentrated fire from a greater or less number of pieces 
of artillery. Salvos, corresponding to volleys of musketry, 
are frequently fired by way of salutes over the graves of officers 
at the time of burial. 

Sanitary Service. — The service embracing the institution of all 
practicable sanitary measures to the end that the fighting 
forces suffer no depletion in strength, the temporary care and 
professional treatment of the sick and wounded and their 
transportation and the supply of the necessary sanitary equip- 
ment. 

Sanitary Train. — A train including all vehicles, animals, personnel, 
and reserve sanitary material, not attached to organizations, 



APPENDIX 999 

employed in collecting and caring for the sick and wounded of 
the division pending their evacuation by the line of com- 
munication. 
Scour the Trenches. — To make a vigorous sally upon the guard of 
the trenches, force them to give way, break down the parapet, 
fill up the trenches, and spike their cannon. 
Searching Fire. — Searching is the term applied to collective fire 
when the depth of its dispersion over a beaten zone is increased 
by the use of combined sights. 
Searchlights. — Important elements of the defense in a coast defense 
command. The standard service searchlights are 60-inch. De- 
pending upon their tactical use, they are classified as searching 
or as illuminating lights, and, depending upon their assign- 
ment, as fort, fire, or mine searchlights. 
Secondary Bases. — Bases required, as an army advances to enable 
it to have its supplies at hand. These bases, which should 
present the same qualities'as does the original base, are usually 
established by detached bodies of troops, or by the reinforce- 
ments sent forward, so that the army will not be delayed in its 
onward movement. 
Second Line. — The line of fire trenches, with the covering fire 
trenches, support trenches, support dug-outs (an exact duplica- 
tion of the front line system) far enough behind the front line 
that in the event of the first system being taken, the second 
line is ready to be taken up by the troops driven out of the 
front line, and receive the support of troops lying in brigade 
or divisional reserve. 
Sector. — The joining together of several supporting points under 
the same commander is called a sector. It is generally held 
by a division, and is divided into sub-sectors of brigades and 
regiments. The force assigned to defend a sector has its own 
separate reserve, distinct from the reserves of the supporting 
points. 

Sector of Explosion. — At the moment a gun is fired, a spherical 
sector of fire is formed in front of the piece, whose extremity 
presses against the bottom of the bore, while the external por- 
tion of it terminates in the air, which this sector compresses 
and drives in every direction. 
Sector Without Fire. — That space exterior to a work which is not 
defended by the direct fire of adjacent faces. The space is 
included between lines drawn through a salient, perpendicular 
to the faces. 

Sentry Over Arms. — A sentry mounted at the picket post to watch 
for any signals from the vedettes or cossack posts, or in the 
case of infantry sentries or sentry groups, and to guard the 
picket against surprise. 



1000 MILITARY TRAINING 

Sentry Squad. — A squad posted in observation at an indicated point. 
It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remaining men 
resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. In 
some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol. 

Service Colors and Standards. — National colors or standards made 
of bunting or other suitable material, but in all other respects 
similar to the silken national colors or standards. These colors 
and standards are for use at drills and on marches, and on all 
service other than battles, campaigns and occasions of cere- 
mony. 

Service of the Interior. — The function of the service of the interior, 
in time of war, is to supply the commander of the field forces 
with the means necessary for the accomplishment of his mis- 
sion. This service is carried on by the bureau chiefs, depart- 
ment commanders, and in certain instances by commanders of 
concentration camps and of ports of embarkation. Their re- 
spective operations are directed and co-ordinated by the Secre- 
tary of War through the medium of the chief of staff. 

Sheaf of Fire. — In practice the trajectories of a number of projec- 
tiles fired under as nearly as possible the same conditions do 
not coincide, but form a cone about the mean trajectory as an 
axis. This cone is called the sheaf of fire, the ground section 
of which is an ellipse, with the longer axis in the direction of 
the range. 

Sheaf Ranging.— In coast artillery, the firing of two or more guns 
at the same instant with their range settings differing by equal 
increments and increased or decreased from the right by the 
specified increment in yards, observing the relative positions 
of targets and splashes, and making corrections from these 
observations. 

Shelter Recess. — In fire-trenches made in favorable ground, a for- 
ward burrow, made by the individual rifleman, into the interior 
slope at the level of the firing step, in which he can lie in 
safety and at full length when not on duty at the firing point. 

Shot Group. — Owing to different well known causes, the variations 
in the trajectory are such that in a series of shots fired at a 
target, no two shots will strike in the same spot, the hits being 
arranged in a certain diagram called the shot group, the size of 
which varies with the skill of those firing. Good shots will 
make a small group and poor shots a large one. 

Sniperscope. — A device by the use of which a soldier can both aim 
and fire his piece at an object in front without exposing him- 
self above the parapet. 

Source of Supply. — For troops in campaign there are two sources 
of supply:, the theater of operations and the base. It is gen- 
erally necessary to utilize to the fullest extent the food and 



APPENDIX 1001 

forage available in the theater of operations. This becomes 
imperative when the line of communications runs through a 
country devoid of railroads and waterways. 

Spade Warfare. — War or hostilities carried on from trenches and 
underground constructions. The spade has become a main fea- 
ture in land warfare, since it has become necessary to get down 
into the earth to seek cover against the destructive effects of 
machine guns, rapid-fire guns and other modern firearms. 

Sperry Drift Indicator. — A prismatic monocular telescope mounted 
in such a way that a clear vision of the ground below may be 
obtained. A pointer secured to the telescope makes it possible 
to read on a graduated scale the angle between the true course 
taken by the aeroplane and that indicated by the compass. By 
a device connecting this instrument with the compass, the pilot 
is able to correct for drift and keep the machine in the desired 
course. The weight of the combined instruments is only seven 
pounds. 

Sphero-hexagonal Powder. — A mobile powder, the grain differing 
from the ordinary hexagonal powder by being formed of two 
hemispheres, instead of two pyramidal frustums united by a 
hexagonal zone or base. 

Sprengle Explosives. — A class of explosives consisting of separate 
constituents, each non-explosive, which are combined at the 
moment of use. The most common is rack-a-rock, which con- 
sists of chlorate of potash, a dry crystalline substance, and 
nitrobenzol, a liquid. 

Stable Guard. — A guard detailed to feed the horses and watch over 
their safety during the night, and to attend to the general 
police of the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at 
the hours of stable call. In each squadron, the stable guard 
generally consists of a corporal and one man for every 20 
horses. 

Standing Barrage. — A common designation of the Capping barrage 
and so arranged that the guns will cease fire on targets as the 
infantry comes close to them and will then change to anothef 
target. 

Star-Spangled Banner. — The National Anthem of the United States, 
the words of which were written by Francis Scott Key, Sep- 
tember 13, 1814. A familiar name for the United States flag. 
Stokes Trench Mortar. — A light mortar, weighing 105 pounds, 
made in three sections (the barrel, the mount and base plate) 
to insure easy transportation to the front line trenches. It 
projects a bomb 3 inches in diameter which weighs 11 pounds 
and is loaded from the muzzle of the gun or mortar. The 
bomb slides down the barrel and when it strikes the bottom it 
is fired automatically. 



1002 MILITARY TRAINING 

Strategical Lines of Information. — Lines extending from the seat 
of government to the several divisional headquarters in the 
field. Strategical lines of information are handled by base 
line or telegraph signal troops, according to circumstances. 

Strong Points.— A work formed by joining together several ele- 
ments, grouped together in depth as well as from right to left, 
the garrison of which is a company or a fraction of a company. 
This work may be constructed as a redoubt. In rear of the 
strong points of the firing line others are constructed, the 
purpose of which is to limit the success of the enemy. 

Supervision Trenches. — Trenches to facilitate the movement of the 
troops, general supervision of same, and to afford more shelter, 
freer movement, and for accommodation of any additional men 
who are necessarily required when an assault is intended. 

Supply Columns. — A part of the supply service for troops in 
campaign. Line of communications supply columns (usually 
auto trucks or tractors with wagons) are dispatched to a 
rendezvous point, where they are met by an agent of the com- 
mander of the field forces and conducted to distributing points. 
When it is possible to do so, the supply columns go to the 
actual distributing points. 

Supply Train. — A train including all vehicles, animals, and per- 
sonnel employed in transporting the divisional ration and grain 
reserve, or in bringing up the same from the refilling points 
to the distributing point. To it, may also be attached herds 
of beef cattle, remounts, etc. 

Support Commander. — The officer in command of supporting 
troops. He ordinarily marches with the advanced party, but 
goes where needed. He sees that the proper road is followed, 
that guides are left in towns and at cross roads, that necessary 
repairs are made to roads and bridges, that information affect- 
ing the march is transmitted to the advance guard commander, 
and endeavors to promptly verify information of the enemy. 

Supporting Point. — The grouping together of several strong points, 
both in length (side to side) and in depth is called a supporting 
point and is limited in strength to a battalion or several com- 
panies, under the orders of one commander, who furnishes the 
garrisons for the strong points and also the reserves for exe- 
cuting a counter attack. The supporting point may be a re- 
doubt, and sometimes artillery is assigned to it. 

Support Trenches. — Trenches constructed from 165 to 225 yards 
behind the trenches of the first line, and so located as to bring 
the latter under their own fire whenever it is possible to do so. 
This distance is great enough to insure that the same demoli- 
tion fire will not destroy both trench echelons at one time, and 
also that in cases of surprise of the first line the garrison of 



APPENDIX 1003 

the second line will have time to make the combat dispositions 
called for in the plan of defense. 

Swept Space. — In gunnery, the danger space as modified by the 
slope of the ground. The greater the slope or the less the 
range, the greater will be the relative reduction in the danger 
space. 

Switch Trench. — A communication trench well wired on the front. 
It has machine gun emplacements and a fire step. It is used in 
the event of the front line breaking down in the defense. The 
troops can retire into the switch trenches and meet the ad- 
vance with fire from the flanks. It is important to recognize 
these trenches in the aeroplane photographs, and be prepared 
to meet their defense. 

Tables of Occasions. — Tables showing by whom and on what occa- 
sions each article of uniform of the United States is worn; 
they also show the various articles of uniform and equipment — 
by whom, when and how worn. 

Tables of Organization. — The details of organization, the amounts 
and kinds of transportation, and the factors on which the al- 
lowance of transportation is based, are fixed in the tables of 
organization United States Army. 

Tactical Decisive Points. — Points on a field of battle which, when 
occupied by an army, will enable it to make an attack on the 
enemy whose success would be decisive on the issue of the 
engagement. 

Tactical Pursuit. — Pursuit directed at a flying enemy with a view 
to directly harassing him, causing him as much loss as possible, 
and maintaining the loss of morale which may have such im* 
portant consequences. 

Tactical Walk or Ride. — A tactical exercise carried out on the ter- 
rain, the troops being imaginary. 

Tactics of Position. — That element of tactics or strategy of the 
battle field which depends largely on the moral energy of the 
commander-in-chief for accomplishment. 

Target Designation. — It is sometimes necessary, where a target is 
indistinct, to use what are called " auxiliary points " for target 
designation; and in this case the method is resorted to of 
giving the direction of the point to be fired upon from this 
auxiliary point. In giving this direction the notations on the 
clock face are used as in determining the direction of the wind 
on a target range. 

Teamwork. — The work and accomplishment of a number of per- 
sons or soldiers associated together. The comparatively wide 
fronts of deployed units increase the difficulties of control. 
The success of the whole depends largely upon how well each 
subordinate co-ordinates his work with the general plan. 



1004 MILITARY TRAINING 

Telegraph Section. — The working unit whether telegraph or tele- 
phone. All duties performed by platoons, companies or bat- 
talions of telegraph signal troops consist of but the combined 
work of a number of sections. Units larger than the section 
are necessary only for efficient administration, supervision, and 
control. The telegraph section consists of 22 men. 

Telegraph Signal Troops. — Troops whose duties, although only 
equipped to install and operate semi-permanent telegraph and 
telephone lines, include the handling of every class of com- 
munication within their prescribed zone. Telegraph signal 
troops, although construction units, are designed to be mobile. 

Telephone Section. — A section whose primary function is the erec- 
tion of divisional telephone systems at points where the per- 
manence of the camp makes this procedure necessary or desir- 
able. It is designed to assist or substitute for telegraph sec- 
tions in the construction of semi-permanent telegraph lines, if 
conditions render the performance of such duty advisable. 

Theater of Operations. — The whole area of land or sea in which 
fighting may be expected, or in which the movements of troops, 
etc., are liable to interruption or interference on the part of 
the enemy. 

Thermit. — A compound of powdered aluminum and oxide of iron 
successfully used in incendiary projectiles. When ignited the 
heat given. off is sufficient to melt the free iron. 

Thirty-seven Field Gun. — A French quick-firing cannon of such 
construction that it can be readily carried forward by attacking 
infantry. Thus the skirmishers are able to put enemy machine 
guns out of action by well directed shots from this 37-millimeter 
cannon, which is a befitting companion to the " 75." It has a 
quick-firing breech mechanism, accurate sights and automatic 
recoil. Lying out on open ground, two men can fire up to 35 
high explosive shells per minute. The piece can be taken apart 
and carried by six or eight men, and is available for use in 
advanced positions as well as in the open. 

Tin Cups. — Cups used with heavy breech-loading guns, which 
serve, in conjunction with the vent piece, to seal more effectu- 
ally the powder-chamber, and to prevent the escape of gas, 
which is very destructive to the angular face of the vent piece. 

Tissot Apparatus.— An apparatus for protection against asphyxiat- 
ing gases. It is a filtering apparatus, and not one producing 
oxygen. This. mask is efficacious for 10 or 12 hours. It is an 
apparatus of the sector, to be used in command posts, in sup- 
port positions, in machine gun shelters, and in observation and 
signal posts. It is .suitable for everyone required to remain 
for a long time in a noxious atmosphere not deprived of 
oxygen. 



k. 



APPENDIX 1005 

Torque of the Propeller. — In aeronautics, an air force due to the 
pressure of the propeller blades on the air, which on single 
propeller machines must be resisted or else the propeller might 
,stand still and the motor turn about it. When two propellers 
are used, working in opposite directions, the torque is 
neutralized. 

Total Rectangle. — In gunnery, the enveloping or 100 per cent, 
rectangle. For convenience, it is usual to express the elliptical 
area or ground section of the sheaf of fire in terms of the 
enveloping rectangle. 

Tower Forts. — Towers employed either as isolated forts or com- 
bined in a system of detached works for covering a space to 
their rear for an intrenched camp. They have several tiers of 
covered fire for artillery and musketry, and an open battery 
on top. 

Traveling Trunnion-beds. — Contrivances for the purpose of dis- 
tributing the load more equally over the gun-carriage. On the 
upper surface of the cheeks, near the rear ends, are placed two 
projecting bolts which, with the curve of the cheeks, form rest- 
ing places for the trunnions, when the piece is in position for 
transportation. 

Traversing. — Sketching by means of a continuous series of meas- 
ured straight lines, the direction or bearing of which is taken 
with a compass at each change of direction. These lines are 
called traverse lines, and the sketcher must pace actually 
along these lines. The detail is sketched by means of offsets 
or cross-bearings. 

Traversing-gear. — An automatic traversing apparatus, in machine 
guns, by which a limited angular movement in a horizontal 
plane may be given. Elevating or depressing the gun does not 
interfere with the lateral traverse. 

Trench-dump. — A convenient spot or place selected by whosoever 
may be commanding that particular sector of trench to which 
carrying parties bring up the trench stores during the night in 
order to have them ready for distribution in the morning. 

Trench Raids. — Raids executed by small groups of selected men, 
who have confidence in one another and are specially trained 
in handling grenades or by a selected unit, sometimes re- 
inforced by additional officers or non-commissioned officers, 
leaving the unreliable element behind. 

Trench Shotgun. — A short automatic single-barrel shotgun of the 
pump variety, which holds six paper shell cartridges in the 
magazine. The gun has a long bayonet, the muzzle of the 
barrel being provided with a second skin of steel which being 
perforated and not quite touching the barrel proper, acts as a 
brace for the bayonet and owing to the free passage of air 



1006 MILITARY TRAINING 

does not cause the barrel to get too hot. The shot gun and 
bayonet complete weigh only 8^4 pounds. 

Trip. — A useful trick in bayonet fighting. It is performed when 
in close grips with an opponent, by leaning forward and push- 
ing him backwards, so as to cause him to throw his weight 
on one foot, at the same time deftly and quickly jerking his 
other foot upwards. This will throw him on his back at once. 

Tripping Piece. — A part of the firing mechanism in quick firing 
ordnance, being a flat piece of steel, fitted over a -stud at the 
rear end of the striker, and kept pressed downwards by a flat 
spring. It has a shoulder for the smaller cam-lug on the inner 
end of the firing lever to engage with in order to cock the 
striker. 

Triton. — An explosive made by the successive nitration of toluene, 
a coal-tar derivative. It is a neutral compound, very stable, of 
great strength, yet highly insensitive. It is pressed into blocks 
under high pressure, the insensitiveness of the explosive in- 
creasing with its density. Also written trinitrotoluine, tri- 
nitrotoluol and trotol; frequently abbreviated as TNT. 

Two-arm Semaphore. — A machine or stationary semaphore having 
two arms or vanes for forming signals, and a third arm or 
"indicator" displayed on the right side of the sender, the left 
as reviewed by the receiver. At night a red light screened 
to the rear indicates the direction of sending. Electric lights 
are installed on the vanes for night signaling. 

Underground Hangars. — Hangars constructed under ground and 
provided with concrete runways which are conveniently used 
for starting. These hangars are roofed over with a heavy 
layer of sandbags and the original sod. The roofs are sup- 
ported by pillars at frequent intervals, so arranged as to in- 
terfere the least possible with the movement of the airplanes. 

Union. — A device emblematic of union, used on a national flag or 
ensign. The union of the United States ensign is a cluster of 
white stars, denoting the Union of the States, and properly, 
equal in number to that of the States, displayed on a blue field. 

Unit. — A term used in technical combinations, for a given numeri- 
cal force; any group or subdivision organized for administra- 
tive or technical purposes. 

Universal Shell. — In order to avoid the complications caused by 
providing batteries with two sorts of shell, shrapnel and high 
explosive, which do not range equally, universal shells are 
used for both purposes. The Ehrhardt universal shell with a 
high explosive charge is an example. 

Varying Elasticity. — In built-up guns the principle under which the 
elasticity of the different hoops is exactly proportioned to the 
degree of elongation in same by internal pressure, all the hoops 



APPENDIX 1007 

being equally strained by the powder, and none of their 
strength wasted. 

Vermorel Sprayers. — Sprayers or syringes used, after a gas attack, 
for clearing the gas out of the trenches, dugouts, etc. They are 
distributed at easily accessible points in or near the trenches 
and protected from shell fire. 

Very Lights. — Lights used to signal between aeroplanes or stations 
or between the ground and aeroplanes, when a code is prear- 
ranged; a flare for illuminating the enemy's position. 

View of a Place. — A reconnaissance of a fortified town, its situa- 
tion, the nature of the country about it, as hills, valleys, rivers, 
marches, woods, hedges, etc., taken in order to judge of the 
most convenient place for opening the trenches, and carrying 
out the approaches. 

Visibility. — One of the most important items of information to be 
gained from a contoured map is the visibility of one point from 
another. This is needed to determine from a map, the proper 
location of a line of observation, the proper point where a 
reconnoitering patrol should be sent for observation, or loca- 
tion of a position where direct rifle fire may be used, upon a 
visible enemy. 

Visiting Patrols. — Patrols detailed to keep up communication with 
the pickets, the supports on either flank and the reserve (if 
any). They also patrol any ground lying between the pickets 
. and supports, which can not be observed by either. 

Visual Signaling. — Signaling carried out by heliograph, flag, disc 
or lamp. The range of visual signaling depends upon the 
nature of the country and the state of the atmosphere. 

Vulnerability of Formations. — The vulnerability of a formation is 
its likelihood of being struck by hostile fire. That formation 
which by computation is shown to receive the greatest number 
of hits from a given number of hostile shots is said to be the 
most vulnerable. In the study of vulnerability the two con- 
flicting interests, the avoidance of losses and a heavy firing 
line must be considered. 

Warning Calls. — The class of calls comprising first call, guard 
mounting, full dress, overcoats, drill, stable, water, and boots 
and saddles, all preceding the assembly by such interval as may 
be prescribed by the commanding officer. 

Wedge Formation. — A tactical formation whose main advantage is 
that it can be formed into a defensive formation facing any 
direction in the shortest possible time. The best defensive 
formation for bombing of this nature is a line facing the 
enemy; all the men are in action and it is the most difficult 
target. 
64 



1008 MILITARY TRAINING 

Wheel Transportation. — A division of animal transportation, in 
which the wagon is the unit, and each animal can haul, on a 
conservative estimate, 1200 pounds gross or 700 pounds net 
load. Wagon transportation should always be used unless the 
country is impracticable or the rate of march too rapid for 
wheels. 

Wind Component Indicator. — In artillery and gunnery, a device 
for determining the wind reference numbers to be used on the 
range and deflection boards and to indicate the numbers to 
the operators of these boards. 

Wing Traverses. — In fortification, where the approach is exposed 
to an enfilading and a slant reverse fire, and does not admit of 
a change of direction to avoid these, wing traverses are erected 
across the line of trench to cover from an enfilading view. 

Wire Company. — The field signal organization used by the com- 
mander of a division for establishing and maintaining those 
tactical lines of information which radiate from division head- 
quarters, and which serve, in general, to connect these head- 
quarters with the major subordinate units. 

Zero of a Rifle. — That reading of the wind gauge necessary to 
overcome the drift of a rifle at a particular range. All allow- 
ances for wind should be calculated from this reading. 

Zone Energy. — A mode of expression in artillery, whereby the 
relative power of different guns as armor-piercers is estimated, 
viz., by the number of foot-tons per inch of the shot's circum- 
ference. At the muzzle of each gun, this power is a maximum. 

Zone of Departure. — A zone formed by lines of trenches called 
parallels of departure. They should be close enough together 
so that the one which is most distant from the enemy shall 
satisfy the conditions that it will not be in the hostile barrage 
fire, delivered to prevent supports and reserves being brought 

"P. 
Zone of Operations. — The strip of territory which contains the 
lines of operations, or lines on which an army advances, be- 
tween the base and the ulterior object. 



L 






APPENDIX 2 
GAS TACTICS AND ITS USE IN ATTACK. 

In gas warfare gas is used for four purposes: (1) When it is 
desired to produce deaths or minor casualties in front line and 
supporting trenches prior to an advance. (2) When it is desired to 
produce casualties in front line trenches, among supports, reserves 
and other personnel at places where an attack is expected to be 
made within a few hours. (3) When it is desired to produce cas- 
ualties in front line trenches among supports and reserves and 
along lines of communications, in concentration camps, rest areas, 
etc., to the limit of range of artillery, when no attack is planned 
or when it will not take place for several days. (4) When it is 
desired to reach training areas, cantonments, junctions and places 
beyond the range of guns and which can be reached only by air- 
planes or balloons. 

For technical uses gases are generally divided into three 
groups: 

Persistent. Mustard gas (dichlorethyl sulphide) is the leader 
of this group and is in a class by itself, due to its excessive persis- 
tency, its effectiveness in low concentrations and the fact that it 
affects the skin, eyes, throat and lungs, as well as the digestive 
tract if food exposed to it has been eaten. 

Non-Persistent. These gases are highly lethal and deadly 
with low persistency. The group includes phosgene, cyanogen 
chloride, diphosgene, chlorine and others of a similar nature. 
Chloropicrin is in this class, although it is much more persistent 
than any of the others. 

Lachrymatory and Irritating Gases. These include bromace- 
tone, ethyl iodoacetate, brombenzylcyanide, and some other 
lachrymators, and diphenyl chlorarsine, or sneezing gas. All these 
gases are highly irritating or lachrymatory, but are not lethal, 
except in very high concentrations not often attained in the field. 
Lachrymators are economical in forcing the use of the mask and 
are employed for that purpose. 

Phosgene is principally used in Livens projectors. Chloro- 
picrin is also often used, but is less effective, although it has a 
much greater persistency. As a rule persistent gases are fired for 
both harassing and destruction; non-persistent gases usually for 
destruction and irritant gases for harassing purposes only. All 



1010 MILITARY TRAINING 

poisonous gases used in war are employed in artillery projectiles 
with the important exception of chlorine, which is not used because 
it is very much less effective than other gases and because it gen- 
erates too high a pressure in the shell during warm weather. 
These gases are sometimes classified with respect to the effects 
produced on man, as lethal (deadly), vesicant (burning the skin), 
lachrymatory (affecting the eyes) and irritating (affecting the 
nose, throat and lungs). More than 80 per cent, of all casualties 
among the English and Americans in the European War was 
caused by mustard gas, generally known as yperite by the French. 

Mustard gas was discovered by Victor Mayor, a German 
chemist, in 1886. It is a yellowish oily fluid, freezing at about 50 
degrees F., and boiling at about 422 degrees F. Its color varies 
with the solvents and impurities in it. It combines to a certain 
extent with the steel or iron in shells. It is highly persistent, that 
sprayed on the ground being very dangerous for a week or 
longer in damp, cold weather. It vaporizes very slowly. It has 
the quality of cumulative effect to a marked degree, being at least 
50 per cent, for very low concentrations. If one part in 2,000,000 
is breathed for 20 hours it will produce a casualty as serious as one 
part in 100,000 will produce in two hours. It produces casualties 
almost entirely by burning, the theory being that the gas in the 
presence of moisture is broken up so as to liberate hydrochloric 
acid which produces the burn, and destroys any soft moist tissue 
it reaches, whether within or without the body. It readily pene- 
trates clothing. The odor of mustard gas is not unpleasant, that 
of the Germans being somewhat like mustard while that of the 
Allies was more like garlic. It has a pronounced delayed action, 
its effects not being felt for 4 to 12 hours after exposure, during 
which time the victim breathing it experiences little or no dis- 
comfort. After breathing the gas for a period extending from 
y 2 to 2 hours, depending upon the person, the latter loses his sense 
of smell and can no longer detect the gas. This gas, highly 
valuable but dangerous, not only changed gas warfare, but to a 
considerable extent modified all warfare. 

Mustard gas may be used in all artillery shells, from the 
three-inch to the largest guns constructed. Its persistent nature 
finds its greatest use on defensive or stabilized fronts. It is most 
powerful as an harassing agent, comparatively small quantities of 
it forcing the constant wearing of the mask, and the hastening of 
separate reliefs to such positions as must be held. It is effectively 
used against strong points, such as woods, villages and small forti- 
fications in the zone of advance. In an attack it is used on the 
flanks to prevent counter-attack from those places or to make 
attempts to counter-attack exceedingly difficult. Mustard gas, be- 
cause of its persistency and effectiveness in low concentrations, 



^ 



APPENDIX 2 1011 

finds its surest application in gassing large areas. For this purpose 
accuracy in hitting a certain target is not necessary, and hence the 
increased dispersion of shots at long ranges need not be taken 
into accurate account. Likewise the number of guns required to 
cover a given area is small, in as much as it is not necessary to 
fire in the same locality more than once in 24 hours. The high 
explosive shell changes this method of firing, since it is deadly 
both as a high explosive and as a gas. It is used with telling effect 
against small targets, being used exactly as high explosive is used, 
with the exception that care must be taken to allow sufficient 
time for the gas to disperse. It has been suggested as advisable 
to have two kinds of mustard gas shell — high explosive to be used 
when immediate casualties without great persistency is desired, 
and the ordinary mustard gas shell to forbid certain territory to 
the enemy in which case great persistency is desired or necessary. 
Phosgene is the leader of all non-persistent gases, and for 
an offensive is the most desirable of all gases. It has low per- 
sistency, is highly lethal, quick-acting, readily manufactured, and 
easily placed in any kind of a shell. It is most advantageously 
used in large caliber guns that are available in large numbers, such 
as the 155-millimeter gun and howitzer. A concentration of one 
part in 2,000 is deadly in three minutes. It is effective but with 
a rapidly decreasing ratio down to one part in 200,000, after which 
it may be breathed indefinitely. In an ordinary attack one part 
in 50,000 may be considered as not dangerous, as it will be dis- 
persed before causing any serious injury. Phosgene quickly vola- 
tilizes, thus making it valuable and suitable for cylinders, pro- 
jectors, Stokes mortars and artillery. On the other hand, the 
pressure generated by it in warm weather is not very great and 
permits its use in shells in any climate or in any weather. The 
gas is about 2> l / 2 times as heavy as air, has some delayed action in 
the lower concentrations, and is very quickly fatal in high concen- 
trations. It acts both as a direct poison and as a strong lung 
irritant, causing rapid filling of the lungs with liquid. All rules 
for the treatment of patients gassed with phosgene require that 
they immediately lie down and remain in that position, not even 
being allowed to walk to a dressing station. Since phosgene is 
non-persistent and comparatively high concentrations are neces- 
sary, it is important for artillery to fire it as rapidly as possible, 
at least in two to three-minute bursts of rapid fire directly upon 
the target. Phosgene is used most effectively at night at cross- 
roads and other points where it is thought the enemy may congre- 
gate or pass. By dropping sudden bursts of phosgene on these 
points great confusion is caused, with resulting casualties. 

Brombenzyl cyanide is one of the best and most effective of 
the lachrymatory gases. It is very persistent (nearly equal to 



1012 MILITARY TRAINING 

mustard gas) and is effective in extremely low concentrations, one 
part in 10,000,000 being sufficient to destroy vision without a mask. 
When used with mustard gas, this quick action of lachrymatory 
gases is one of their important features. If a number of lachryma- 
tory shells are discharged the enemy will be forced to put on his 
mask and continue wearing it indefinitely. It would be impossible 
to bring this about by the use of more deadly gases, owing to the 
number of the latter that would be required. One good lachryma- 
tory shell will force the wearing of the mask over an area that 
would require 1,000 phosgene shells to produce a similar effect. 
The important value of these gases arises from the fact that their 
irritating effect on the eyes or respiratory organs is instantaneous, 
and one shell is as effective in forcing the wearing of the mask as 
500 or even 1,000 lethal gas shells. While mustard gas is effective 
in low concentrations, being almost equal in that regard to the 
lachrymatory gases, still it has a delayed action and hence is not 
available if it is desired to at once force the enemy to wear the 
mask. 






APPENDIX 3 
RAILWAY ARTILLERY. 

Mounting heavy artillery on railway cars was not an idea 
born of the war with Germany. The idea was originally American, 
the first authenticated record of such employment being by the 
Union forces at the Siege of Richmond in 1863, when a 13-inch 
cast-iron mortar was mounted on a reinforced flat car. In 1913 
the commanding officer of the defenses of the Potomac recom- 
mended that artillery of various caliber be mounted on railroad 
platforms, with ammunition, range-finding and repair cars, making 
up complete units, so that this armament could be quickly trans- 
ported at any time to the place where most needed. It was then 
apparent that guns in fixed positions, of whatever caliber, violate 
the cardinal military principle of mobility. Of late railway artil- 
lery has come to be as varied in its .design as field artillery, each 
type of railway mount having certain tactical uses, the three types 
of cannon used being mortars, howitzers and guns. The general 
types of railway mount adopted are those which give the gun all- 
around fire (360-degree traverse), provide limited traverse for the 
gun, and allow no lateral movement for the gun on the carriage, 
but are used on curved track, or epis, to give the weapons traverse 
aim. 

When war was declared against Germany the guns in the 
United States available for mounting on railway cars ranged in 
size from the 7-inch guns of the Navy to the single enormous 
16-inch howitzer under construction experimentally by the Ord- 
nance Department. These guns, according to number, size and 
length were as follows: 

Size. Length. 
Number of Guns Inches. Calibers. 

12 7 45 

96 8 35 

129 10 34 

49 12 35 

6 12 50 

150 (mortars) 12 10 

21 14 50 



1014 MILITARY TRAINING 

The smaller weapons, such as the 7-inch and the 8-inch guns 
and the 12-inch mortars, were placed on mounts affording 360- 
degree traverse. The limited traverse mounts are used for the 
moderately long-range guns and howitzers. The fixed type of 
mount is used for long-range guns only, including the sliding 
railway mounts, such as the American 12-inch and 14-inch sliding 
mounts and the French Schneider a glissement mounts. Railway 
artillery is practically confined to the barbette, Schneider and 
Batignolles types of gun mounts. 

The barbette carriage revolves about a central pintle, or 
axis, and turns the gun around with it. When it was decided to 
put coast-defense guns on railway cars, the guns were taken from 
their emplacements, barbette carriages manufactured for them, 
and the whole mounted upon special cars. The barbette mount 
revolves on a support of rollers traveling upon a circular base ring. 
In the railway mount the base ring is attached to' the dropped 
central portion of the railway car. The barbette railway mount is 
provided with struts and plates by which the car is braced against 
the ground. 

In the Schneider railway mount the gun and its carriage are 
fastened rigidly parallel to the long axis of the railway car. Thus 
the gun itself, independently' of any movement of the car, can be 
pointed only up and down in a vertical plane, having no traverse 
or swing from left to right, and vice versa. In order to give the 
weapon traverse for its aim, special railway curved tracks, called 
epis, are prepared at the position where it is to be fired. The car 
is then run along the curve until its traverse aim is correct, and 
the vertical aim is achieved by the movement of the gun itself. In 
this mount there is no recoil mechanism, but the recoil is absorbed 
by the retrograde movement of the car itself along the rails after 
the gun is fired. This movement, of course, puts the gun out of 
aim, and the entire unit must then be pushed by hand power back 
to the proper point. 

In the Batignolles type, gun and cradle are mounted on a 
so-called top carriage that permits of small changes in horizontal 
pointing right and left. Thus with the railway artillery of the 
Batignolles type also, track curves, or epis, are necessary for the 
accurate aiming. The Batignolles mount partially cushions the 
recoil by the movement of the gun itself in the cradle. But, in 
addition, a special track is provided at the firing point and the 
entire gun car is run on this track and bolted to it with spades 
driven into the ground to resist what recoil is not taken up in the 
cradle. The unit is thus stationary in action, and the gun can be 
more readily returned to aim than can a gun on a Schneider mount. 






APPENDIX 4 
SOUND AND FLASH RANGING. 

Camouflage has succeeded in baffling the camera to a great 
extent and has made necessary the development of instruments 
that can detect the location of the enemy by sound. Since the 
unaided ear is not keen enough to supply the desired information, 
applied science comes to the rescue with the various devices em- 
braced in the general classification of sound ranging equipment, 
the production of which is under the direction of the Engineer 
Department of the Army. 

The geophone is one of the most important of these long- 
distance ear drums invented by man as an aid to his military opera- 
tions. In this simple mechanism, the device or drum which receives 
the sound waves and magnifies them consists of a small closed box 
with a confined air space. This box is weighted with a leaden 
disk to give it the required inertia. It is placed upon the ground 
and the vibrations of the earth are communicated through the 
medium of the confined air space. The sounds then reach the 
listener's ears via a rubber tube and an ordinary stethoscope horn. 
This instrument is principally used to detect enemy mining opera- 
tions. In order to enable the listener to know in what direction 
the sounds come, two geophone boxes are provided, one connected 
with each ear. By placing the boxes a small distance apart from 
each other and then moving them until the vibrations in both 
ear horns are equalized, the listener can tell approximately in 
what direction the enemy mining operation is located. American 
ingenuity has greatly increased the range of the instrument and 
has developed an electro-mechanical geophone that can be con- 
nected up by wire to a central listening station some distance back 
from an exposed location. The boxes can pick up and send to the 
central listening stations conversations carried on by the enemy 
parties even in low tones, the apparatus thus acting as the dicta- 
graph of war. 

By far the most important work done by listening instru- 
ments is in locating the positions of enemy gun batteries. 

The study of gunfire shows that when a cannon fires an 
explosive shell of high velocity there are three distinct concus- 
sions. One of these is the sharp crack produced in the air when 



1016 MILITARY TRAINING 

the shell, dragging a short vacuum trail behind it, passes over the 
head of the observer. The second concussion to be heard is that 
produced at the muzzle of the gun by the expanding gases that 
propel the shell. The third is the break or explosion. In order 
to locate a battery or gun exactly only one of these concussions — 
the explosion at the muzzle of the gun — must be picked up by the 
recording instrument or microphone. The first and third shocks, 
and all other sounds not useful to the work, are damped out and 
excluded. A number of these microphones are placed in scattered 
positions, usually in a trench, and then connected with the central 
recording mechanism. When a microphone picks up a hostile gun 
explosion the disturbance is instantly transmitted through several 
miles of wire. An ingenious and complicated mechanism actuates 
an electro-magnetic needle, which instantly records this disturb- 
ance on a tape of photographic paper, calibrated to show fifths of 
seconds in time. Each microphone on outpost duty is represented 
on this tape by a parallel line; and, as six microphones are usually 
used, the tape is striped with six parallel lines. 

Sound ranging for the detection of airplanes at night requires 
an equipment which consists fundamentally of a sound-gathering 
device and a listening mechanism, the combination enabling the 
observer to tell the direction from which the sound is coming. 
When a bombing plane approaches at night the hum of the motor 
can be heard at a distance from 1 to 3 miles, or even more, depend- 
ing upon conditions. Before the invention of aerial sound ranging 
the searchlights hunting for the hostile airplane were obliged to 
sweep the sky aimlessly in an endeavor to locate it; and the pilot 
of the plane could often maneuver to keep out of the light. But 
by use of the sound detectors not only can the approach of the 
airplane be detected at a distance beyond the hearing range of 
the unaided ear, but, what is more important, its direction can be 
determined within an angle of 3 degrees. The use of these sound 
detectors greatly increased the chances of locating airplanes at 
night by searchlight. 

The Engineer Department has conducted extensive experi- 
ments in the development of aerial sound detectors. One form 
developed consisted of a set of long horns with listening tubes 
attached to the small ends and leading to receivers on the ob- * 
server's head set. These horns were mounted on a turntable 
which the observer could revolve, so that the horns could be turned 
in the general direction of the sound. Four horns were used in 
this mechanism — two to indicate the direction of the airplane on 
a horizontal circle (in azimuth), and the other pair to indicate the 
direction on the vertical arc (in elevation). Under favorable con- A 
ditions the sensitiveness of this device was three times that of the 
unaided ear, and the airplane could be located within an angle of 



APPENDIX 4 1017 

1 degree. The horn detector, however, was large and cumbersome 
and not satisfactory for a mobile unit. 

For field sound ranging, when the listener may wish to move 
from place to place, the parabloid sound reflector was developed. 
This hemispherical object, like a huge fountain basin in shape, was 
made of material similar to building board and shaped in parabolic 
lines. Such a sound collector echoed or reflected the sound from 
every point of its surface to a focal point where' the listening 
instrument was located. The observer turned the parabloid on its 
universal mount until the sound was equalized in his ears, and 
then the exact direction of the airplane would be indicated by the 
azimuth and elevation pointers on the machine. The parabloids 
developed by the Engineering Department had a sensitiveness 
three times that of the unaided ear and could locate sound within 
3 degrees of arc. 



L 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Abatis 680 

Abnormal Deflection 461 

Accessories of Trench Warfare.... 922 

Accompanying Batteries . . . . . 413 

Accountability for Public Animals. 616 

Accuracy of Fire 431,441,443 

Adjacent Platoons , . . . : 945 

Adjustment for Direction 398 

Adjustment for Height of Burst... 398 

Adjustment for Range 399 

Adjustment of Fire 353 

Adjustment of Sight 334 

Administration and Control.. 223 

Administration of Medicine 597 

Administrative Staff . .. 222 

Advance 75 

Advance by Rushes 82 

Advance by Thin Lines 41 

Advance Cavalry 499, 509 

Advanced Posts 943 

Advance Guard. .156, 157, 167, 168, 183, 

508, 511 

Advance Guard Commander 509 

Advance Party 157 

Advance Section 579, 972 

Advance to the Position 417 

Advancing the Attack 267 

Aerial Communication 958 

Aerial Mine 972 

Aerial Reconnaissance 957,972 

Aerial Ropeways 645 

Aerial Target 409 

Aeroplane . .410, 503, 504, 957, 958, 959. 

960, 966 

Aero Squadron 31, 498 

Agents of Transmission 963,967,972 

Aiming Drill 327,331,332 

Aiming Exercises 329 

Aircraft 410, 503 

Alarms 187, 188,946 

Alarm Wires 662 

Alidade 693 

Alignment 54, 86, 973 

Alternate Positions 429 

Alternator 532 

Alumino-Thermics 973 

Ambulance Company 31 

American Morse Code 546, 549 

American Rule 771 , 790 

Ammunition 248, 261, 296, 302, 318, 

319.371,390,429,438,659, 681 

Ammunition Column 577, 973 

Ammunition Supply 26, 228, 908 

Ammunition Train 577, 578, 973 

Anchorages " 643 

Anchored Mines 802 

Angle of Departure 434 



PAGE 

Angle of Elevation 434 

Angle of Fall 434 

Angle of Opening 444 

Angle of Site 434 

Animal Power 602 

Antenna 534, 535 

Anti-Moisture Chalk 935 

Aparejo 606, 607, 608 

Appointing Authority 711, 712, 731 

Approach Trenches 648,651,661 

Ardois Signals 553,973 

Area Sketch 699 

Are You Ready? 42 

Arm Combinations 819 

Armed Forces 749,751 

Armed Prowlers 795 

Armistice' . 778, 779 

Arm Locker '. 302 

Armored Tractor 973 

Arms 190,387 

Arm Signals 40, 968 

Army 285 

Army Corps 22 

Army of the United States 21 

Army Ration 858 

Army Regulations 187 

Army Signaling 519, 545 

Arraignment 726 

Arrest 715,716 

Artificer Sergeant 27 

Artificial Antenna 535 

Artificial Butts 366 

Artificial Darkness 973 

Artificial Respiration. 892.893 

Artillery . . .21, 22, 23, 28, 244. 245, 262. 
278, 283,406,412 

Asphyxiating Gas 662,934,935,936, 

937 

Assault 293, 294, 771 , 848 

Assemble 40, 41 

Assembly 59, 75, 90 

Assembly Places 973 

Assembly Positions 973 

Assistant Judge Advocate 723 

As Skirmishers in One Wave 43 

As Skirmishers in Two Waves 43 

As You Were........ 35 

At Ease 72, 90 

Athletics 805, 825, 826 

Attack . .93, 265, 266, 267, 270, 419, 849, 
850, 948, 949 

Attack Card 426 

Attack of Convoy 589 

Attack of Fortifications 270 

Attendance of Witnesses 727 

Attention 43, 520, 811, 812 

Attention to Orders 40 



1020 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Australian Manlicher Bullet 898 

Automatic Machine Rifle 387 

Automatic Pistol 387 

Automatic Primer 925 

Automatic Submarine Contact Mine 801 

Auxiliary Aiming Point 355, 425 

Auxiliary Observing Station. . . .396, 397 

Aviator 960 

Azimuth 457 

Azimuth Card 465 

Azimuth Deviation 973 

Back Azimuth 458 

Back Step 47 

Bacteriology 902 

Balloons 503, 771, 958, 959, 966, 967 

Band 83, 116, 128, 184 

Barges 636 

Barometric Leveling 464 

Barrage 951, 952, 953, 974 

Barrel Piers 629 

Bars 628 

Base , 974 

Base Line Signal Troops. .527, 528, 974 

Base Section 579 

Base Squad 73 

Bastioned Lines 974 

Batardeau 974 

Battalion 84, 85, 86, 91, 92, 93 

Battalion Commander 189, 322 

Battalion Inspection 121 

Battalion Intelligence Section 974 

Battalion Muster 123 

Battalion Parade 113 

Battalion Reserve* '. . 974 

Battalion Review 110 

Battery 28, 172,413 

Battery Commander Telescope.... 974 

Battery of the Counter Attack 413 

Battlefield Illumination 924 

Battle Sight 974 

Bayonet 52, 174, 387, 840, 842 

Bayonet Combat 840,846,975 

Bearing 975 

Beaten Zone 975 

Belgian Bullet 898 

Belgian Pits 975 

Belligerents 749, 751, 758, 759, 773 

Bengal Lights 958, 959, 967 

Best Point of Entry 975 

Bickford Fuse .674, 683 

Billeting 181 

Bit Injuries 160 

Bivouac 152, 167, 181 

Blank Cartridges 61, 79, 304. 305 

Blanket 606 

Bleeding 901 

Bleiazid 975 

Blinded Batteries 975 

Blind Staggers 160 

Blocking a Tunnel 686 

Boat Bridges 629 

Boat Guards 184 

Boats 629 

Bolo 387 

Bolt Mechanism 300, 301 

Bombing Planes 975 

Bombs 542, 662, 899, 900, 925 



Bomb Screen 975 

Bone Fractures 904 

Borax 383 

Bore 377, 37s 

Box Compass 465 

Boxing 806 

Brace Ropes 1 76 

Bracket 399, 402, 975 

Bracketing 399, 424 

Brandt Howitzer 915,932,933 

Brassard 764, 968 

Breaching Batteries 413 

Bread 8 70 

Bridges 150, 621, 623, 625, 627, 631 

637,638,642,644,681,685 

Brigade 22, 101, 167, 184 

Brigade Commander 185 

Brigade Reserves 976 

Broad Fire 424 

Broken Knees 160 

Brown Enamel 334 

Bruises 160, 600 

Bugle Signals 39,40 

Bullet 317, 897, 898, 900, 905 

Bullet Wounds 160 

Bulletin Board 186 

Bureau of Chiefs 218 

Bureau of Information 755 

Bursting of Shrapnel 443 

Burst Interval 976 

Bursts in Air 393 

Bursts on Impact 394 

Butt Stroke 845,848 

Calling the Roll 193 

Call Relief 197 

Call the Guard 197 

Camouflage 976 

Camoufleurs 976 

Camp . . 152, 164, 167, 172, 173, 178, 180, 
181, 182,183, 184,482,588 

Camping Ground 180 

Camp Kettles 165 

Camp Sanitation 164,179,182 

Camp Telephone 529 

Cantilevers 636 

Cantonments 164,178,182 , 

Capitulation 776, 777, 778 

Caps 683 

Captains 185 

Captive Balloons 410 

Carbide Cartridge 541 

Carbonate of Soda 384 

Carbon Dioxide 936 

Care of the Feet 888, 889 

Care of Troops 152 « 

Cargo Covers 609 

Carrel-Dakin Method 902 

Cars 582,612 

Carrier Pigeons 953, 964, 965 

Cartels 780, 782 

Cartridge 304, 305, 947 

Cartridge Case 316 

Cases 672 

Cavalry 28,193,244,278,284,291, « 

406, 498, 499 

Cavalry Saber 387 

Cease Firing ..,,,,.,,, 40, 43, 63 



INDEX 



1021 



PAGE 

Censorship 231, 233 

Ceremonies 37, 108 

Center of Burst 976 

Challenges 724 

Change of Direction 41, 88, 521 

Change of Elevation 41 

Changes of Position 418,419 

Change Step 47 

Charcoal Powders 452 

Charge . .40, 268, 684, 716, 717, 736, 742 

Charge Bayonet 52 

Chief Mechanic 619 

Chief of Communications 961 

Chief of Platoon.. 15, 940, 941,946, 976 

Chief of Section 619 

Chief of Staff 222 

Choice of Lookouts 941 

Choice of Position 414 

Chop Chop Signal 557 

Cincha 606, 607 

Ciphers 564, 566 

Circle Exercises 856 

Circumstantial Evidence 727 

Civil Authorities '. . . . 181 

Classification of Trains 576 

Classification Rifle Firing 359 

Cleaning Kit 316 

Cleaning Materials 373,383,604 

Clearance Angle 976 

Climbing Exercises 805 

Clinometer 463 

Clip Fire 80 

Clock-face Method 976 

Clock Oil 383 

Close Billets 976 

Closed Sessions 721 

Close Intervals 521 

Close Order ....36,83,98 

Close Reconnaissance 977 

Cloth Equipment 371 

Club Exercises 805, 820, 821" 

Club Rifle Swing 845 

Coast Artillery .21, 22, 28, 561 

Coast Artillery Supports 977 

Code 546,548, 550 

Code Books 564 

Coefficient of Wind Pressure 977 

Cohesion 945 

Colic 160 

Color 126, 127, 969 

Color Bearer 192, 199 

Color Guard 126, 192 

Color Sentinels 198,199 

Colt Double Action Revolver 387 

Column of Companies 88 

Column of Squads 72, 88 

Columns 577 

Combat . . . .252, 277, 280, 287, 289, 291, 
292,419,500, 501. S57 

Combat Exercises 33,34 

Combat Orders 38, 284, 285 

Combat Practice 320 

Combat Principles 90,100,277 

Combat Reconnaissance 257 

Combat Tactics 252 

Combat Train 26,27,31,576 

Combat Within the Hostile Position 295 
Combatants 798 



PAGE 

Combined Movements 846,851 

Combined Sights 355,424 

Combined Sketches 701,702 

Come In 562 

Combustion 450 

Command 10, 12, 16, 37, 39, 223 

Command Aeroplanes 958 

Command Balloons 958 

Commander 181, 201 

Commander-in-Chief 22 

Commander of the Guard. 187, 188, 189, 
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 
198, 199, 200, 202, 204, 205 
Commander of the Line of Com- 
munications 223, 574, 578, 581 

Commander of the Port of Em- 
barkation 220, 221, 583 

Commander of Trains 578 

Commander of Train Troops $75 

Commanding Officer. . . 10, 184, 185, 186 

Command Posts 660, 957, 977 

Commence Firing 40, 42 

Commence Towing 562 

Common Tent 175,176,177 

Communication .256, 774, 944, 945, 950, 
955, 956, 957, 959, 960, 961, 962, 969 

Communication Trenches 648,651 

661, 930,977 

Commutation of Rations 864,865 

Company 14, 40, 41, 67, 68, 75 

Company Acting Alone 78 

Company Combat Train 26 

Company Commander 189 

Company Inspection 119 

Company in Support 78 

Company Muster 123 

Company Packs 616 

Company Tool Wagon 605 

Compass . . .458, 459, 460, 461, 465, 474, 

475, 691 

Competitions 368 

Compilation of Sketches 489,490 

Compliments (Complaints, 793) 188 

189, 203 

Concealment 429, 657 

Concentrated Charges 684 

Concentration 153, 219, 220 

Concentration Camp 178,219,220 

Conducting Prisoners 589 

Conduct of Fire 392,424,977 

Conduct of Hostilities 766 

Conduct of Marches 146 

Conduct of Tactical Exercises 245 

Conduct of the Troops 572 

Cone of Dispersion 348, 977 

Confinement 715 

Conical Wall Tent 175,176 

Constipation 161 

Construction of Fire Problem. 907, 918, 

919,920 

Contact 248 

Contact Mines 801 

Contact Patrol Reconnaissance.... 977 

Continental Code 548 

Contouring 484, 486 

Contours 688 

Contributions 791, 792 

Control 223 



1022 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Control of Fire 423 

Contused Wounds 901 

Conventional Signalts. .541, 551, 959, 960 

Conventional Signs. . .492, 495, 496, 702, 

703, 704, 688 

Convergence Difference 977 

Conquest 784 

Convoy Camps 978 

Convoys 569, 586, 587, 589, 590, 591, 

592, 798 

Convoys of Evacuation 763 

Corona 606, 608 

Corporal 15, 185, 192, 194, 195, 196, 

197, 198 

Corporal of the Guard 194, 195, 196, 

197,198,201,202 

Corporals of Relief 191 

Corps Cavalry 23 

Corps Troops 31 

Corrector .404, 445 

Correspondence ■. .581, 884 

Correspondents 232 

Cosmic 383 

Cossack Squad 169 

Cost of Transportation 570 

Coughs 161 

Council 723, 724 

Counter Attack 273, 290, 953 

Counter Batteries 413 

Countersign. 187, 190, 197, 201, 202, 203 

Counter Trenches 978 

Count Off 54,65 

Couriers 950 

Courtesies .108, 139 

Courts Martial. . .705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 
712, 714,718,732,741 

Courts of Inquiry 706 

Cover .63, 607, 609, 652, 653 

Covering Parties ; : ; 978 

Covering Position 978 

Cover Trenches 648, 651, 653 

Cracked Heels 161 

Crib Construction 626 

Critique 357, 978 

Critique of Fire Problem 907 

Crossing Bridges, Ferries and Fords 150 

Crossing Rivers 621 

Crupper 607 

Curtain Fire .; 978 

Curved Fire 978 

Cut Over ..;;.;. 848 

Danger Angle 978 

Danger Signals . . . . ; 367 

Danger Space 978 

Datum Level '491 

Dead 757 

Debarkation 569 

Decoy Batteries 413 

Decrease the Gait 521 

Deep Fire 424 

Defense .... .96, 271, 289, 420, 930, 932 

Defense Card .427 

Defense of a Convoy. . . '. 588 

Defense of a Trench 104 

Defensive Combat 277,289,291 

Defensive Fire 944 

Defensive Grenades 925 



PAGE 

Deflection 333, 440, 978 

Deflection Difference 979 

Delaying Action 274, 979 

Demolition Equipment 687 

Demolitions 646, 679, 680, 681, 930 

Denunciation of Armistice 780 

Denunciation of Capitulation 778 

Department Commander 218,323 

Deploy as Skirmishers 59 

Deployed Lines 73 

Deployments . .74, 91, 263, 266, 271, 979 

Depots 179, 659 

Depot Signal Troops 528 

Depth Bomb 979 

Deserters 183 

Designation of Targets 909 

Detached Posts 429 

Detachments 194, 713,967 

Details 184 

Detectors 535 

Determination of Ranges. 907 

Detonation .451, 683, 684 

Detraining and Unloading 573 

Devastation 789 

Diamond Hitch 609,616,617 

Diamond Shaped Corral 588 

Diarrhoea 161, 597 

Didion's Formulas 979 

Dip 459 

Diplomatic Agents 772 

Direction of Counter Attacks 953 

Direction of the Range 365 

Direction of Railways 231,581 

Dirigible Balloon. 410, 503 

Disciplinary Punishment 755 

Discipline .9, 19, 20, 188, 234, 261 

Discussions 240 

Disease 885, 886, 887 

Disembarkation 221 

Disengage 848 

Dismiss the Battalion 86 

Dismiss the Company 68 

Dismiss the Regiment 99 

Disposal of Excreta 166, 167 

Disposition of Rations 866,867 

Dissimulation 979 

Distances 55, 694, 979 

Distinctive Badges 769 

Distinctive Colors 969 

Distinguished Marksmen 370 

Distress Signal 544 

Distributed Charges 684 

Distributing Points 226, 979 

Distribution for Effect 404 

Distribution of Fire 80, 261 

Distribution of Troops 147, 168, 512. 

587,876 

Division 22, 224, 281, 283, 285 

Divisional Balloons . 958 

Divisional Cavalry 499 

Divisional Train 31 

Division Commander 185 

Dormoy Chateau Howitzer: ... .932, 934 

Double Hitch 618 

Double Interval 557 

Double Shelter Tents 174 

Double Sleeping Tents 174 

Double Time #..35,40,826 



is 



INDEX 



1023 



PAGE 

Draeger Apparatus 935 

Dragmen 413 

Drainage 656, 673 

Drawing 492 

Drawing Board 475 

Draw Spans 633 

D. R. Bombard 932,934 

Dressing Stations 896,980 

D. R. Grenade 929 

Drift 435 

Drill 17, 18, 33, 34, 328, 808, 818 

Drivers 620 

Drum Major 128 

Dumb Bell Exercises 804,820 

Dummy Cartridges 61 , 305 

Dummy Trenches 657 

Duties 188, 192, 194 

Earth Works 406 

Echelon 27, 980 

Effective Beaten Zone 424 

Effectiveness of Fire 980 

Effect of Confinement 451 

Effect of Fire 241, 348, 350 

Effect of Wind 334 

Egg Bomb 899 

Elements 980 

Elements of Fire 439 

Elements of the Trajectory 440 

Elevation 330, 463, 693 

Elevation Correction Drill 333 

Embarkation . 584, 585 

Emergency Ration 858, 861 

Emergency Signals 543 

Employment of Barrage Fire 951 

Employment of Fire 412, 980 

Employment of Time 946 

Employment on the Defensive. .928, 929 

Encampments 183 

Enemy Property 746, 789 

Energy of Recoil 980 

Enfilade Fire 428 

Enfilading Battery 980 

Engineer Columns 577 

Engineer Combat Trains 29 

Engineer Company 29 

Engineer Mounted Battalion 29 

Engineers 28 

Engineer Trains 229,577,578 

Engineer Troops 279 

English Bullet 898 

Enlargement 493 , 494 

Enlisted Men 199 

Enveloping Attack 980 

Epizootic Lymphangitis 161 

Equation of Defense 980 

Equipment. 120, 173, 179, 190, 571, 372, 
385,478,567,620 

Escort of Honor 117 

Escort of the Color 115 

Espionage 769, 771 

Establishing the Outposts 170, 516 

Estimate of the Situation 907 

Estimating Distance Tests 335,338 

Estimation of Distance. . .336, 337, 468, 
694, 698 

Evacuation Points 980 

Evidence 727, 728 



PAGE 

Examining Posts 518,981 

Exchange of Prisoners 756,757 

Execution of Reliefs 946 

Exercises 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 

809,810,821 

Expenditure of Ammunition 261 

Explosion 451 

Explosives 371, 390, 431, 450, 455, 

582,673,674,681,697 

Extended Order 73 

Extended Order Drill 33 

Extend Intervals 521 

Extend the Mass 89 

Exterior Guards 183 

Extra Compensation 359 

Eye Pieces 935 

Eyes Right or Left 44 

Facine 656 

Facings 44 

Facing to the Rear 70 

Fainting 891 

Falling Ground 351,981 

Falling Target 364 

Farcy 161, 598 

Fatigue Details 954 

Fatigue " Duty 184, 185, 186 

Fear of Responsibility 12 

Federal War Department 22 

Feeding 595, 614 

Feints 850 

Fencing at Will 854 

Ferries 150, 644 

Fever 161 

Field Army 21, 22, 281, 183, 285, 286 

Field Artillery. . .296, 319, 392, 412, 560 

Field Artillery Ammunition 390 

Field Artillery Army Signals 42 

Field Battalion 524, 981 

Field Bread 870 

Field Exercises 33,34 

Field Fortification 646, 664 

Field Glasses 340, 962 

Field Guns 318,438,454,686 

Field Hospitals 31 

Field Maneuvers 236 

Field Maps 690 

Field Messages 549, 566 

Field Music 193 

Field Officer of the Day 185 

Field Operations 179 

Field Orders 871, 873, 874, 875, 875, 

877 

Field Post Office 235 

Field Ration 858, 860, 866, 981 

Field Signal Battalion 30 

Field Targets 264 

Field Signal Troops 522 

Field Telephone 981 

Field Train 27, 31 , 576 

Field Training 19 

Field Transport 569 

Field Wireless 981 

Field Work 19, 472 

File 981 

File Closers 192 

Findings 730 

Finger 43 



1024 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Fink Truss 639 

Filipino Ration 858, 860, 863 

Fire 43, 78, 80, 92, 241, 258, 261, 348, 

350,353,402,412,944 

Fire Action 648 

Fire Attack 77,267 

Fire at Will 40,63,405 

Fire by Clip 63 

Fire by Volley 62 

Fire Control 81,92,259,981 

Fire Direction 92,259,981 

Fire Discipline 81, 982 

Fire Effect ..352,392,403,405,928,929 

Fire for Adjustment 392,397,401 

Fire for Demolition 401,408 

Fire from a Forward Position 428 

Fire from the Flanks 427 

Fire of Position 262 

Fire Order 909 

Fire Position 909, 918 

Fire Problems ...907,908,909,910,913 

Fire Signals 429 

Fire Superiority 258,280,982 

Firing at Moving Targets 347, 356 

Firing Devices 674, 683 

Firing Mounds 367 

Firing Platform 26 

Firing Trenches ..648,649,650,653,941 

Firing with Rests 347 

Firings 60, 342, 357, 415, 908 

First Aid 885,888,889,890 

First Aid Packet 895, 896 

First Aid Stations 660, 896 

First in Trench Zone 648 

First Sergeant 66, 185, 186, 193 

First Sergeant's Call 186, 192 

Fix Bayonets 40,43,52 

Fixed Bridges 625 

Fixed Establishments 760 

Fixed Pivot 57, 69 

Fixed Targets 402 

Flags.. 190, 208. 765, 766. 769, 772, 968 

Flags of Truce 769, 774, 776 

Flank Guards 156, 159, 183,511 

Flares 391,924 

Flashless Powders 453 

Flatulent Colic 597 

Flexible Cylinders 959 

Flight Commander 982 

Floating Bridges. 627, 628, 631, 632, 633, 
634,635 

Flying Corps in the Field 982 

Folding the Flag 982 

Follow Me 58 

Follow the Corporal 58 

Food 166 

Forced Marches 154 

Fords 150,644 

Formal Field Orders 873 

Formal Guard Mounting 209 

Formations 34, 37, 812, 908 

Forests 482 

Fortification 646, 664 

Forward 40, 520 

Founder 599 

Fractions Surprised in Shelters.... 954 

Fragmentation 982 

Freezing 891 



French Bullet 897, 898 

Fresh Beef , 869 

Fresh Bread 870 

Frontage of Units in Combat 280 

Front into Line 71,87 

Front Rank Man 173 

Front Sight Movable Stud 389 

Frost Bite 891 

Fulminate 456, 683 

Funeral Escort 117,144,145 

Funeral Honors 143 

Fuse 674, 683 

Gabions 656 

Gait 467, 521 

Gallery 668, 670, 671, 672, 679 

Galley Frame 669 

Galley Practice 335, 380 

Garb 234 

Garrison 183 

Garrison Prisoners 187 

Garrison Ration 858, 859, 862, 866 

Garrison Training 18" 

Gas 662 

Gas Attacks 982,1009 

Gas Helmet 982 

Gas Reflection Lights 924 

Gas Shells 899 

Gas Warfare 983 

Gas-Vesicant 983 

General Armistice 779 

General Courts Martial 707, 709, 723, 

732, 734 

General Headquarters 22, 1 79 

General Orders 200, 872 

General Organization 21 

General Preparatory Signal 521 

General Service Code 550,983 

General Staff 222 

General Train 31 

Generator 541 

Geneva Flag 772 

German Mauser Bullet, S 898 

Germs 885 

Gibson's Soap 384 

Girth Galls 161 

Glanders 162 

Good Faith 768 

Gorge Trench 983 

Grades 14, 16 

Gradient 457, 462, 463, 667, 689 

Graticule Method 425 

Grease Heel 162 

Grenade . . . .102, 103, 390, 391, 662, 899, 

925, 926, 928. 929 ^ 

Grenade Assault 106 " 

Grenade Squads 104 

Grenadier 103, 983 

Grenadier's Equipment 103 

Grooming 612 

Ground 178, 260, 351 

Ground Line 610,611 

Ground Section 444,983 

Group 40, 43 A 

Groups of Posts 983 

Guard Cartridge 305 

Guard Cells 191, 193, 194 

Guard Details 185 



INDEX 



1025 



PAGE 

Guard Duty ....183,184,186,188,189, 

194, 204 

Guard House . . . 187, 188, 190, 192, 193, 

194, 196 

Guard Mounting 184, 186, 187, i89, 

191, 192, 198, 201,209,213 

Guard Patrols 202 

Guard Report 186, 190, 192 

Guard Rooms 191, 193, 194 

Guards .181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 

190, 203, 204, 511, 512. 848, 852, 

940,941,943 

Guard Tent 190, 192, 196 

Gun Cotton 456, 683 

Gunnery 431, 433 

Gunpowder 683 

Guns 68 1 

Gunshot Wounds 900 

Guns in Infantry Line 428 

Gun Sling 339 

Gun Squads 983 

Gutter Wounds 901 

. Guy Ropes 176, 177, 178 

Gymnastic Contests ..805,823,824,825 

Hachures 688, 689 

Hair-brush Grenade 983 

Half Platoon 15 

Half Step 46 

Halt ..40, 47, 149, 170, 179, 180, 194, 521 

Hand Flags 554, 555, 557 

Hand Grenades. .103, 104, 390, 899, 925, 

947 

Hand Level 463 

f Hand Parries 856 

Hand Signals 40 

Harassing Fire 941 , 942 

Harness 603 , 605 

Harness Galls 162 

Head Cover 652, 984 

Head Guards 184 

Headquarters 22, 184, 221 

Headquarters Company 24 

Heat Stroke 163 

Heat Exhaustion t 891 

Heavy Artillery 23, 319 

.Heavy Bridges 623 

Heavy Equipage 628 

Heavy Field Artillery 279 

Height of Burst 404,448,449,984 

Heliograph 540, 553 

High Explosives 454,455,674 

High Explosive Shells 438, 899 

High Explosive Shrapnel ..438,439,984 

High Line 610 

High Parry 844 

Hiph Porte 853 

j High-Power Artillery 984 

Highway Robbers 794 

i Hoisting the Flag 190 

Holding Attack 270, 984 

Honig Circles 984 

Honors and Salutes. .108, 123, 125, 131. 

143 

flopping Exercises . ._ 815 

Horizontal Bar Exercises 822 

Horizontal Deviation 306 

Horizontal Equivalent 689 



PAGE 

Horizontal Sweeping 424 

Hospitals 178, 179, 7/2 

Hospital Ships 765 

Hospital Tents 177 

Hospital Trains 574 

Hostages 797 

Hostile Position 295 

Hostilities 746, 748, 766 

Howe Truss 639, 640 

Howitzer 318, 686 

Hurdles 655 

Hydrography 489 

Hydroline Oil 384 

Ice 686 

Identification Panels 959,967 

Identification Signals 984 

Identifying Lines 966 

Ignitions 675 

Illumination of Battle Field 658 

Illuminating Grenade 984 

Inaction 12 

Incendiary Grenade 985 

Incline Gallery 671 

Increase the Gait 521 

Independent Cavalry 498, 985 

Indications of the Enemy 502 

Indirect Fire 357,985 

Indorsements 881 

Infantry 193, 278, 408, 409, 499 

Infantry Battalion 25, 958 

Infantry Batteries 413 

Infantry Brigade 24 

Infantry Combat 292 

Infantry Company 25 

Infantry Division 23 

Infantry Divisional Balloons. . .960, 985 

Infantry in the Trenches 937,948 

Infantry Organization 27 

Infantry Regiment 24 

Infirmaries 182 

Influence 10 

Influence of Ground 351 

Influenza 162 

Informal Guard Mounting 213 

Information 505, 770, 957, 960 

Information Officer 985 

Initial Combat Orders 38 

Initial Velocity 434 

Initiative 9,12 

Insignia 360, 769 

Inspecting Officer 190, 193 

Inspection Arms 48. 52 

Inspections 108, 1 87 

Instantaneous Fuse 683 

Instruction of the Guard 183 

Instruction Practice 340 

Interchange of Compliments. . . .140, 141 

Intercommunications 956, 961, 963 

Interior Camp Guards 181 

Interior Guard Duty 183, 184 

Interior Guards 985 

Intermediate Trenches 648 

Tnternationl Morse Code. . .550, 551, 965 

Internment 799 

Interpreter ; 724 

Interstate Commerce Commission.. 532 
Intervals 55, 59, 557, 985 



1026 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Intrenched Observation Stations... 950 

Intrenching Tools 174 

Intrenchments 271, 281, 405 

Invasion 7S4 

Inviolability of Territory 797 

Jab .848, 856 

Journal of Attack 985 

Journal of Defense 985 

Judge Advocate . 722 

Judicial Notice 729 

Jump 434, 805, 985 

Jurisdiction 714 

Keys 193 

Kitchens 165, 178, 661 

Kiwi 986 

Kneeling 59 

Known Distance Targets 339,362 

Knuckle Knife 986 

Lacerated Wounds 901 

Lachamatory Gases 1010 

Laminitis 599 

Land Forces 21, 793 

Landing 583 

Landing Piers 626 

Land Mines 677 

Landscape Sketching : 489 

Land-taught Swimming 803,. 829, 830 

Land Warfare 746 

Lash Rope 606, 609 

Lateral Communications 957,986 

Lateral Deviation 986 

Latrines 178, 661, 940 

Lattice Truss 642 

Lavaline 383 

Lavatories 661 

Laws in Force, Suspended and Pro- 
mulgated 785, 786 

Laws of War 705, 7^3 

Leader 282 

Leadership 253 

Leading File 195 

Lead Nitride 456 

Leapfrog 986 

Leaping 815 

Leather Equipment 372,375,376 

Leaving the Trench 945 

Left-handed Use of Rifle 854 

Left Oblique 40, 56 

Length of Marches 148 

Letter Codes 559 

Letters and Indorsements 881,882, 

883, 884 

Letters of Instruction 871 

Liaison 955, 956, 958, 962, 969, 986 

Liaison Agent , 963,967,986 

Liaison Detachments 967 

Liaison Officer 968 

License to Trade 781 

Light 346 

Light Artillarv 23 

Light Brandt Howitzer 933 

Light Bridges 624 

Light Equipage 623,624 

Line m .43, 962, 986 

Line of Circumvallation 986 



PAGE 

Line of Communications. . .32, 183, 233, 
225,230, 518,579, 699,986 

Line of Countervallation 987 

Line of Departure 434 

Line of Sight 324,434 

Lines of Information 181,659,923 

Linseed Oil 384 

Liquid Coffee 861 

Listening Posts 658,943,987 

Litter Bearer 27 

Living Force 987 

Load 609 

Loading and Entraining ..571,615,572, 
582, 676 

Loadings 60, 61 

Local Armistice 779 

Local Reconnaissance 987 I 

Lockjaw 599 

Locomotives 6S0 I 

Long Horse Exercises 822 l 

Longitudinal Deviation 987 

Longitudinal Dihedral Angle 987 I 

Longitudinal Resistance 987 | 

Long Range Covering Fire 42/ 

Long Range Practice 345 

Long Range Searching Fire. .. .428, 952 

Long Range Target 363 

Long Thrust 848, 853 

Lookout Posts 923, 987 

Lookouts ...... . .941, 942, 943, 949, 950 

Loopholes 652, 944 

Looping 987 

Losses to the Enemy 930 

Lowering the Flag , 190 

Low Parry 844, 

Lubricating Oil 384 

Lying Down 59 

Machine Gun Companies ....25,26,423 

Machine Gun Groups 409 

Machine Guns ..243,281,392,421,427, 

428, 430, 659 

Magazine Mechanism 301 

Mail 178 

Main Guard 184,185 

Maintenance 662 

Maintenance of Communication... 95 5 v 

962 

Mange 162 

Manta 609 

Manual of Arms 48 

Manual of the Bayonet 840 

Manual of the Color 127 

Manual of the Sabre 130 

Map Distance 689 

Map Enlargement 704 

Map Reading 492, 688, 987^* 

Map Reproduction 703 

Maps . .457, 470, 471, 498, 504, 689, 690, 

691,692,703 

Marauders 795 

March by the Flank 47 

March Discipline 146 

Marches .... 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, 

156,160,6094 

Marches in Campaign 153 

Marchings 45, 804, 815, 816 

March Order 507 



INDEX 



1027 



PAGE 

March Table 877, 878 

March to the Rear 47,70 

Marine Officers 708 

Marking 343, 344 

Mark Time 46 

Martial Law 705,746,747 

Mask, M. 2 934, 935, 937 

Mass Formations 89 

Material 764,940 

Maximum Angle of Incidence 988 

Mean Radial Distance 988 

Measuring the Range 367 

Mechanics 619 

Medical Corps 31 

Medical Department 31,765 

Medical Materiel 762 

Medical Personnel 762 

Medical Service 896 

Meeting Engagements 274,988 

Meeting System of Convoys 988 

Member of the Guard 190 

Menace of Mines 954 

Meridian 493 

Messages 504, 506,955,965 

Messenger Aeroplane 958 

Messengers 234 

Mess Sergeant 988 

Metal Fouling Solution 383 

Metal Parte 381 

Metal Primer 925 

Mid-Range Target 363 

Mil 988 

Military Administration 225 

Military Administrator 988 

Military Aeronautics 31 

Military Attacks 251 

Military Authority 783 

Military Bridges 151 

Military Ceremony 37 

Military Commission 706 

Military Demolition 679, 680 

Military Dispositions 699 

Military Explosives 455 

Military Government 705 

Military Gymnastics 803 

Military Hospital Ships 765 

.Military Information 497,519 

Military Jurisdiction 705, 747 

Military Law 705, 706 

Military Necessity 746 

Military Occupation 783 

Military Operations 236 

Military Order 988 

Military Orthopedics 988 

Military Police 183,186,216,989 

.Military Post 183,184,190 

Military Railroading 989 

Military Railways 231,580 

Military Reconnaissance 989 

Military Signs 695, 696, 697 

Military Sketches 688,692,693,699 

Military Surgery 885,897,901,989 

Military Trains 1 54 

Military Vocabulary 989 

Mills Bomb 899 

Mil Scale Method 425 

Mines 677, 801, 802, 900, 954 

Mine Tactics 678 



PAGE 

Miniature Targets 365 

Mining 646, 665, 666 

Mirage 346 

Misfires 676 

Missing 948 

Mobile Army 21,922 

Mobilization 219 

Mobilization Camps 178,219 

Mopping Up Trenches 106 

Morse Code 546, 550, 959 

Motor Company 32 

Motorized Organizations 521 

Motor Transports 593, 619, 989 

Motor Transport Corps 989 

Motor Trucks 990 

Mounted Orderly 27 

Mounted Scouts 990 

Mounted Sentinels 195 

Movements 34, 37, 521 

Moving Pivot 57, 69 

Moving Targets 347, 356, 402 

Mud Fever : 161 

Mules 594, 595, 596 

Munitions 582 

Musicians 79, 185 

Musicians of the Guard 192, 198 

Mustard Gats 1009 

Muster 123, 187 



Naphthalene 383 

Nasal Catarrh 161 

National Anthem 134, 990 

National Army 22 

National Colors 192,198 

National Flag 769 

National Guard 22,732,733 

National Red Cross 761 

National Salute 1 37, 990 

Natural Point Blank 990 

Neat's Foot Oil 384 

Nerve Shock 903 

Neutrality 772, 797 

Neutral Rights 797 

Neutral Territory 799 

New Guard 191,198,201,215 

Night Assault 990 

Night Combat 291 

Night Firing 357, 411 

Night Marches 155 

Night Operations 990 

Nitro Cellulose 456 

Nobel Lighter 991 

Noizet System of Fortification 991 

Non-Commissioned Officer in 

Charge of Pit 342 

Non-Commissioned Officers. .. 13, 14,66, 

184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 193, 194, 196, 

203 
Non-Commissioned Officer of the 

Guard 190, 192, 194, 199 

Non-perforating Wounds 901 

Normal Sight 325 

Nose Spinning 991 

Notches 652 

Notification of Armistice 779 

N-Square Law 991 

Numbering of Targets 366 



1028 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Oath 725 

Oath of Interpreter 726 

Oath of Judge Advocate 725 

Oath of Reporter . . 726 

Oath of Witness.. 726 

Oath to Test Competency 726 

Oblique Fire 428 

Oblique March 56 

Observation 64, 261, 657, 922, 923, 

937,991 

Observation Detachments 967 

Observation Mines 801 

Observation Points 942 

Observation Post ....658,923 

Observation Station 957 

Observatory 658, 923, 991 

Observer 27 

Obstacles 405, 656 

Occupation 785, 787 

Occupation of Position 353,417,932 

Odometer 467 

Offensive Combat 277,287 

Offensive Fire Action 930,931 

Offensive Grenades 925 

Offensive Patrols 991 

Officer 14, 185, 187, 188, 189,198, 

199, 203 

Official Calls 140 

Official Correspondence. . .871, 878, 879, 

880, 884 

Officer in Charge of Firing 342 

Officer of the Day 184, 185, 186, 187, 

188, 190, 191, 194 
Officer of the Guard. .184, 185, 187, 188, 

189, 194 

Old Guard 190, 191, 214 

Old Officer of the Day 191 

On Right (Left) Into Line. .71, 87, 521 

Open Fighting 428 

Operating Chests 536 

Operations of the Supply Service.. 867, 

868 

Operation Orders 960, 992 • 

Optimum Angle of Incidence 992 

Order Arms 49 

Order in Line 524 

Order in Section Column 524 

Orderlies 198, 199 

Orders.. 12, 13, 18, 37, 38, 39, 188, 192, 
194, 871, 872, 955 

Orders for Sentinels 200 

Ordinary Billets 992 

Ordnance Depots 992 

Ordnance Equipment 371 

Organization 10, 21, 944, 945 

Organization for Attack 428 

Orientation 688, 691, 992 

Oriented Drawing Board 477 

Outguards.,169, 170, 171, 515, 517, 992 

Outpost Commander 170 

Outpost Company 523,992 

Outposts... 167, 168, 170, 180. 181, 182, 
193, 203, 513, 516, 518 

Outpost Sketch 699,700 

Outpost Troops 514 

Outward Flank 992 

Overhead Cover 653 

Overhead Fire 992 



Oversea 184, 191, 193, 203, 221 j 

Oversea Operations 30, 993 

Oyster Grenades 899 j 

Pacing 466 j! 

Pack Guards 184, 185 |j 

Packing 317, 538 I 

Packs , 120, 121. 174 

Pack Saddles 606 

Pack Trains 610 

Pack Transportation 593, 993 

Painting ; 382 

Palisades 680 

Panels 958, 959, 967, 993 

Panorama Sketch 993 

Parachute Grenade 993 

Parades 113 

Parallel Bars 823 

Park 521 

Parlementaires 774, 775, 776 

Parole 187, 190,201,202 

Parry 844, 848, 855, 856 

Passes 234- 

Passports 786, 781, 782 

Patrol Leader 502 

Patrolling the Frontier 797 

Patrols. 169, 170, 501, 516, 943, 946, 993 

Pay 756 

Peep Sight 325 

Penalties 370 

Penetrating Wounds 901 

Perfidy 768 

Perforating Wounds 901 

Periscope 950, 962 

Permanent Camps p 167 

Permissible Explosives 993 

Personal Combat 857 

Personal Hygiene 885,886,887 

Personal Salutes 138 

Personnel 760, 963, 970 

Petrolatum 384 

Phosgene 993, 1009, 1010 

Photograph Officer 993 

Physical Training 803 

Picket 169, 171, 172. 515 

Picket Line 610,611 

Picric Acid 455' 

Picric Powders 994 

Piers 626, 629, 631 

Pile Bridges 625 

Pillage 773 

Pill-box 994 

Pirates of War 794 

Pistol 306, 310, 316, 364 

Pit Shed 367 

Place Sketch 699, 701*^ 

Plane of Fire 393,434 

Plane of Site 994 

Plan of Action 284 

Plan of Combat 994 

Plan of Defense of Strong Point.. 939 

Plan of Defense of Trench 937,940 

Platoon.. 15, 40, 41, 43, 66, 77, 173, 193, 
521, 939, 941, 945 

Platoon Columns 41 

Platoon Leader 77,81 

Playfair Cipher 994 

Pleas ..727,742 



INDEX 



1029 



PAGE 

Plotting 475 

Plumb Line 463 

Plunging Ricochet 994 

Pneumatic Guns 930, 932 

Pocket of Fire 951 

Point Blank Range 994 

Point Fire 424 

Pointing the Gun 432 

Point of Aim 324 

Point of Fall 434 

Poison 766 

Poison Gas Shells 899 

Polish 384 

Poll Evil 598 

Poncho 174 

Pontoons 621 

Portable Field Sets 535 

Portable Ovens 166 

Portable Searchlights 924, 959 

Port Arms 50,195 

Position Drills 327,328,331,332 

Position in Readiness 994 

Position of Attention 811,812 

Position of Deployment 994 

Position of the Soldier 43, 909 

Positions... 271, 414, 415, 417, 430, 483, 
484. 647 

Position Sketch 484,699,700 

Post 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 200 

Post of the Leader 282 

Post Sentinels 194,196 

Posts of Non-Commissioned Officers 36 

Posts of Officers 36 

Potence 995 

♦Powder 317, 452, 543 

Powdered Lye 383 

Powder Fouling 377 

Power of the Weapon 431 

Practical Instruction 17, 18 

Practice Marches 153,995 

Pratt Truss . . , 641 

Preconcerted Signals 541 

Preliminary Exercises 913, 914. 915, 

916,917 

Premises 187 

Preparatory Dispositions 413 

'Preparatory Signals 520 

Present Arms 49, 50 

Preserving Materials 383 

Press Matter 233,235 

Presumptions 728, 729 

Prevention of Waste 948 

Primary Hemorrhages 901 

Primer 316,925 

Priming 676, 684 

Trinciples of War 9 

Principal Subordinate Headquar- 
ters 179 

Prismatic Compass 460 

Prisoner Guards 184,191,193 

Prisoners.. 187, 190, 191, 193, 194, 205 

384 
Prisoners of War. .. .751, 752 753, 754 

Prisoner's Relief Societies 756 

Private Property 250 

Privates of the Guard. .. .185, 188, 192, 

200 



PAGE 

Probability of Fire 443 

Probability of Hitting 348 

Probable Error in Range 424 

Proficiency Test 358 

Profiles 650, 995 

Progressive Powder 453,995 

Projectiles 897, 898, 899, 934 

Property Depots 947 

Prosecutor 712 

Protection .••;•• 429 

Protection Against Asphyxiating 

Gases 934,936 

Protection of Shelters 936 

Protection of the Bivouac 167 

Protection of the Camp 167 

Protection of the March 156 

Protective Cavalry 995 

Protective Patrols 995 

Protractor 470 

Provost Courts 706 

Provost Guards 183,995 

Punishments 795 

Pursuit 269 

Pyramidal Tent 176,177 

Quadrant 995 

Quadrant Angle of Departure 434 

Quarter 767 

Quarter Guard 995 

Quartermaster Corps \ .31, 583 

Quartermaster Trains 31 

Quarter-Sights 995 

Quenched Spark Gap 537 

Quick Time 40,45 

Radian 996 

Radio Company 523,996 

Radio Distress Signal 543 

Radio Pack Set 539 

Radio Telegraphy 530 

Rafale 996 

Rafts 151,631,632 

Railhead 996 

Railroads... 178, 231, 481, 644, 680. 686 

Rally 996 

Ramps 585,5*6, 613 

Range... 41, 79, 260, 365, 394, 399, 403, 

434 

Range-Azimuth Table 996 

Range Cards 426 

Range Deviation 996 

Range Finders 339,387,388 

Range House 367 

Range Officer 342,996 

Range Regulations 358 

Range Table 436,437 

Range-tskers 996 

Ranging 446, 447, 448 

Rapid Fire Exercise 330 

Rapid Fire Target 363 

Rapid Firing 347 

Rapidity of Fire 432 

Rate of Fire 908,909 

Rate of Marches 148 

Ration 228 

Reactance Control 532 

Real Property of a State 792 



1030 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Rear Guard. 156, 159, 168, 183, 421, 512 

Rear Guard Actions 429 

Rear Rank Man 173 

Rear Sight Corrections 354 

Recall 249 

Receive the Color 127 

Receiving Set 537 

Reconnaissance.. 416, 457, 479, 480, 481, 

482, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 510, 938, 

957 

Reconnoitering Patrols 501, 997 

Record Practice 340, 997 

Rectangular Panels 967 

Rectify Alignment and Column. . .86, 87 

Red Cross 761 

Reduction 493, 494 

Re-entering Place of Arms 997 

Refilling Point 226,997 

Refusal of Quarter 767 

Regiment 96, 97, 99, 101, 184 

Regimental Colors 192,198 

Regimental Commander 189, 322 

Regimental Dressing Stations. .896, 997 

Regimental Inspection 122 

Regimental Medical Service 896 

Regimental Muster 123 

Regimental Parade 115 

Regimental Review ;.... 112 

Regimental Staff 24 

Regiment of Engineers 28 

Regular Army 22 

Reinforcements of Firing Line.... 951 

Relief. 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 

214, 946, 997 

Relieving the Outposts 518 

Religious Privileges 756 

Remaining Velocity 434 

Remount Depot 23 

Rendezvous 997 

Rendezvous Point 226 

Rencontre 287 

Renversement 997 

Report of Sick and Wounded..... 906 

Reports 188, 189,504 

Representative Fraction 997 

Reprisals 796 

Requisitions 227, 787, 791 

Resection 469 

Reserve... 15 7, 168, 171, 181, 182, 282, 
429, 510 

Reserve Ration 860 

Reserve Trenches 648,653,943 

Resident Enemy Subjects 748 

Respect and Protection 760 

Restoration of the Apparently 

Drowned 838, 839, 892, 893, 894 

Rests 44,339,347 

Retaliation 796 

Retournment 997 

Retreat 187, 188, 189 

Retreat Gun 190,209 

Reveille 188, 189 

Reveille Gun 190,209 

Revestment 655 

Review 108, 112, 113 

Reviewing Officer 109,110 

Rheostat 532 

Ricochet Shots 352 



PAGE 

Rifle .174, 317, 376, 947 

Rifle Barrels 388 

Rifle Exercises 805,819 

Rifle Firing 359 

Rifle Grenades.. 103, 104, 390, 391, 899, 
925 928 

Rifle Guard Troops .' 929 

Rifleman's Insignia 360 

Rifle Salute 51 

Right (Left) About 520 

Right (Left) by Section 521 

Right (Left) Front Into Line 521 

Right (Left) Into Line 521 

Right (Left) Oblique 40,56,520 

Right of Command... 16 

Right Shoulder Arms 50, 51 

Rigidity of the Trajectory 436 

Ring-gauge 998 

Rings 823 

Ring Worm 162 

Rising Ground 351 

River Reconnaissance 480 

Road Reconnaissance 479' 

Roads 178, 180 

Road Sketch ..472, 473, 700 

Rockets .391, 542, 924, 947, 950, 953, 964 

Roll Call by Night 193 

Rolling Fire 998 

Rolling Kitchens 868 

Rope Burns 599 

Rope Galls 162 

Rosters 184, 185 

Rounds 946 

Route Cipher 566 

Route Marches 998 ' 

Route Step 72, 90 

Rubberine Paint 384 

Runners 963 

Running 804, 826 

Ruses 768 

Russian Bullet 898 

Russian Sap 998 

Saber 130, 188, 195, 387 

Sabotage 998 

Saddle Galls 162, 163 

Safe Conducts and Safe Guards.. 780, T 

781, 783 

Safety Devices 313 

Safety Fuse 674,683 

Sales Stores 870 

Salient 998 

Sal Soda 384 

Salt 595 

Salutes.... 123, 125, 133, 135, 137, 138, 

188, 189 

Salute the Colors 199 

Salutes with Cannon 135 

Salutes with the Hand 45 

Salutes with the Rifle 188, 189, 198 

Salvo 137, 998 

Sand Colic 162 

Sanitary Columns 577 

Sanitary Formations 759, 766, 

Sanitary Inspection 182 

Sanitary Service 229,578,998 

Sanitary Train 23, 577, 578, 998 

Sanitation 229 



INDEX 



1031 



PAGE 

Sapper-Bombardiers 932 

Scale of a Map 470 

Scales 688, 693, 694 

Schaefer Method 892, 893, 894 

Schools 33, 43. 53, 65, 82, 102 

Scoring 341 

Scour the Trenches 999 

Scratches 162, 599 

Searchlight. 553, 924, 959, 960, 967, 999 

Seating of Court 719 

Secondary Bases 999 

Secondary Hemorrhages 901 

Second Line 999 

Secretary of War 22 

Section 15, 28, 193, 521 

Sector 392, 648, 999 

Sector Lookouts 942 

Sector of Explosion 999 

Sector Without Fire 999 

Security 587 

Selection of Camp Sites 179,180 

Seniority 9, 16, 198 

Senior Line Officer 187 

Senior Officer 184 

Sentence 731, 733, 743, 744, 745 

Sentinel 169, 171, 181, 184, 186, 188, 

190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 
203, 207, 515, 950 

Sentinel Posts 169, 188, 191 

Sentry Box 190 

Sentry Over Arms 999 

Sentry Squad 169, 515, 1000 

Sergeant 15, 185, 191, 193, 194 

Sergeant Major 25. 184, 185 

r Sergeant of the Guard 191,192,193, 

195, 196 

Service Buzzer 530 

Service Colors and Standards 1 000 

Service of Military Railways 231 

Service of the Interior 218, 1000 

Service of Supply 868 

Service of Security 497,506 

Service of the Theater of Opera- 
tions 221 

Service of the Trenches. . .921, 945, 946 
Service Rifle 376 

/Seton Wounds 901 

Setting Up Exercises 804,810 

Sheaf of Fire 1000 

Sheaf Ranging 1000 

Shell Fillers 455 

Shell Wounds 160, 895, 896 

Shelter 654, 936 

Shelter During Battle and Sieges. 181, 

182 

•Sheltering Troops 164, 178. 179 

Shelter Recess 1000 

Shelter Tents 174. 175, 181 

Shipping Mules 612,613 

Shock 891 

Shoeing 600, 601 

Shore Tug Signaling 561 

Short Guard 848, 853 

Short Range Practice 345 

Short Thrust 848,855 

Shot Group 1000 

Shower Baths 661 

Shrapnel 438, 443, 899 



PAGE 

Shutter Panels. 959, 960, 967 

Sick and Wounded.. 757, 906 

Side Boys 142 

Side Horse Exercises 822 

Side Step 46 

Sieges 771 

Sight 387 

Sight Correction 333 

Sighting Drills . . 323 

Sighting Rest for Rifle 324 

Sighting Shots , 341 

Sight Leaf 43 

Signal Corps 30 

Signal Corps Reserve Battalions.. 31 

Signal Flags 566 

Signaler 27 

Signaling 519, 553, 556, 561, 955 

Signals.. 37, 38, 202, 503, 520, 521, 541, 

543. 847, 965, 966, 967, 968 

Signals by Rockets 964 

Signals of the Drum Major 128 

Signal Station 545 

Signal Troops... 519, 522, 525, 527, 528 

Sign Posting 661 

Simple Attacks 849 

Simultaneous Detonation 684 

Simultaneous Ignitions 675 

Single Sleeping Bag 174 

Sketches 489, 690, 700, 701 

Sketching Case 478 

Skirmishers 35, 59, 74, 76 

Slash 848 

Sled Target 364 

Sling 615, 643 

Sling Rope 609 

Slope 671, 688, 689 

Slope Equivalent 487 

Slushing Oil 384 

Small Arm-s 242, 296, 371 

Small Arms Ammunition 318 

Small Arms Firing 320 

Smokeless Powder 317, 452, 453 

Sniperscope 1000 

Soaps 385 

Soda Solution 379 

Sore Backs 163 

Sorties 182 

Soundings 491, 492 

Sound Signal 543 

Source of Supply 227, 1000 

Spade Warfare 1001 

Spar Bridges 625 

Spark Gaps 533 

Spasmodic Colic 597 

Special Courts-Martial 708, 712, 741 

Special Duty 185 

Special Guards 184, 185 

Special Instructions 187 

Specialist Officers 28 

Special Orders 190, 196, 200. 872 

Special Train 31 

Special Training 813 

Special Units 36 

Specifications 736, 742 

Sperm Oil 384 

Sperry Drift Indicator 1001 

Sphero-Hexagonal Powder 1001 

Spies 770, 771 



1032 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Spirit of Precision 12 

Spotting for Range 394 

Sprain Tendons 163 

Sprengle Explosives 1001 

Spring Tonic 600 

Spring Tool Wagon 604 

Squad 40, 43, 72, 102 

Squad Columns 41 

Squadron 28, 172 

Squads Right About . .. 41 

Stable Duties 611 

Stable Guard 184, 185, 205, 1001 

Stable Police 611 

Stack Arms 55 

Staff Officer 180, 181 

Staffs 221 

Stanchions 613 

Standard Bridge 623, 624 

Standard Compass 459 

Standard Solution . .378, 380 

Standing Barrage 1001 

Star Bomb 924 

Star-Spangled Banner 1001 

Starting Positions 813,814 

Steel Bridges 685 

Steps 45, 656, 816, 817, 818 

Stockades 680 

Stokes Trench Mortar 1001 

Storage Battery 924 

Storage Tents 177 

Storehouses 179 

Stratagems 768 

Strategical Lines of Information. .1002 

Stragglers 152, 183 

Strangles 163, 598 

Strength of Firing Line 908 

Strong Points.. 647, 648, 938, 941, 1002 

Study 17, 18 

Subjugation 784 

Substitution in Ration. 858, 859, 860, 861 
Summary Courts Martial. .708, 713, 743 

Sunstroke 163, 891 

Supervision Trenches 1002 

Supplementary Practice Season.... 321 

Supplies 478, 479 

Supply Columns 577, 868, 1002 

Supply of Grenades 928 

Supply Service 226, 578 

Supply Train 577, 578, 1002 

Support.... 157, 168, 171, 413, 510, 517 

Support Commander 171, 1002 

Supporting Artillery 262 

Supporting Point 1002 

Support Trenches 648, 653, 941, 943, 

1002 

Supreme Commander 180 

Surgery 902 

Surprise 286 

Surprise Attacks 948, 954 

Surra 598 

Suspend Firing 40, 43, 63 

Suspension Bridge 642 

Swabbing Solution 378, 379, 385 

Swept Space 1003 

Swimming.. 648, 803, 806, 828, 829, 830, 
831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838 
Swing Cone of Fire 41 J 



o • • ™ PAGE I 

Swinging Traverse 424 ] 

Switch Trench 1003 ] 

Sylvester Method 892 i 

Systems of Units 531 I 

Tables of Occasions 1003 j 

Tables of Organization 1003 !j 

Tactical Decisive Points 1003 

Tactical Exercises 245 

Tactical Memoranda for Chief of 

Platoon 940 f 

Tactical Organization 21 I 

Tactical Pursuit 1003 1 

Tactical Walk or Ride 1003 

Tactics of Position 1003 '. 

Tagging Arrangement of Lines 962 f 

Take Arms 55, 56 

Tamping 677 

Target.. 80, 260, 261. 343, 362, 392, 402, 
410, 411, 907, 909, 918 \ 

Target Designation 355,1003 j 

Target Nomenclature 363 ji 

Target Year and Practice Season.. 339, j 

Teamwork 255, 841, 1003 

Tear Shells 899 I 

Technical Staff 222 | 

Telegraph 178, 578 

Telegraph Battalion 527 

Telegraph Company 526 

Telegraph Lines 681 

Telegraph Section 1004 

Telegraph Signal Troops 525, 1004 

Telephone 178, 529, 924, 950, 962 

Telephone Section 1004 

Telescopic Sights 361, 387, 388, 

Temperature 345 

Temporary Camps 166 

Tenacity of Defenders 954 

Tents 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 

179. 197 
Territorial Reconnaissance ....956, 957 

Testimonial Evidence 728 

Tetanus 904 

Theater of Operations 179, 218, 221, 

1004 

Thermit 1004 

Thirty-Seven Field Gun 1004^ 

Thirty-Seven M M Gun Platoon.. 26 

Throwing of Grenades 102, 105 

Thrush 163 

Ticks 163 

Time Bursts 447 

Time of Opening Fire 908, 909 

Timing 467 

Tin Cups 1004 

Tissot Apparatus 936, 937, 1004- 

Tonnage Tables 586 

Tool Wagon 29 

Topographical Reconnaissance 457 

Topographic Field Note Book. .475, 476 

Topography 469 

Torpedoes 802 

Torque of the Propeller 1005 

Total Rectangle 1005 

To the Color and Standard. 134, 135, 198' 

To the Rear 41 

Tourniquet 890 



INDEX 



1033 



PAGE 

Tower Forts 1005 

Towers 643 

Track 681 

Train 23, 154, 179, 576, 577, 578 

Train Guards 184 

Training 17, 18 

Training of Lookouts 941 

Training with the Rifle 320 

Train Wrecking 767 

Trajectory 393, 435, 440 

Transformers 531, 538 

Transient Targets 402 

Transmission of Information 505 

Transmission of Orders and Mes- 
sages 955, 960 

Transmitting Condensers 533 

Transport 422, 583 

Transportation of Annuals 585 

Transport Embarkation 569 

Transport Equipment 593 

Traumatic Neurosis 906 

Traveling Trunnion-beds 1005 

Travel on Commercial Railways. . . 570, 

571 

Travel on Military Railways 574 

Travel Ration 858, 860, 862, 863 

Traverse 477, 651 

Traversing 424, 474, 475, 477, 478, 

1005 

Traversing-gear 1005 

Treason 769, 770, 795 

Treatment 596 

Trench 648, 649, 656, 657, 945, 954 

^Trench Artillery 23 

l Trench Combat 857 

Trench-dump 1005 

Trench Mortars 930 

Trench Raids... 921, 926, 927, 928, 1005 

Trench Shotgun 1005 

Trench Warfare 921, 922, 925, 937 

Trench Weapons 660, 932 

Trestle Bridges 625 

Triangular Scale 471 

Trigger Squeeze Exercise 330 

Trip 1006 

Triple Interval 557 

Tripod 1 76 

Tripping Piece 1006 

Trip Wires 662 

Triton 682, 1006 

Troop 28 

Troop Leader 907, 909 

Troop Movements by Rail 575 

Troops in the Theater of Opera- 

V tions 575 

Troop Stable Guards 206, 207 

Trot 694 

Truss Bridges .". 637, 638, 639 

Tunnel 686 

Turkish Bullet 898 

Turpentine 385 

Two-arm Semaphore 1006 

Two-arm Semaphore Code. 554, 555, 556 

Umpire.... 238, 241, 242, 246, 910, 911, 
912, 913 

Umpire's Reference Tables 920 

Underground Hangars 1006 



Unexploded Grenades 

Unfix Bayonet 

Uniform 719, 769 

Union 

Unit 531, 

United States Army Bullet 

United States Magazine Rifle 

United States Rule. 

Units of Measure 

Universal Shell 

Unload 

Unloading Armies 

Upper Band 

Use of Combined Armies 

Use of Cover 

Use of Ground 



PAGE 

926 

52 

947 

1006 

1006 

898 

296 

787 

440 

1006 

62 

615 

389 

278 

63 

260 



Varying Elasticity 1006 

Vehicles .686,764 

Ventilation 673 

Verbal Orders 955 

Vermorel Sprayers 1007 

Vertical Searching 424 

Very Lights 1007 

Very Pistol 542 

Veterinary Corps 32 

Veterinary Service 160 

Vicious Mules 602 

View of a Place 1007 

Villages 181, 662, 663 

Visibility 1 007 

Visiting Patrols 1007 

Visits and Courtesies 139,140,141 

Visits of Inspection 186, 190 

Visual Signaling 552, 567, 963, 1007 

Visual Signal Stations 562 

Viven Bessieres Grenades. . 104, 928, 929 

Voice 79 

Volley Firing 62, 80, 405 

Voluntary Aid Societies 761 

Voluntary Societies of Neutrals.... 762 
Vulnerability of Formations 1007 

Wagon Convoys 587 

Wagons 605 

Walk 467,694 

Wall Pins 175 

Wall Tents 175, 176, 177 

War 294 

War Department Orders 18 

War Diaries 504 

Warning Calls 1007 

Warning Signal 521 

War Rebels 794 

War Surgery 897 

War Traitor 770 

War Treason 795 

Watchman 184, 203 

Water 596 

Watering 614 

Water Instruction 830, 831, 832, 833 

Water Supply 165, 178, 182, 661 

Water Transport 583 

Wedge Formation 1007 

Weighted Messages 966 

What is the Range 41 

Wheel Transportation 593, 1008 

Whistle Signals 40,968 



1034 



INDEX 



PAGE 

White Flag 774 

Wills 756 

Wind 334, 340, 345 

Wind Component Indicator 1008 

Wing Traverses 1008 

Winter Quarters 482 

Wire Company 523, 1008 

Wire Entanglements 680 

Wireless Signals 966 

Wireless Telegraphy 799 

Withdrawal from Action 275 

Wooden Bridges 681 

Wooden Rifles 857 



PAGE 

Woods 406, 482 

Wounded . . 757 

Wounds... 600, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 

902, 903, 904, 905 

Wrestling 806 

Zero of a Rifle.. 334, 1008 

Zone Energy 1008 

Zone of Departure 293, 1008 

Zone of Operations 1 008 

Zone of the Advance 224 

Zone of the Line of Communica- 
tions 223 






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